1st Grade
Linguistics
Final Revision
What is Linguistics?
What are its Branches?
Language and Communication: Language is in the heart of human
life. It is the major tool of communication among human beings.
Language use is considered a natural phenomenon beyond
conscious control. Throughout history and across the world, people
have used language to chat, sing, play games, tell stories, teaching,
pass on information etc. What is Linguistics?
•Linguistics is the scientific study of language. Linguists do work on
specific languages, but their primary goal is to understand the nature
of Language in general. Linguistics deals with the study of particular
languages and the search for general properties common to all
languages or large groups of languages.
.‫ فهى األداة الرئيسية للتواصل بين البشر‬.‫ اللغة هي أساس و جوهر حياة اإلنسان‬:‫اللغة والتواصل‬
‫ استخدم الناس اللغة‬، ‫ويعتبر استخدام اللغة ظاهرة طبيعية فعلى مر التاريخ وفي جميع أنحاء العالم‬
‫النشطة تواصلية مثل الدردشة و األغاني و األلعاب ورواية القصص والتعليم ونقل المعلومات وما‬
‫ لذلك فما هو علم اللغة؟‬.‫الى غير ذلك‬
‫ لكن هدفهم‬، ‫ حيث يعمل اللغويون على دراسة لغات محددة‬.‫ان علم اللغة هي الدراسة العلمية للغة‬
‫ ويتعامل علم اللغة مع دراسة لغات معينة والبحث عن‬.‫األساسي هو فهم طبيعة اللغة بشكل عام‬
‫خصائص عامة مشتركة بين جميع اللغات أو مجموعات كبيرة من اللغات‬
- Some questions linguistics tries to answer:
•What distinguishes human language from other animal
communication systems?
•What features are common to all human languages?
• How are the modes of linguistic communication (speech, writing,
sign language of the deaf) related to each other?
•What is language and how is it organized?
•How is it analyzed? How are its units discovered and tested, etc?
‫وهناك بعض األسئلة التي يحاول علم اللغة اإلجابة عليها‬
‫ما الذي يميز لغة اإلنسان عن أشكال التواصل الحيوانية األخرى؟‬
‫ما هي السمات المشتركة بين جميع اللغات البشرية؟‬
‫كيف ترتبط طرق التواصل اللغوي (الكالم والكتابة ولغة اإلشارة) ببعضها البعض؟‬
‫ما هي اللغة وكيف يتم تنظيمها؟‬
‫ إلخ؟‬، ‫كيف يتم تحليلها؟ كيف يتم اكتشاف واختبار وحداتها‬
Types of Linguistics: There are three types of linguistics: theoretical
Linguistics, interdisciplinary linguistics and applied linguistics.
1- Theoretical or Descriptive Linguistics: The part of linguistics
that is concerned with the structure of language. It is divided
into a number of subfields
Phonetics - the study of speech sounds in their physical aspects.
Phonology - the study of speech sounds in their cognitive aspects .
Morphology- the study of the formation of words
Syntax-the study of the formation of sentences
Semantics-the study of meaning
Pragmatics-the study of language use
‫ واللغويات متعددة التخصصات‬، ‫ علم اللغة النظري‬:‫ هناك ثالثة أنواع من اللغويات‬:‫أنواع اللغويات‬
‫ واللغويات التطبيقية‬،.
‫ وينقسم‬.‫ وهو ذلك الجزء من علم اللغة الذي يختص ببناء اللغة‬:‫علم اللغة النظري أو الوصفي‬-1
:‫إلى عدد من المجاالت الفرعية‬
‫ دراسة أصوات الكالم في جوانبها المادية‬- ‫الصوتيات‬.
‫ دراسة أصوات الكالم في جوانبها المعرفية‬- ‫علم األصوات‬.
‫ دراسة تكوين الكلمات‬-‫علم الصرف‬
‫ دراسة تكوين الجمل‬- ‫النحو‬
‫ دراسة المعنى‬- ‫علم الداللة‬
‫ دراسة استخدام اللغة‬- ‫البراجماتية‬
2-Interdisciplinary Linguistics
Aside from language structure, other perspectives on language are
represented
in
specialized
or
interdisciplinary
branches,
interdisciplinary studies involve the combination of two or more
academic linguistic disciplines which are considered distinct.
Interdisciplinary linguistics includes the following branches:
•
Historical Linguistics
•
Sociolinguistics
•
Psycholinguistics
•
Ethnolinguistics (or Anthropological Linguistics)
•
Dialectology
•
Computational Linguistics
•
Neurolinguistics
‫اللغويات متعددة التخصصات‬
‫ يتم تمثيل وجهات النظر األخرى حول اللغة في الفروع‬، ‫وبصرف النظر عن بنية اللغة‬
‫ والتى تشمل مزي ًجا من اثنين أو أكثر من التخصصات اللغوية‬، ‫المتخصصة أو متعددة التخصصات‬
‫ ومنها الفروع التالية‬.‫األكاديمية التي تعتبر متميزة‬
‫اللغويات التاريخية‬
‫اللغويات االجتماعية‬
‫علم اللغة النفسي‬
)‫علم اللغة المتعلق بدراسة سلوك وأصول االنسان (أو األنثروبولوجي‬
‫اللهجات‬
‫اللغويات الحاسوبية‬
‫اللغويات العصبية‬
Because language is such a central feature of being a human,
Linguistics has intellectual connections and overlaps with many other
disciplines in the humanities, the social sciences, and the natural
sciences. Some of the closest connections are--with Philosophy,
Literature, Language Pedagogy, Psychology, Sociology, Physics,
Biology, Computer Science, Computer Engineering, Health Sciences.
‫ فإن علم اللغة له روابط فكرية ويتداخل مع العديد من‬، ‫نظرا ألن اللغة هي سمة اساسية للبشر‬
ً
‫ وبعض الروابط‬.‫التخصصات األخرى في العلوم اإلنسانية والعلوم االجتماعية والعلوم الطبيعية‬
، ‫ والفيزياء‬، ‫ وعلم االجتماع‬، ‫ وعلم النفس‬، ‫ والعلوم التربوية‬، ‫ واألدب‬، ‫ مع الفلسفة‬- ‫األقرب هي‬
.‫ وعلوم الصحة‬، ‫ وهندسة الكمبيوتر‬، ‫وعلم األحياء وعلوم الكمبيوتر‬
3- Applied linguistics:
Applied linguistics uses linguistic theory to solve real-world
problems, most often in the field of language education. For example,
linguists can apply what they know about how children and adults
learn languages to design educational materials and lessons for
teaching second languages, and to design effective methods of
testing student progress.
‫اللغويات التطبيقية‬:
‫ غالبًا في مجال تعليم‬، ‫يستخدم علم اللغة التطبيقي النظرية اللغوية لحل مشاكل العالم الواقعي‬
‫ يمكن للعلماء اللغويين تطبيق ما يعرفونه عن كيفية تعلم األطفال والكبار‬، ‫ فعلى سبيل المثال‬.‫اللغة‬
‫ وتصميم طرق فعالة الختبار تقدم‬، ‫للغات لتصميم مواد تعليمية ودروس لتعليم اللغات الثانية‬
.‫الطالب‬
Theoretical (descriptive)
(Phonetics & Phonology)
branches
of
studying
sounds
Theoretical linguistics explores the nature of language itself.
Theoretical linguists are most concerned with constructing models of
linguistic knowledge and ultimately developing theories about how
language works. The branches of linguistics which study sounds and
sound production are Phonetics and Phonology
‫ ويهتم علماء اللغة النظريون بشكل كبير ببناء نماذج‬.‫يستكشف علم اللغة النظري طبيعة اللغة نفسها‬
‫ وفروع علم اللغة التى تدرس األصوات‬.‫للمعرفة اللغوية وتطوير نظريات حول كيفية عمل اللغة‬
‫وإنتاجها هما علم دراسة األصوات المنفردة وعلم دراسة مجموعات األصوات‬
Phonetics
• Phonetics is the scientific study of speech production, transmission
and reception. -Distinguishing sounds in English: The main sound
division in English is to divide them into vowels and consonants:
‫علم الصوتيات‬
‫ وتنقسم األصوات في اللغة‬.‫علم الصوتيات هو الدراسة العلمية إلنتاج الكالم ونقله واستقباله‬
‫اإلنجليزيةا إلى أصوات العلة او المتحركة واالصوات الساكنة‬
Stress
One of the most prominent phonological terms is "stress" Stress is a
term used in phonology to refer to the degree of force (for making it
louder and longer) used in producing a syllable. The usual distinction
is between stressed and unstressed syllables, the former being more
prominent than the latter (and marked in transcription with a raised
vertical line, [']. This prominence is usually due to an increase in
loudness of the stressed syllable, but increases in length contribute to
the overall impression of prominence.
‫أحد أشهر المصطلحات الصوتية هى "النبرة" وهو مصطلح يستخدم في علم األصوات لإلشارة إلى‬
‫ ويكون التمييز المعتاد بين المقاطع هو مقاطع قوية‬.‫درجة القوةالمستخدمة في إنتاج مقطع لفظي‬
ً
‫بروزا من الثاني (ويتم‬
‫ حيث يكون األول قويا أكثر‬، ‫عليها نبرة وأخرى ضعيفة ليس عليها نبرة‬
‫ يرجع هذا البروز عادة ً إلى زيادة ارتفاع‬.]'[ ، ‫تمييزه في التحويل الصوتي بخط رأسي مرتفع‬
‫صوت المقطع اللفظي الذي عليه النبرة طوال وقوة فى نطقه ليتم تمييزه عن الضعيف‬
Stressed syllables are produced with greater effort (force) than
unstressed and stressed syllables tend to be longer than the
unstressed. In phonological analysis, two types of stress are
important. Firstly, stress on a syllable within a word (the lexical
stress) which changes the grammatical category of a word (compare
'insult with in'sult) and also change meaning among other things. On
the other hand, there is a stress on a word or certain words in a
phrase or sentence. This type of stress (on word(s) within sentences)
is called sentence level or prosodic stress. This is. in fact, a change
or modification to word level stress in a sentence which is basically a
change of 'beat' on certain words in a sentence.
‫يتم إنتاج المقاطع التى عليها النبرة بقوة أكبر من المقاطع الضعيفة و تميل المقاطع القوية إلى أن‬
‫ التأكيد‬، ً‫ أوال‬.‫ هناك نوعان من النبرة‬، ‫ وفي التحليل الصوتي‬.‫تكون أطول من المقاطع الضعيفة‬
‫ضا تغيير المعنى‬
ً ‫على مقطع لفظي داخل كلمة (النبرة المعجمية) الذي يغير الشكل البنائى للكلمة وأي‬
.‫ هناك التشديد على كلمة أو كلمات معينة في عبارة أو جملة‬، ‫ ومن ناحية أخرى‬.‫بين الكلمات‬
.‫ويسمى هذا النوع بالنبرة داخل الجمل‬
Word stress:
When a word has more than one syllable, there is always one syllable
that has greater stress than the others. for example, the word "coffee"
is stressed on the first syllable cof, which has greater prominence
than the second syllabic. The word e'normous is stressed on the
second syllable nor.
‫عندما توجد كلمة بها أكثر من مقطع فإن النبرة توجد على أقوي جزء منها‬
Here are some examples of how words are stressed,
first syllable
-Second syllable
'always
al'ternative
'energy
ap'pear
Third syllable
corre'spondent
Fourth syllabic
environ'mentally
international
organization
'everybody
av'ailable
opportunity
responsibility
'industry
be'tween
recom'mend
underde'veloped
'popular
com'mittee
'programme
ex'tremely
'sorry
im'portant
'water
tech'nology
The syllable which follows the stress mark, (') is stressed. In the word
always, the syllabic al is stressed, and the syllable ways is
unstressed.
B The/ə/sound
The /ə/ sound or 'schwa' is the sound of (a)- in about or again or of er in water or colder. It is used only in unstressed, syllables and is
spelled in a number of different ways. Here are some examples.
payment /'peimənt/ famous /'feiməs/ , corner /'ko:nə (r}/
/sə'p ɔːt / forget /fə'get/ figure /'fig ə (r)/ .
support
The schwa is also used in certain one-syllable words when they are
unstressed in connected speech, e.g. from /frəm/ , than / ðən/ These
are called 'weak forms'.
‫تعتبر الشوا أضعف مقطع فى الكلمة‬
Stress in words, with suffixes:
When we add a suffix to a one-syllable word, most suffixes are
unstressed. 'hopeful 'playing 'quickly 'sadness 'statement 'treatable
'useless. The same usually happens when the suffix is added to a
word with more than one syllable. 'powerful at'tacking 'silently
'loneliness.
‫عند اضافه مقاطع بادئة أو الحقة فإن النبرة تأتى على أصل الكلمة‬
Stress in compounds
In a noun compound, we often stress the first word; 'bus ticket, 'living
room, 'softball, 'fireworks, 'share price . But when the first word
expresses time, place, or material, it is not usually stressed:
‫فى الكلمات المركبة نجد ان أول جزء هو الذى يأخذ نبرة ولكن إذا كان أول جزء يدل على زمن أو‬
‫مكن أو مادة خام فإن النبرة تأتى على االسم الثانى‬
Afternoon 'tea
town 'hall
metal 'box
In compounds with participles, we stress the participle when the
compound does not come before a noun.
‫ واتي تعمل عمل الصفات فإننا نضع النبرة عليها اذا لم يوجد‬ing/ed‫وفى الكلمات التي أخرها‬
‫بعدها اسم‬
The paint is quick 'drying
I'm left-'handed
But when the compound comes before a noun, we stress the first
word:
‫ فإننا نشدد على الكلمة األولى‬، ‫ولكن عندما يأتي المركب قبل االسم‬
I bought some 'quick-drying paint
I need 'left-handed golf clubs
Which Words are Stressed?
Stress operates at word level and at sentence level. At word level
there is always one syllable that is more prominent than the other
syllables. For example, ticket is stressed on the first syllable. and
arrive is stressed on the second syllable'. At sentence level some
words receive greater stress than others because they are more
important for the message and need to be prominent.
‫ يوجد دائ ًما مقطع‬، ‫ فعلى مستوى الكلمة‬.‫تعمل النبرة على مستوى الكلمة وعلى مستوى الجملة‬
ً
‫ تتلقى بعض‬، ‫ و على مستوى الجملة‬، ‫ على سبيل المثال‬.‫بروزا من المقاطع األخرى‬
‫لفظي أكثر‬
.‫الكلمات نبرة أكبر من غيرها ألنها أكثر أهمية للمعنى وتحتاج إلى أن تكون بارزة‬
Here is an example:
The 'tickets for the 'show ar'rived this 'morning.
Here the words tickets, show, arrived, and morning are most
likely to be stressed. The stress falls more often on the vocabulary
items: the nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. It fails less
often on the 'grammatical words' such as the, for, and this. These
words are generally unstressed, and some of them have weak
forms such as / ðə/and / fər/
But we can stress a grammatical word if we want to draw
special attention to it.
.‫لكن يمكننا التأكيد على كلمة نحوية إذا أردنا لفت االنتباه إليها‬
The 'tickets arrived 'this morning, not 'yesterday morning. Here
we emphasize this to contrast it with yesterday.
Syntax & Morphology
It is a sub-branch of linguistics. It deals with the internal structure of
words. The basic units of study in morphology are morphemes. A
morpheme is the smallest unit that has meaning or grammatical
function.
What is a word? It is the smallest unit of grammatical analysis. Some
linguists define a word as an entity which has a space before and
after it. Examples:
(I will read a book.). (I would have read a book.)
Morphology can also be said to be the study of word forms. Different
languages have different word forms. If the morpheme is the basic
unit of study, we can therefore say, it is the smallest meaningful unit
in morphology.
‫ والوحدات األساسية‬.‫ ويتعامل مع التركيب الداخلي للكلمات‬.‫المورفولوجي فرع من علم اللغة‬
.‫ والمورفيم هى أصغر وحدة لها معنى أو وظيفة نحوية‬.‫للدراسة في علم السينتاكس والمورفولوجي‬
‫ اللغات المختلفة لها أشكال كلمات‬.‫ضا أن علم الصرف هو دراسة أشكال الكلمات‬
ً ‫ويمكن القول أي‬
‫ فيمكننا القول إذن أنها أصغر وحدة ذات‬، ‫ فإذا كانت المورفيم هي الوحدة األساسية للدراسة‬.‫مختلفة‬
.‫معنى في علم المورفولوجي‬
Examples
irritation = irritate + -ion {-ion gives meaning of a noun)
Laugh is a verb laugh + -ed (-ed marks the past tense)
Laugh+-ing (-ing marks the progressive aspect)
book + -s (-s shows plural)
iv. John+'s ('s show? possession)
TYPES OF MORPHEMES
There are two types of morphemes.
1. Free morphemes and
2- Bound morphemes
FREE MORPHEMES
It is a morpheme that can occur on its own or with other morphemes.
Free morpheme entails a lexical meaning. Examples: laugh, walk,
book, person, spoon etc.
.‫ وله معنى معجمي‬.‫يمكن أن يتواجد بدون اضافات أو مع أشكال أخرى‬
BOUND MORPHEMES
It cannot occur on its own but it is always attached to a free
morpheme. Although it has a distinct meaning, that meaning is
grammatical. However, a bound morpheme when not attached to a
free morpheme, its meaning become difficult to discern.
‫ وعلى الرغم من أن لها معنى‬.‫ال يمكن أن يتواجد من تلقاء نفسه ولكنه يرتبط دائ ًما بمورفيم حر‬
ً
، ‫ عندما ال يتم ربط مورفيم االضافى بمورفيم حر‬، ‫ ومع ذلك‬.‫ إال أن هذا المعنى نحويا فقط‬، ‫مميزا‬
.‫يصبح من الصعب تمييز معناه‬
We can analyze words into constituent morphemes and further group
the morphemes as free or bound. Ex: analyze the word "unrealistic"
into free and bound morphemes.
i.
unrealistic
Un+ realistic
Realist+ ic
Real+ ist
Affixes can be divided into three categories
1.
Prefixes : these are bound morphemes that are
placed before the root.
2.
‫بادئة أولي‬
Infixes : are placed in between the syllables of the root.
‫اضافة وسطى‬
3.
Suffixes : are placed after the root. English only has prefixes
and suffixes.
‫الحقة أخر الكلمات‬
Derivational suffixes:
In addition to inflectional suffixes, English has a large supply of
another kind of suffixes called derivational suffixes. These consist of
all the suffixes that are not inflectional. Such as adding the suffix (—
ment) to the word (adorn) to form a new word (adornment), or add
the suffix (able) to the word comfort to be the adjective (comfortable).
Unlike the inflectional suffixes, the derivational suffixes change the
class of the word to which they are attached.
‫ تحتوي اللغة اإلنجليزية على قد كبير من نوع آخر من المقاطع‬، ‫باإلضافة إلى المقاطع التصريفية‬
‫ ومثال على ذلك‬.‫ وتتكون من جميع المقاطع التي ليست تصريفية‬.‫والتى تسمى المقاطع االشتقاقية‬
‫ أو إضافة‬، )adornment( ‫) لتشكيل كلمة جديدة‬adorn( ‫) إلى كلمة‬ment--( ‫إضافة الالحقة‬
‫ وعلى عكس اللواحق‬.)comfortable( ‫لتكوين الصفة‬comfort ‫) إلى كلمة‬able( ‫الالحقة‬
.‫ فإن اللواحق االشتقاقية تغير طبقة ووظيفة الكلمة التي ترتبط بها‬، ‫التصريفية‬
Homophones
Homophones are the words which sound the same but have different
meanings and have different spellings too. Homophones Examples:
Homophone Words & Sentences
Aural -The Aural experience of the concert was impressive ‫سمعى‬
Oral- She practices good oral hygiene ‫شفهى‬
Ascent - He began a long ascent of Mt. Everest. ‫هبوط‬
Assent - They want the PM's assent on the bill ‫موافقة‬
Suffixal homophones
Some suffixes, both inflectional and derivational have homophonous
forms. The inflectional
morpheme
(er)
has
two homophones:
{-ER n } & {-ER cp} . The verbal inflectional suffix (ing) has two
homophones: {-ING nm} & {-ING adj} ex: going-charming.
Another very important example can be examined in the homophones
of the (s) suffix. Compare the pronunciation and meaning of the (s)
suffix in the following three sentences: Verbal inflectional suffix: It
feels /-z/ good, Noun plural inflectional suffix: Those frogs /-z/ Noun
possessive inflectional suffix: John's /-z/ book. These three
morphemes can be considered homophonous suffixes
because
they are pronounced the same, but differ in meaning.
:‫وأحيانا نجد ان هناك مقاطع الحقة لهان نفس الشكل ولكنها ذات وظيفة مختلفة كما باألمثلة‬
‫ لها شكلين‬Er
‫لها وظيفتين‬Ing
‫لها ثالث أشكال وهى إضافة للفعل واضافة لالسم الجمع واضافة للملكية‬/s/
Homographs
The prefix homo- signifies sameness. And when we combine that,
with the suffix -graph, we'll have a pretty clear picture of the word's
meaning. From the words "photograph" and "autograph", it should
be clear that -graph means something written or drawn. So,
combining the two meanings, we get that a homograph is a word
written the same way. And indeed, that is what it is. Homographs are
words that are written (spelled) the same but have different
meanings. They may or may not also sound the same.
For example, bass can mean either a type of wood, fish, or voice.
Notice how the pronunciation for bass the fish or wood is different to
that of bass the voice. That means that while the fish and wood are
also homophones, the fish and the voice are only homographs, or a
type of words known -heteronyms
، ‫ بمعنى الشكل الكتابي‬graph-‫ وعندما ندمج مع الالحقة‬.‫ تدل على التماثل‬-homo ‫البادئة‬
- ‫ يجب أن يكون واض ًحا أن‬، ‫ فمن خالل الكلمتين‬.‫سيكون لدينا صورة واضحة جدًا لمعنى الكلمة‬
‫ نتوصل إلى أن التماثل‬، ‫ من خالل الجمع بين المعنيين‬، ‫ لذا‬.‫ تعني شيئًا مكتوبًا أو مرسو ًما‬graph
‫هو كلمة مكتوبة بنفس الطريقة‪ .‬وبالفعل ‪ ،‬هذا ما هو عليه‪ .‬التماثالت اللغوية هي الكلمات التي تتم‬
‫عا من‬
‫كتابتها (تهجئتها) بنفس المعنى ولكن لها معاني مختلفة‪ .‬فيمكن أن تعني كلمة ‪ bass‬نو ً‬
‫الخشب أو السمك أو الصوت‪ .‬الحظ كيف يختلف نطق الكلمة بمعنى السمك أو الخشب عن معنى‬
‫ضا متجانسات ‪ ،‬فإن المعنى السمكة‬
‫الصوت‪ .‬هذا يعني أنه في حين أن السمك والخشب هما أي ً‬
‫والصوت ما هما إال تماثالن ‪ ،‬أو نوع من الكلمات المعروفة ‪ -‬المرادفات‬
‫‪Syntax‬‬
‫?‪What is syntax‬‬
‫‪• Syntax is the study of the rules governing the way words are‬‬
‫‪combined to form sentences in a language. • Syntax is not concerned‬‬
‫‪with meaning (sentences can have no meaning but still be‬‬
‫‪grammatically correct) OR The study of sentence patterns or‬‬
‫‪structures of language. What is the meaning of the word "structure" in‬‬
‫‪the definition of syntax??? The word "structure" here refers to "word‬‬
‫‪order". The meaning of a sentence depends on the order in which‬‬
‫‪words occur in a sentence.‬‬
‫النحو هو دراسة القواعد التي تحكم طريقة دمج الكلمات لتشكيل جمل في اللغة‪ • .‬وال يتعلق‬
‫التركيب اللغوي بالمعنى (حيث يمكن للجمل أن ال يكون لها معنى ولكنها تظل صحيحة نحويًا) أو‬
‫دراسة أنماط الجملة أو تراكيب اللغة‪ .‬فما معنى كلمة "بناء" في تعريف النحو ؟؟؟ تشير كلمة "بناء"‬
‫هنا إلى "ترتيب الكلمات" ويعتمد معنى الجملة على الترتيب الذي تظهر به الكلمات فيها‪.‬‬
‫‪EX: Compare the following sentences:‬‬
‫& ‪I sing because I am happy.‬‬
‫‪I am happy because I sing.‬‬
Note that: the two sentences have the same SYNTACTIC
CATEGORIES and number of words, but differ in structure (word
order), thus, they have different meanings.
What is the meaning of syntactic categories? Syntactic category is
a set of words in a language which share a number of common
characteristics.
:‫ قارن الجمل التالية‬:‫مثال‬
& .‫أنا أغني ألني سعيد‬
.‫أنا سعيد ألنني أغني‬
‫ لكنهما يختلفان في البنية (ترتيب‬، ‫ الجملتين لهما نفس الوظيفة البنائية وعدد الكلمات‬:‫الحظ أن‬
.‫ فإن لهما معاني مختلفة‬، ‫ وبالتالي‬، )‫الكلمات‬
‫فما معنى األشكال البنائية؟ هي مجموعة من الكلمات في اللغة تشترك في عدد من الخصائص‬
‫المشتركة‬
Syntactic categories Classes of words (Parts of speech)
Words are basically divided into content and function words:
CONTENT WORDS OR CONTENTIVES (major lexical) categories)
The words which belong to these four categories (Nouns, verbs,
adjectives and adverbs) are traditionally said to be contentives (or
content words) because they have descriptive content.
)‫األشكال البنائية أو(أجزاء الكالم‬
:‫سا إلى كلمات تشير الى المحتوى وكلمات تشير الى الوظيفة‬
ً ‫تنقسم الكلمات أسا‬
)‫فالكلمات التي تشير الى المحتوى (المعجمية الرئيسية‬
)‫ والظروف‬، ‫ والصفات‬، ‫ واألفعال‬، ‫هى الكلمات التي تنتمي إلى هذه الفئات األربع (األسماء‬
FUNCTION WORDS (minor lexical categories, grammatical words)
PREPOSITIONS (Prep): relate nouns in various ways to other
sentence constituents
the desk by the window their love for one another slow reading in bed
Determiners
Determiners (D OR DET) are the expressions which determine the
referential properties of the nouns which follow them. Such as the
underlined expressions in following examples:
The village store is dosed.
This appalling behavior has got to stop
That dog of yours is crazy
Quantifiers (Q) are the expressions used to determine the quantity of
its following noun. Like the underlined words in the following
sentences:
Most good comedians tell some bad jokes
Many students have no money
Every true Scotsman hates all Englishmen Pronouns:
Pronouns
A pronoun is a word that refers to or takes the place of a noun.
Semantics & Pragmatics
Both of semantics and pragmatics examine meaning, but they do that
differently.
Semantics: very broadly, semantics is the study of meaning (Word
meaning & Sentence meaning)
Types or levels of meaning:
Complementaries:
Pairs like male - female, refers to the existence of pairs that the
denial of one, implies the assertion of the other are called
Complementaries.
:‫علم المعانى والبراجماتية‬
.‫ لكنهما يفعالن ذلك بشكل مختلف‬، ‫كل من علم المعانى الداللية والبراغماتية يدرسان المعنى‬
)‫ هي دراسة معنى الكلمة ومعنى الجملة‬:‫فعلم الداللة‬
:‫وهناك أنواع أو مستويات المعنى‬
:‫المعانى التكميلية‬
‫ يعني ضمنا ً تأكيد‬، ‫ تشير إلى أن وجود أحدهما يغنى عن األخر‬، ‫الكلمات مثل الذكور واإلناث‬
‫اآلخر ويسمى ذلك بالتكميلية‬
Ex:
temporary permanent
animate
-inanimate
dead
voter
alive
non-voter
Antonyms:
Pairs like big ~ small, where there is a scale, are termed antonyms.
:‫التضاد‬
‫الكلمات مثل الكبير والصغير تسمى المتضادات‬.
Ex:
old
young
hot
cold
high low
love hate
Converses:
The pair teacher - student looks at two entities that are involved in
one and the same event, teaching, in two different roles. One is the
entity who teaches (teacher) and one is the entity who is being taught
(student). This type of opposite sense relations is called converse
relation; pairs of words which are in a converse relation are termed
converses.
، ‫ وهما التدريس‬، ‫و الطالب إلى كيانين مشتركين في حدث واحد ونفسهما‬- ‫ينظر كل من المعلم‬
‫ أحدهما هو الكيان الذي يعلم (المعلم) واآلخر هو الكيان الذي يتم تدريسه‬.‫بدورين مختلفين‬
‫ ويسمى هذا النوع بالعالقة العكسية ؛وتسمى أزواج الكلمات التي لها عالقة عكسية‬.)‫(الطالب‬
‫بالمتضادات المترابطة‬
Homonyms:
Two words which are identical in form (phonological and
orthographic), but have unrelated meanings are termed homonyms.
The phenomenon that there exist linguistic expressions which have
the same orthographic (spelling) and phonological form, but different,
unrelated meanings is called homonymy.
‫المتجانسات‬:
‫ اسم‬، ‫ ولكن لهما معاني غير مرتبطة‬، )‫يطلق على كلمتين متطابقتين في الشكل (صوتي وإمالئي‬
‫ ولكن‬، ‫ تسمى ظاهرة وجود التعبيرات اللغوية التي لها نفس الشكل اإلمالئي والصوتي‬.‫المتجانسات‬
‫بمعاني مختلفة غير مرتبطة بالتماثل‬
Synonymy:
Having looked at homonymous words, which are identical in form but
different in meaning, you may wonder whether there are also cases
which differ in form, but are identical in meaning. This phenomenon
does indeed exist; it is called synonymy.
:‫الترادف‬
‫ قد تتساءل عما إذا كانت‬، ‫بعد النظر إلى الكلمات المتجانسة في الشكل ولكنها مختلفة في المعنى‬
‫ هذه الظاهرة موجودة بالفعل و‬.‫ضا حاالت تختلف في الشكل ولكنها متطابقة في المعنى‬
ً ‫هناك أي‬
‫يطلق عليها المرادف‬
Examples of synonymous '. You look beautiful in that dress. A'. You
look lovely in that dress.
b.
His job? -He is a teacher
teacher.
c.
B. His occupation? -He is a
He tried to escape. C. He attempted to escape.
Euphemism: to use more socially favorable expressions instead of
more plain-spoken or socially unacceptable ones; a common
discursive strategy of politeness, and an ideological practice of
concealing plain truth; from the Greek eu 'good, well' and pheme
'speaking'; the opposite of dysphemism
Dysphemism: to use disfavourable, plain-spoken or socially taboo
expressions instead of more socially acceptable ones; a discursive
strategy of Plain or offensive speaking; from the Greek dys- 'bad,
unfavorable' and pheme 'speaking'; the opposite of euphemism; also
called tapinosis
ً
‫تفضيال اجتماعيًا بدالً من التعبيرات األكثر وضو ًحا أو غير‬
‫ استخدام تعبيرات أكثر‬:‫التلطيف‬
‫المقبولة اجتماعيًا ؛ استراتيجية مشتركة للتأدب‬
'‫على عكس عسر الكالم‬
‫ الستخدام التعبيرات البغيضة أو الصريحة أو المحظورة اجتماعيا ً بدالً من التعبيرات‬:‫عسر الكالم‬
‫ غير‬، ‫المقبولة اجتماعيا ً ؛ استراتيجية للتحدث البسيط أو العدواني ؛ من اليونانية الكالم" السيئ‬
Ambiguity and Vagueness: The difference between ambiguity and
vagueness is a matter of whether two or more meanings associated
with a given phonological form are distinct (ambiguous), or united as
non-distinguished subcases of a single, more general meaning
(vague). A standard example is bank "financial institution" vs. bank
"land at river edge", where the meanings are intuitively quite
separate; in aunt "father's sister" vs. aunt "mother's sister", however,
the meanings are intuitively united into one, "parent's sister". Thus,
ambiguity corresponds to separation, and vagueness to unity, of
different meanings.
‫ الفرق بينهما هو مسألة ما إذا كان هناك معنيان أو أكثر مرتبطان بشكل صوتي‬:‫الخفية والغموض‬
‫ أو متحدين كحاالت فرعية غير مميزة لمعنى واحد أكثر عمومية‬، )‫معين مميزين (غامضين‬
‫ والمثال المعياري هوكلمة بنكوتعنى "مؤسسة مالية" بينما تأتى بمعنى مقابل "أرض على‬.)‫(غامض‬
‫ حيث تكون المعاني منفصلة تما ًما ؛ في حالة كلمة العمة تأتى بمعنى"أخت األب" وفى‬، "‫حافة النهر‬
‫ وهكذا فإن‬."‫ "أخت الوالد‬، ‫ تتحد المعاني بشكل حدسي في واحدة‬، "‫معنى مقابل "أخت األم‬
‫الغموض يقابل االنفصال والغموض عن الوحدة ذات المعاني المختلفة‬
Jargon
Jargon is the language peculiar to a trade, profession or other
group; it is the language used in a body of spoken or written texts,
dealing with a circumscribed domain in which speakers share a
common specialized vocabulary, habits of word usage, and forms of
expression. Jargons involve more than just lexical differences; they
often differ from one another grammatically, and sometimes
phonologically or typographically
‫المصطلحات اللغوية المتخصصة هي اللغة الخاصة بتجارة أو مهنة وهى المستخدمة في مجموعة‬
‫ والتي تتعامل مع مجال محدود حيث يتشارك المتحدثون‬، ‫من النصوص المنطوقة أو المكتوبة‬
‫ تتضمن المصطلحات‬.‫مفردات متخصصة مشتركة وعادات استخدام الكلمات وأشكال التعبير‬
، ‫اللغوية المتخصصة أكثر من مجرد اختالفات معجمية ؛ غالبًا ما تختلف عن بعضها البعض نحويًا‬
‫مطبعي‬
‫وأحيانًا صوتيًا أو‬
ً
Lexical markers
Vocabulary specialized for use in a particular domain (the subject
matter of a jargon). The lexical relations among specialized
vocabulary will reflect the accepted taxonomies within the domain (e.
g forms, varieties, species, genera, families, orders, classes in
biology),
: ‫عالمات معجمية‬
‫ ستعكس العالقات المعجمية‬.)‫مفردات مخصصة لالستخدام في مجال معين (موضوع المصطلحات‬
، ‫ واألنواع‬، ‫ واألصناف‬، ‫بين المفردات المتخصصة التصنيفات المقبولة داخل المجال (مثل أشكال‬
،) ‫ والفئات في علم األحياء‬، ‫ واألوامر‬، ‫ والعائالت‬، ‫واألجناس‬
Syntactic markers such as:
a.
imperatives in recipes and knitting patterns;
b.
large numbers of impersonal passives in reports of scientific
experiments (e. g. It was observed that....);
c.
full noun phrases in place of pronouns in legal documents (e.g.
A term of a sale shall not be taken to exclude, restrict or modify the
application of this Part unless the term [not 'it'] does so expressly or is
inconsistent with that provision).
::‫العالمات النحوية مثل‬
‫أ‬
، ‫ أعداد كبيرة من المبني للمجهول غير الشخصية في تقارير التجارب العلمية (على سبيل المثال‬.‫ب‬
).... ‫لوحظ أن‬
‫ ال يجوز‬، ‫ عبارات االسم الكاملة بدالً من الضمائر في المستندات القانونية (على سبيل المثال‬.‫ج‬
]"‫اعتبار مصطلح البيع الستبعاد أو تقييد أو تعديل تطبيق هذا الجزء ما لم يكن المصطلح [ليس "هو‬
‫يفعل ذلك صراحةً أو‬
‫يتعارض مع هذا الحكم‬
Presentational markers
a. Prosodic (voice quality, amplitude, rhythm, etc.) and paralinguistic
and/or kinesic (gaze, gesture, etc.) characteristics within a spoken
medium; e.g. a hushed tone and minimal kinesic display is more
frequently expected in 'funeralese' than in football commentary or
anecdote.
b.
Typographical conventions within a written medium: e.g. in
mathematics, {a,b}, <a,b> and (a,b) will normally have different and
conventionally prescribed interpretations; in linguistics, language
expressions that are mentioned rather than used are usually
italicized.
c.
Format in which a text is presented; this is particularly evident
in the written medium
‫عالمات العرض‬
، ‫ إيماءة‬، ‫ أو حركية (نظرة‬/ ‫ إلخ) وخصائص غير لغوية و‬، ‫ اإليقاع‬، ‫ السعة‬، ‫ (جودة الصوت‬.‫أ‬
‫إلخ) داخل وسيط منطوق ؛ على سبيل المثال يُتوقع في كثير من األحيان في "الجنازات" نغمة‬
.‫صامتة وعرض حركي ضئيل أكثر من تعليق أو حكاية كرة القدم‬
‫ عادة ما يكون‬، ‫ على سبيل المثال في الرياضيات‬:‫ االصطالحات المطبعية داخل وسيط مكتوب‬.‫ب‬
، ‫ ب) تفسيرات مختلفة ومحددة بشكل تقليدي ؛ في اللسانيات‬، ‫ ب> و (أ‬، ‫ <أ‬، }‫ ب‬، ‫لكل من {أ‬
.‫عادة ً ما تكون التعبيرات اللغوية التي يتم ذكرها بدالً من استخدامها مائلة‬
‫ الشكل الذي يتم تقديم النص به ؛ يكون واضح بشكل خاص في الوسيط المكتوب‬.‫ج‬
Slang
Slang is language of a highly colloquial and contemporary type,
considered stylistically inferior to standard formal, and even polite
informal, speech. It often uses metaphor and/or ellipsis, and often
manifests verbal play in which current language is employed in some
special sense and denotation; otherwise, the vocabulary and
sometimes the grammar, is novel or only recently coined.
The most significant characteristic of slang overlaps with a defining
characteristic of jargon: slang is a marker of in-group solidarity, and
so it is a correlate of human groups with shared experiences, such as
being children at a certain school or of a certain age, or being a
member of a certain socially definable group, such as hookers,
junkies, jazz musicians or professional criminals.
‫ وتعتبر أقل شأنا من الناحية األسلوبية من الخطاب‬، ‫العامية هي لغة من النوع المعاصر للغاية‬
‫ أو الحذف‬/ ‫ غالبًا ما تستخدم االستعارة و‬.‫ وحتى الخطاب غير الرسمي المهذب‬، ‫الرسمي القياسي‬
، ‫ وغالبًا ما تظهر اللعب اللفظي الذي تستخدم فيه اللغة الحالية بمعنى وداللة خاصة ؛ خالف ذلك‬،
.‫مؤخرا‬
‫فإن المفردات وأحيانًا القواعد تكون جديدة أو تم صياغتها‬
ً
‫ اللغة العامية هي‬:‫السمة األكثر أهمية لتداخل اللغة العامية مع السمة المميزة للمصطلحات‬
‫ وبالتالي فهي مرتبطة بالمجموعات البشرية مع الخبرات‬، ‫عالمة على التضامن داخل المجموعة‬
ً
‫عضوا في‬
‫ أو أن تكون‬، ‫أطفاال في مدرسة معينة أو في سن معينة‬
‫ مثل أن يكونوا‬، ‫المشتركة‬
ً
.‫ مثل العاهرات أو المدمنون أو موسيقيو الجاز أو المجرمين المحترفين‬، ‫مجموعة محددة اجتماعيًا‬
Taboos
The word 'taboo' was borrowed from Tongan, a Polynesian
language, and in that society, it refers to acts which are "forbidden" or
which are to be avoided. When an act is taboo, reference to this act
may also become taboo. Thus, it is sometimes forbidden to do such
an act or to talk about it.
Taboo certain topics such as body parts, bodily functions,
sexual activity and practices, certain religious and ideological
concept make up a large part of the set of taboo words of many
cultures and can be regarded as socially forbidden. Societies differ in
what topics are taboo because such topics which are forbidden reflect
the particular customs and views of the society. Therefore, certain
topics may be considered taboo in certain societies but in other
societies they can be acceptable. The "Encyclopedia Britannica"
defines taboo as "the prohibition of an action or the use of an object
based on ritualistic distinctions of them either as being sacred and
consecrated or as being dangerous, unclean, and accursed".
‫ تشير‬، ‫ وفي ذلك المجتمع‬، ‫ وهي لغة بولينيزية‬، ‫تم استعارة كلمة "المحرمات" من اللغة التونغية‬
‫ فإن اإلشارة إلى‬، ‫ عندما يكون الفعل من المحرمات‬.‫إلى األفعال "المحظورة" أو التي يجب تجنبها‬
‫ضا من المحرمات‪ .‬وبالتالي ‪ ،‬يُمنع أحيانًا القيام بمثل هذا العمل أو الحديث‬
‫هذا الفعل قد تصبح أي ً‬
‫عنه‪.‬‬
‫تشكل مواضيع معينة من المحرمات مثل أجزاء الجسم والوظائف الجسدية والنشاط والممارسات‬
‫كبيرا من مجموعة الكلمات المحظورة للعديد من الثقافات‬
‫الجنسية وبعض المفاهيم الدينية جز ًءا‬
‫ً‬
‫ويمكن اعتبارها محظورة اجتماعيًا‪ .‬تختلف المجتمعات في ماهية المواضيع المحظورة ألن مثل هذه‬
‫الموضوعات المحظورة تعكس العادات الخاصة ووجهات نظر المجتمع‪ .‬لذلك ‪ ،‬يمكن اعتبار بعض‬
‫الموضوعات من المحرمات في مجتمعات معينة ولكن في مجتمعات أخرى يمكن أن تكون مقبولة‪.‬‬
‫تعرف "موسوعة بريتانيكا" المحرمات على أنها "تحريم عمل أو استخدام شيء ما بنا ًء على الفروق‬
‫ّ‬
‫الطقوسية بينهما سواء على أنها مقدسة ومكرسة أو خطيرة وغير نظيفة وملعون‪".‬‬
‫‪Words denoting taboo subjects are considered socially‬‬
‫‪unacceptable in most languages, but the crudest company are known‬‬
‫‪as obscenities. Another type of obscenity exists in using certain‬‬
‫‪denotative terms which are borrowed to express emotions in a‬‬
‫‪deliberately socially unacceptable and therefore stronger way. These‬‬
‫‪denotative terms are called expletives. Each language chooses‬‬
‫‪different taboo words for this function. The term taboo is not only‬‬
‫‪referring to certain words but also to certain activities or customs‬‬
‫‪within a society. Therefore, some of these taboo activities or customs‬‬
‫‪are prohibited under law and transgressions may lead to legal and‬‬
‫‪social severe penalties.‬‬
‫تعتبر الكلمات التي تشير إلى مواضيع محظورة غير مقبولة اجتماعيًا في معظم اللغات ‪ ،‬لكن‬
‫الشركة األكثر فظاظة تُعرف بالكلمات البذيئة‪ .‬يوجد نوع آخر من الفحش في استخدام بعض‬
‫المصطلحات الداللية التي يتم استعارتها للتعبير عن المشاعر بطريقة غير مقبولة اجتماعيا عمدا‬
‫وبالتالي أقوى‪ .‬تسمى هذه المصطلحات الدالئل بالشتائم‪ .‬تختار كل لغة كلمات محظورة مختلفة لهذه‬
‫ضا إلى بعض األنشطة أو‬
‫الوظيفة‪ .‬مصطلح المحرمات ال يشير فقط إلى كلمات معينة ولكن أي ً‬
‫العادات داخل المجتمع‪ .‬لذلك ‪ ،‬فإن بعض هذه األنشطة أو العادات محظورة بموجب القانون وقد‬
‫تؤدي التجاوزات إلى عقوبات قانونية واجتماعية صارمة‪.‬‬
‫‪Pragmatics‬‬
‫‪The literal meaning often does not suffice to really understand an‬‬
‫‪utterance; it must be augmented in some way or other. How this is‬‬
‫‪done is explained in pragmatics, which is concerned with systematic‬‬
‫‪aspects of the use of linguistic forms. Semantics examine the‬‬
apparent meaning of the syntactic categories which form sentences,
then who will answer such type of questions like: What do speakers
use language for, and how do they use it?
‫ يتم شرح كيفية القيام‬.‫غالبًا ال يكفي المعنى الحرفي لفهم الكالم ؛ يجب زيادته بطريقة أو بأخرى‬
‫ تدرس الدالالت‬.‫ والتي تهتم بالجوانب المنهجية الستخدام األشكال اللغوية‬، ‫بذلك في البراغماتية‬
:‫ ثم من سيجيب على هذا النوع من األسئلة مثل‬، ‫المعنى الظاهر للفئات النحوية التي تشكل الجمل‬
‫ وكيف يستخدمونها؟‬، ‫ما الذي يستخدمه المتحدثون للغة‬
Before reading on, try to decide for each example what intentions
the speakers have when uttering these sentences.
(!) a. a mother to her son: Take some more vegetables!
b.
a teacher to schoolchildren: Lions have gold-coloured fur.
c.
a friend to a friend: I'll phone you tomorrow.
d.
a priest to a child: I baptize thee Alexander Frederic.
You might guess that in (1a) the speaker uses this sentence in order
to make her son do something, namely eat more vegetables.
In (1b) the speaker wants to state a fact and to inform schoolchildren
of this fact. (1c) is a typical example of somebody indicating a
promise.
Finally, the speaker in (1d) has yet a different intention: to baptize a
child.
What do we learn from this brief analysis? We can say that when
people use language, they apparently do not do this just for the sake
of using it. Usually, speakers have a certain intention, such as
stating, promising, declaring, requesting, making somebody do
something, and many other things. But what about the listeners, you
might be tempted to ask. Think of your own experience as listeners.
Supposedly, in most cases you listen to somebody in order to figure
out these intentions. What we also learn from the examples above is
that being able to pronounce words, to combine morphemes and
words, and to understand the semantic meaning of sentences is only
one part of the linguistic knowledge speakers carry with them.
.‫ فمن الواضح أنهم ال يفعلون ذلك لمجرد استخدامها‬، ‫يمكننا القول أنه عندما يستخدم الناس اللغة‬
‫ وجعل‬، ‫ والطلب‬، ‫ واإلعالن‬، ‫ والوعد‬، ‫ مثل التصريح‬، ‫عادة ً ما يكون لدى المتحدثين نية معينة‬
‫ فكر‬.‫ قد تميل إلى السؤال‬، ‫ ولكن ماذا عن المستمعين‬.‫ وأشياء أخرى كثيرة‬، ‫شخص ما يفعل شيئًا‬
‫ تستمع إلى شخص ما لمعرفة‬، ‫ في معظم الحاالت‬، ‫في تجربتك الخاصة كمستمع فمن المفترض‬
‫ والجمع‬، ‫ضا من األمثلة المذكورة أعاله هو أن القدرة على نطق الكلمات‬
ً ‫ ما نتعلمه أي‬.‫هذه النوايا‬
‫ وفهم المعنى الداللي للجمل هو جزء واحد فقط من المعرفة اللغوية التي‬، ‫بين الصراف والكلمات‬
.‫يحملها المتحدثون معهم‬
Besides having this knowledge, which linguists often call
'grammatical competence', users of a language are also able to
employ it to state certain communicative intentions. Therefore, in
addition to studying the phonological, morphological, syntactic, and
semantic aspects of a language we can also analyze how speakers
use language to express their communicative intentions, and how
hearers decode and understand these intentions. And the insight that
humans use language to state certain intentions raises many other,
more specific questions:
‫ يستطيع مستخدمو‬، "‫ التي يسميها اللغويون غالبًا "الكفاءة النحوية‬، ‫إلى جانب امتالك هذه المعرفة‬
‫ باإلضافة إلى دراسة الجوانب الصوتية‬، ‫ لذلك‬.‫ضا استخدامها لتوضيح نوايا تواصل معينة‬
ً ‫اللغة أي‬
‫ضا تحليل كيفية استخدام المتحدثين للغة للتعبير عن‬
ً ‫ يمكننا أي‬، ‫والصرفية والنحوية والداللية للغة‬
‫ وتثير البصيرة القائلة بأن‬.‫ وكيف يكتشف المستمعون هذه النوايا ويفهمونها‬، ‫نواياهم التواصلية‬
: ‫البشر يستخدمون اللغة للتعبير عن نوايا معينة العديد من األسئلة األخرى األكثر تحديدًا‬
How do speakers express their intentions? What different kinds of
intentions are there? How do listeners extract these intentions from
what is being said? Are there any rules or principles speakers and
listeners; observe in order to use language effectively and
successfully?.
The area of linguistics that deals with all these questions is called
pragmatics.
Using language to act: Speech Acts
When we asked you above what people use language for, we saw
that they do so to express certain communicative intentions.:
Interestingly, if we asked you what you use a mixer or a spade or
your eyes for, you would most likely answer that you do so to perform
certain actions., such as mixing, digging, or seeing.
Now, can we also say that expressing communicative intentions is a
kind of action, similar to mixing, digging, or seeing? To answer this
question, let us go back to our examples from the previous section,
repeated below for convenience. Think about whether we can say
that the speakers perform a certain action in each of the examples.
Expressing intentions through language (2) a. a mother to her
son: Take some more vegetables!
:‫استخدام اللغة للعمل‬
‫ ومن‬:‫ رأينا أنهم يفعلون ذلك للتعبير عن نوايا تواصل معينة‬، ‫فى سبب استخدام األشخاص للغة‬
، ‫المثير لالهتمام‬
So, we can say that when rendering their intentions through
language, the speakers in (2) actually perform different actions, such
as commanding, stating, promising and baptizing. Thus, we use
language to perform different actions. Speakers act through
language. This insight was formulated by the philosopher John L.
Austin (1962), who developed it into a fully-fledged theory. Austin
called the linguistic actions performed by speakers in a certain
context with a certain communicative intention and his theory came to
be known as Speech Act Theory. So, in Austin's terms the speaker
saying " I'll phone you tomorrow" performs the speech act of
promising, and the speaker baptizing a child the speech act of
baptizing, etc. Now you might ask whether everything speakers say
can be regarded as performing a certain action. To answer this
question, let us take a look at the example in (3) and decide whether
it can be regarded as a speech act.
‫لذلك ‪ ،‬يمكننا القول أنه عند تقديم نواياهم من خالل اللغة ‪ ،‬يقوم المتحدثون في (‪ )2‬في الواقع بأفعال‬
‫مختلفة ‪ ،‬مثل األمر ‪ ،‬والتعبير ‪ ،‬والوعد ‪ ،‬والتعميد‪ .‬وبالتالي ‪ ،‬فإننا نستخدم اللغة ألداء أعمال‬
‫مختلفة‪ .‬يتصرف المتحدثون من خالل اللغة‪ .‬صاغ هذه الرؤية الفيلسوف جون ل‪ .‬أوستن (‪)1962‬‬
‫الذي طورها إلى نظرية كاملة‪ .‬دعا أوستن اإلجراءات اللغوية التي يقوم بها المتحدثون في سياق‬
‫معين مع نية تواصل معينة وأصبحت نظريته ت ُعرف باسم نظرية قانون الكالم‪ .‬لذلك ‪ ،‬وفقًا لشروط‬
‫أوستن ‪ ،‬فإن المتحدث الذي يقول "سأتصل بك غدًا" يؤدي فعل الوعد ‪ ،‬والمتحدث الذي يعمد الطفل‬
‫هو فعل التعميد ‪ ،‬إلخ‪ .‬اآلن يمكنك أن تسأل عما إذا كان كل ما يقوله المتحدثون يمكن اعتباره أدا ًء‬
‫عمل معين‪.‬‬
‫‪The three aspects of speech acts we have just explored are an‬‬
‫‪intrinsic part of Speech Act Theory, and each of them is given a‬‬
‫‪special term. The term locution is used to refer to the linguistic form‬‬
‫‪of a speech act. The communicative intention rendered by the‬‬
‫‪speaker, such as promising, commanding, making compliments, etc.‬‬
‫‪is called illocution or 'illocutionary force'. Finally, the effect produced‬‬
‫'‪on the hearer is termed per locution. Note that the term 'speech act‬‬
‫‪is also used by some linguists to refer solely to the illocution since the‬‬
‫‪illocution is the most crucial part of a speech act. Different illocutions‬‬
‫‪can be expressed through one and the same linguistic form, i.e. one‬‬
‫‪locution. Second, to identify the illocutionary force, and thus the type‬‬
‫‪of speech act, it is important to take not only the linguistic form of an‬‬
‫‪utterance into account, but also some additional information.‬‬
‫الجوانب الثالثة للخطاب التي اكتشفناها للتو هي جزء جوهري ‪ ،‬ويتم إعطاء كل منها مصطل ًحا‬
‫صا‪ .‬يستخدم مصطلح "التعبير" لإلشارة إلى الشكل اللغوي لفن الحطابة‪ .‬يُطلق على النية‬
‫خا ً‬
‫أخيرا ‪،‬‬
‫التواصلية التي يقدمها المتحدث ‪ ،‬مثل الوعد ‪ ،‬أو إصدار األوامر ‪ ،‬أو المجامالت ‪ ،‬إلخ‪.‬‬
‫ً‬
‫يُطلق على التأثير الناتج على المستمع اسم األنطباع‬
‫ضا بعض اللغويين لإلشارة الي جوهر اللغة‬
‫و يستخدمه أي ً‬
‫ثانيًا ‪ ،‬لتحديد قوة الكالم ‪ ،‬وبالتالي نوع الفعل الكالمي ‪ ،‬من المهم أال تأخذ فقط الشكل اللغوي‬
‫ضا بعض المعلومات اإلضافية‪.‬‬
‫للكالم في االعتبار ‪ ،‬ولكن أي ً‬
‫‪Interdisciplinary Branches of Linguistics‬‬
‫‪1-Historical linguistics: It involves the study of the historical‬‬
‫‪development of languages asks questions like 'how' languages‬‬
change, and 'why' languages change? To sum up, the major reasons
behind the linguistic change? are the desire to be distinct and social
climbing. A pervasive notion was that members of lower classes
purposefully change their speech by imitating the elite of society in
order to improve their own social standing and that as a
consequence the upper class changes its language in order to
maintain its distance from the masses -the social-climbing masses in
hot linguistic pursuit of society's fleeing elite. Sociolinguistic study of
change, however, reveals that the more typical pattern is for the
middle classes to initiate linguistic change and for the highest and
lowest classes of
society to change only later, if at all. External historical events such
as the wars and social disruption of the later Middle Ages which
coincided in England and France with rapid linguistic change.
‫ يتضمن دراسة التطور التاريخي للغات يطرح أسئلة مثل "كيف" تتغير اللغات‬:‫علم اللغة التاريخي‬‫ األسباب الرئيسية وراء التغيير اللغوي؟ هي الرغبة في التميز‬، ‫ و "لماذا" تتغير اللغات؟ باختصار‬،
.‫والتسلق االجتماعي‬
‫كانت الفكرة السائدة هي أن أفراد الطبقات الدنيا يغيرون خطابهم عن قصد من خالل تقليد المجتمع‬
‫ تغير الطبقة العليا لغتها من أجل الحفاظ على‬، ‫ ونتيجة لذلك‬، ‫من أجل تحسين وضعهم االجتماعي‬
‫ تكشف‬، ‫ ومع ذلك‬.‫بعدها عن الجماهير في السعي اللغوي الساخن للنخبة الهاربة في المجتمع‬
‫عا هو أن تبدأ الطبقات الوسطى في تغيير‬
ً ‫الدراسة اللغوية االجتماعية للتغيير أن النمط األكثر شيو‬
‫لغوي وبالنسبة للفئات األعلى واألدنى من‬
‫ األحداث التاريخية الخارجية مثل الحروب‬.‫ على كل حال‬، ‫المجتمع للتغيير فقط في وقت الحق‬
‫واالضطرابات االجتماعية في العصور الوسطى المتأخرة والتي تزامنت في إنجلترا وفرنسا مع‬
.‫تغير لغوي سريع‬
2-Socio-linguistics:
The way we speak reveals quite a lot about our social background,
for example how educated we are, where we come from, etc. In the
1960s linguists began to systematically investigate the relationship
between language and society by looking at the variable use of
certain linguistic features by different groups of speakers. The branch
of linguistic research is called sociolinguistics. Take, for example,
the familiar variability of how speakers of English pronounce the final
sound in the following words: surfing, walking, sleeping. They either
use the velar nasal [ŋ] or the alveolar nasal [n]. This is illustrated
here:
‫ بدأ اللغويون في التحقيق بشكل‬، ‫ في الستينيات‬.‫ وما إلى ذلك‬، ‫ من أين أتينا‬، ‫مثال على مدى تعليمنا‬
‫منهجي في العالقة بين اللغة والمجتمع من خالل النظر في االستخدام المتغير لسمات لغوية معينة‬
‫ يسمى فرع البحث اللغوي علم اللغة االجتماعي وعلى‬.‫من قبل مجموعات مختلفة من المتحدثين‬
‫ التباين المألوف لكيفية نطق المتحدثين باللغة اإلنجليزية للصوت النهائي في‬، ‫سبيل المثال‬
‫يستخدمون إما األصوات الحلقية أو األنفية‬:‫الكلمات‬
Important Definitions
Speech community What is the meaning of speech community? Any group of people
who:
• - Share language usage.
8
- Share rules of speaking and interpretation of speech performance.
• - Share attitudes and values regarding language usage.
Are described in socio-linguistics as a speech community
- Bilingualism
• A type of linguistic situation in which two languages co-exist within the same speech
community or country without any reference to social class or function.
:‫• مجتمع الكالم ما هو معنى مجتمع الكالم؟ أي مجموعة من األشخاص‬
.‫ مشاركة استخدام اللغة‬- • •
.‫ مشاركة قواعد الكالم وتفسير الكالم بأداء‬-8 •
.‫ شارك المواقف والقيم فيما يتعلق باستخدام اللغة‬- • •
‫• يتم وصفها في اللسانيات االجتماعية كمجتمع الكالم‬
‫ ثنائية اللغة‬- •
‫• • نوع من المواقف اللغوية التي تتعايش فيها لغتان في نفس مجتمع الكالم أو‬
.‫البلد دون أي إشارة إلى الطبقة االجتماعية أو الوظيفة‬
•
• 2-Diglossia
• A linguistic situation in which there is a division between two languages or two varieties
of a language within the same speech community.
• There is one variety used in public life, media, schools and universities. It is entitled
as Variety". The other variety is used in domestic life with family and friends.
‫• • موقف لغوي يوجد فيه انقسام بين لغتين أو نوعين مختلفين من اللغة داخل‬
.‫نفس مجتمع الكالم‬
‫• • وهناك نوع واحد يستخدم في الحياة العامة ووسائل اإلعالم والمدارس‬
‫ يتم استخدام التنوع اآلخر في الحياة‬."‫ يطلق عليه اسم التنوع‬.‫والجامعات‬
.‫المنزلية مع العائلة واألصدقاء‬
•
What is code-switching?
• Is the practice of *unpredictably changing one's language, dialect or speaking style to
better fit one's environment.
• Also a universal language-contact phenomenon that reflects the grammars of both
languages working simultaneously.
•
code switching is possible in bilingual or rnultilingual environment but not in
monolingual.
‫هي ممارسة تغيير لغة المرء أو لهجته أو أسلوبه في التحدث بشكل غير متوقع‬
.‫ليناسب بيئة الحوار بشكل أفضل‬
‫• وأيضا ظاهرة عالمية للتواصل اللغوي يعكس القواعد النحوية لكلتا اللغتين‬
.‫التي تعمل في وقت واحد‬
‫• و ممكن ان يتواجد ذلك في بيئة ثنائية اللغة أو متعددة اللغات ولكن ليس‬
.‫في بيئة أحادية اللغة‬
Psycholinguistics is:
• The field of study in which researchers investigate the psychological processes
involved in the use of language, including language comprehension, language
production, and language acquisition. The field is interdisciplinary, with contributions
from psychology, linguistics, cognitive science, philosophy, anthropology, and neuro
science
:‫• علم اللغة النفسي هو‬
‫• • مجال الدراسة الذي يدرس فيه الباحثون العمليات النفسية التي ينطوي‬
‫ واكتساب‬، ‫ وإنتاج اللغة‬، ‫ بما في ذلك فهم اللغة‬، ‫عليها استخدام اللغة‬
‫ اضافة الي اسهامات من علم النفس‬، ‫ والمجال متعدد التخصصات‬.‫اللغة‬
‫واللغويات والعلوم المعرفية والفلسفة واألنثروبولوجيا وعلوم األعصاب‬
• Neurolinguistics (the study of language and the brain). This has a physical dimension
because it is basically concerned with impairments of language due to brain lesions,
tumors, injuries or strokes. It also has an observational domain which is the concern of
linguists. Here certain phenomena like slips of the tongue, various performance errors (due
to nervousness, tiredness for instance) are examined for the insights which they might offer
about the structure of the language faculty in the human brain.
‫ هذا له بعد مادي ألنه يهتم‬.)‫• • اللغويات العصبية (دراسة اللغة والعقل‬
‫بشكل أساسي بضعف اللغة بسبب آمراض العقل أو األورام أو اإلصابات أو السكتات‬
‫ يتم هنا فحص ظواهر‬.‫ كما أن لديها مجال رصد وهو اهتمام اللغويين‬.‫الدماغية‬
‫ وأخطاء أداء مختلفة (بسبب العصبية والتعب على سبيل‬، ‫معينة مثل زالت اللسان‬
‫المثال) للتعرف على األفكار التي قد يقدمونها حول بنية ملكة اللغة في العقل‬
.‫البشري‬
•
• Language pathology ‫طب اللغة‬
• The breakdown of language has been studied intensively from at least two main
angles. The first is that of medicine where attempts are made to help patients regain at
least partially the ability to use language normally.
‫• • علم أمراض اللغة تمت دراسة ضعف اللغة بشكل مكثف من الناحية الطبية حيث‬
ُ
‫تبذل محاوالت لمساعدة المرضى على استعادة القدرة على استخدام اللغة بشكل‬
.‫ًا على األقل‬
‫طبيعي جزئي‬
•
• Language Acquisition:
• Language acquisition is innately (genetically) determined.
• Language acquisition device: an innate, metaphorical "mechanism'-' in young
children's brain that predisposes them to acquire language, (human capacity to acquire
language)
:‫اكتساب اللغة‬
•
.)‫• اكتساب اللغة يأتي بالفطرة (وراثيا‬
‫ طريقة "فطرية مجازية في عقول األطفال الصغار تؤهلهم‬:‫• ويعتبر اكتساب اللغة‬
)‫الكتساب اللغة (قدرة اإلنسان على اكتساب اللغة‬
• Dialectology
Dialectology is the study of variation in the lexical and structural components of language.
It is usually associated with the study of geographical variation, especially in rural areas,
but there is much dialectological work today which focuses principally on social variation
and in urban areas {very often to the exclusion of more holistic spatial considerations
‫ عادة‬.‫علم اللهجات هو دراسة االختالف في المكونات المعجمية والبنيوية للغة‬
‫ ولكن‬، ‫ ال سيما في المناطق الريفية‬، ‫ما يرتبط بدراسة التباين الجغرافي‬
‫هناك الكثير من التركيز اليوم بشكل أساسي على التباين االجتماعي وفي‬
‫المناطق الحضرية {في كثير من األحيان الستبعاد االعتبارات المكانية األكثر‬
‫شمولية‬
What Are The Differences Between British And
American English?
Accent
It’s difficult to make clear distinctions between U.S. and U.K. accents when there is such
a wide variety of accents within both the U.S. and the U.K. There are also differences
between American and British English in the areas of spelling, vocabulary and grammar.
Here are just some of the examples.
‫هناك بعض الفروق بين اللكنة البريطانية واللكنة األمريكية كما يلي باألمثلة‬
Spelling
American English British English
color
colour
behavior
behaviour
theater
theatre
meter
metre
organize
organise
traveled
travelled
Vocabulary
American English
British English
apartment
flat
college
university
theater
theatre
vacation
holiday
chips
crisps
(french) fries
chips
the movies
the cinema
soda / pop / coke / soft drink soft drink / fizzy drink
sneakers / tennis shoes
trainers
sweater
jumper
mailbox
postbox
band-aid
plaster
drugstore
chemist’s
soccer
football
cookie
biscuit
Grammar
Prepositions
American English
British English
I’m going to a party on the weekend. I’m going to a party at the weekend.
What are you doing on Christmas? What are you doing at Christmas?
Monday through Friday.
Monday to Friday.
It’s different from/than the others. It’s different from/to the others.
Past Simple vs Present Perfect
Americans tend to use the past simple tense when describing something that has recently
occurred, while people in the U.K. are more likely to use the present perfect tense.
American English
British English
I ate too much.
I’ve eaten too much.
I went to the store.
I’ve been to the shop.
Did you get the newspaper? Have you got the newspaper?
The past participle of get
American English
British English
get — got — gotten
get — got — got
I haven’t gotten any news about him. I’ve not got any news about him.
Choose the Correct Answer
1. Linguists describe and analyze language- for example, how language is learned and
used by ( listener-speakers-readers), how languages change; evolve, die, or emerge.
2. As well as being interested in language (sound-structure-meaning), linguists also
study the way that language is used, and this can cover a very broad range of subjects
as language is central to so many areas of human activity.
3. Phonetics, for example, involves the detailed analysis of speech (letters-wordssounds) how they're produced and perceived, and how they can be analyzed
acoustically.
4. The second group, focusing on the structure of words and sentences, includes
(phonology-morphology-psychology) the study of word formations and
combinations in a language, and syntax, which considers the rules that govern the
sentence structure.
5. The third group, concerned with the study of meaning, includes (syntax- semantics –
statistics) which focuses on the meaning of words and phrases, pragmatics, which
explores how we use language to create meaning in different interactive contexts.
6. Linguistics is the( scientific politic-critic) study of language.
7. Linguists do work on specific languages, but their ( primary-secondary-third) goal is
to understand the nature of Language in general.
8. There are (two-three-four) types of linguistics.
9. phonetics - the study of speech sounds in their (physical-cognitive-sensitive) aspects .
10. Phonology - the study of speech sounds in their (initiative-cognitive-inquisitive)
aspects .
11. Morphology is the study of the (transformation-formation-summation) of words .
12. syntax-the study of the formation of (words-sentences-letters) .
13. semantics is the study of ______ (structure-meaning-sound) .
14. pragmatics is the study of language (meaning-use-formation)
15. Applied linguistics uses linguistic theory to (make-solve-end) real-world problems,
most often in the field of language education.
16. (Historical-Theoretical- Anthropological) linguists are most concerned with
constructing models of linguistic knowledge and ultimately developing theories about
how language works.
17. - Phonetics is the scientific study of speech production, transmission and reception.
(True-False)
18. Diphthongs involve the movement from one vowel to another within a (singledouble-three) syllable.
19. Consonants are formed with significant obstruction of this airflow by one or more of
the articulators; whereas in vowels, the mouth remains relatively open.(true-false)
20. Consonants can be described in terms of where the obstruction occurs in the (localvocal-oral) tract (place of articulation
21. Stressed syllables are produced with less effort (force) than unstressed and stressed
syllables tend to be longer than the unstressed.(true- false)
22. The word Enormous is stressed on the first syllable.(true-false)
23. Usually the stress pattern has to be learned as part of the pronunciation of each
individual word.(true-false)
24. In compounds with participles, we stress the participle when the compound docs not
come before a noun.(true-false)
25. At sentence level some words receive greater stress than others because they are more
important for the message and need to be prominent.(true-false)
26. The basic units of study in morphology are (phonemes-morphemes).
27. A morpheme is the smallest unit that has meaning or grammatical function.(truefalse)
28. Free morpheme entails a lexical meaning.(true-false)
29. Prefixes : these are bound morphemes that are placed after the root.(true-false)
30. Infixes : are placed in between the syllables of the root.(true-false)
31. Unlike the inflectional suffixes, the derivational suffixes change the class of the word
to which they are attached. (True-False)
32. Homophones are the words which sound the same but have different meanings and
have same spellings.(true-false)
33. Syntactic category is a set of words in a language which share a number of common
characteristics.(true-false)
34. Jargon is the language peculiar to a trade, profession or other group; it is the language
used in a body of spoken or written texts, dealing with a circumscribed domain in
which speakers share a common specialized vocabulary, habits of word usage, and
forms of expression.(true-false)
35. The term locution is used to refer to the linguistic form of a speech act.(true-false)
36. communicative purpose is studied by the linguistic discipline of pragmatics, where it
is often referred to as pragmatic meaning.(true-false)
37. Brown and Levinson state that there are two kinds of face, negative and positive
face.(true-false)
38. Negative face refers to the individual's desire for freedom of action and freedom from
imposition.(true-false)
39. Positive face refers to the individual's desire that his wants be appreciated and
approved of in social interaction. .(true-false).
40. Socio-linguistics: The way we speak reveals quite a lot about our social background,
for example how educated we are, where we come from, etc. .(true-false)
41. Sociolinguists prove that class and language variety are related. .(true-false)
42. Hypercorrection is sometimes found among (listener-reader-speakers) of less
prestigious language varieties who produce forms associated with high-prestige
varieties.
43. Paralinguistic features refer to the aspects of communication that do not involve the
usage of words like body language.(true-false)
44. code-switching is the practice of unpredictably changing one's language, dialect or
speaking style to better fit one's environment. .(true-false)
45. Language disorders are known in linguistics and medicine as (atresia-aphasiaamnesia).
46. Haynes says it's important for students to continue to work with a classroom teacher
on a specific content area related to the new language such as history, social studies
or writing. .(true-false)
47. Dialectology is the study of variation in the lexical and structural components of
language. .(true-false)
48. Lexicography: the planning arid compiling of both monolingual and bilingual
dictionaries and other language reference works .(true-false)
49. _______linguistics uses linguistic theory to solve real-world problems, most often
in the field of language education. (Theoretical-Interdisciplinary- Applied)
50. Applied linguistics explores the nature of language itself. (True-False)
51. ________linguists are most concerned with constructing models of linguistic
knowledge and ultimately developing theories about how language works.
(Theoretical-Interdisciplinary- Applied)
52. ______ are sounds that vou can produce without air-obstruction. (ConsonantsVowels-Liquids)
53. There are six vowel forms in English (True-False)
54. Consonants are formed with significant obstruction of this airflow by one or more of
the articulators; whereas in vowels, the mouth remains relatively open. (True-False)
55. Variants of sound that do not change meaning are called _____(allophoneallomorph-homonym)
56. ________is a term used in phonology to refer to the degree of force (for making it
louder and longer) used in producing a syllable. (Intonation- Stress-Syntax)
57. Stressed syllables are produced with greater effort (force) than unstressed and
stressed syllables tend to be longer than the unstressed. (True-False)
58. In phonological analysis, two types of stress are important.
59. sentence stress is called prosodic stress. (True-False)
60. The best way to learn how to stress words is by listening to them used in speech and
imitating the pronunciation (True-False)
61. The schwa is used in certain one-syllable words when they are unstressed in
connected speech (true-False)
62. In compounds with participles, we stress the participle when the compound docs not
come before a noun. (True-False)
63. Stress operates at word level and at sentence level. (True-False)
64. At sentence level some words receive greater stress than others because they are
more important for the message and need to be prominent. (True-False)
65. ______ is a sub-branch of linguistics, it deals with the internal structure of words.
(Phonology-Morphology-Semantics)
66. The basic units of study in morphology are ______ (morphemes-phonemes-pairs)
67. A _______is the smallest unit that has meaning or grammatical function.
(morpheme-phoneme-pair)
68. ______ is a morpheme that can occur on its own or with other morphemes. (FreeBound)
69. ______morpheme entails a lexical meaning. (Free-Bound)
70. Words loke "laugh, walk, book, person, spoon" are all ____ morphemes (FreeBound)
71. _________ cannot occur on its own but it is always attached to other morphemes.
(Free-Bound)
General Exercises
1. Pragmatics is the study of language and its structure.(True-False)
2. Morphology and syntax are two major branches of descriptive
linguistics.(True-False).
3. ________ studies how words are formed (Morphology-Phonology-Syntax)
4. _________ syntax studies how sentences are formed.(Morphology-SyntaxSemantics)
5. Morphology comes from a Greek word meaning 'shape' or 'form'.(TrueFalse)
6. Syntax is the study of words, both with regard to their internal structure and
their combination to form new or larger units.(True-False)
7. The word 'teacher' comprises one morpheme (True-False)
8. Morphology studies the structure of words.(True-False)
9. _____is the study of word formation -- how words are built up from smaller
pieces.
(Phonology-Morphology-Syntax)
10. Syntax specifically examines how words are formed by putting together
morphemes.(True-False)
11. A _______ is the smallest part of a word that has grammatical function or
meaning
(Phoneme-Morpheme-Allomorph).
12. A Morpheme is "the smallest unit, which exhibits an internal structure and
meaning of its own but which cannot be further broken up”.(True-False)
13. Words may consist of one or more morphemes.(True-False)
14. Morphology deals with the internal structure of words and the rules by which
words are formed.(True-False)
15. Morphemes can be divided into two basic categories called free morphemes
and bound morphemes.(True-False)
16. A ______morpheme is a meaningful unit that can stand alone as a
word.(Free-Bound)
17. Free morphemes are made up of only one morpheme.(True-False)
18. The _____ morphemes are generally referred to as lexemes.(Free-Bound)
19. Free morphemes fall into two categories: lexical and functional.(True-False)
20. ______ morphemes are nouns, adjectives, and verbs which carry the content
of messages we convey.(Lexical-Functional-Literal)
21. Lexical morphemes are called closed class of words (True-False)
22. _______ morphemes are the functional words in the language such as
conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns.(Lexical-Functional-Literal)
23. Functional morphemes are an open class of words.(True-False)
24. A _____ morpheme is a morpheme that cannot stand alone as an
independent word; it is always bound to another morpheme.(Free-Bound)
25. ________ must be attached to another morpheme.(Free-Bound)
26. Abound morpheme has no meaning on its own (True-False)
27. Bound morphemes attached to the front of a word are called _____(Prefixes-
28. Bound morphemes attached to the back of a word are called ___(suffixesPrefixes)
29. ______ morphemes are morphemes that are added to the root of a word to
create a new word.(Inflectional-Derivational)
30. When a verb is suffixed with -able, the result is_____ (verb-noun-adjective).
31. When the suffix (en) is added to an adjective, a ______ is derived, as in
(darken).
(Verb- noun- adjective)
32. When the suffix (-ness) is added to the adjective good, a noun is
derived.(True-False)
33. An Inflectional morpheme is a type of bound morphemes that does not cause
a change in the meaning or word class of a word.(True-False)
34. _____serve as grammatical markers and indicate some grammatical
information about a word.(Derivational-Inflectional)
35. Inflectional morphemes are used to show if a word is plural or singular, if it is
past tense or not, and if it is a comparative or possessive form.(True-False)
36. Plural markers, possessive markers, tense markers, comparative and
superlative markers are derivational morphemes.(True-False)
37. English has only ten inflectional suffixes (True-False)
38. Nouns take two inflectional morphemes, plural and possessive.(True-False)
39. There are only four inflectional morphemes that can attach to the infinitive
form(True-False)
40. _____ morphemes play three grammatical roles in English showing tense,
number, and comparison.(Derivational-Inflectional)
41. An inflectional morpheme never changes the grammatical category of a
word.(True-False)
42. Inflection here simply creates a different version of the adjective (True-False)
43. A derivational morpheme can change the grammatical category of a
word.(True-False)
44. The verb 'teach' becomes the noun 'teacher', if we add the inflectional
morpheme (True-False)
45. When morphemes are strung together, they have a way of affecting each
other phonologically.(True-False)
46. When a single affix has more than one shape, linguists use the term
allomorph.(True-False)
47. Affixes very often have different allomorphs.(True-False)
48. The phonological differences between the allomorphs of a morpheme are
often due to the ______ environment.(Syntactical-phonologicalmorphological)
49. Plural{-s}, the abstract plural morpheme in English has three regular
allomorphs.(True-False)
50. When the last sound of the noun is a sibilant [s] [z] [ʃ] [tʃ] [dʒ] [ʒ] the allomorph
will be /s/ (True-False)
51. When the last sound of the noun is voiceless, the allomorph will be /z/ (TrueFalse)
52.
53. -_____ is the study of language and its structure. (Linguistics-PhysicsClassics
54. - Morphology and syntax are two major branches of ______linguistics.
(Interdisciplinary- descriptive-Prescriptive)
55. - morphology and syntax are concerned with _____ (sound-meaningstructure)
56. -Morphology studies how words are formed whereas _____studies how
sentences are formed. (semantics-syntax-phonetics)
57. -Morphology is concerned with the _____structure of words and their
combination to form new or larger units. (external-internal-diurnal)
58. -A _____is the smallest part of a word that has either grammatical function
or meaning. (phoneme- morpheme-allophone)
59. - A morpheme can be further broken up. (true-false)
60. -Words like " boy, desire, meditate" are ____ morphemes. (free-boundboth)
61. : Words like "boyish " desirable" meditation" contain____ morphemes.
(two-three-one)
62. - Words like" gentlemanliness" and "environmentalists" contain___
morphemes (two-three-four)
63. -Words like ungentlemanliness" and "constitutionalizing" contain____
morphemes. (three-two-five)
64. - Morphemes can be divided into two basic categories called free
morphemes and bound morphemes. (true-false)
Extra Exercises
 What is morphology?



A. The study of the rules governing the sounds that form words
B. The study of the rules governing sentence formation
C. The study of the rules governing word formation
Which is not an example of "allomorph"?



A. The plural morpheme in English (-s, -es, en)
B. The morphemes in English (un-, ment-, il-, ly-)
C. Some derivational morphemes in English (-ness, ive, -able)
 . What is a morpheme?




A. The smallest unit of a particular language
B. The minimal pair of a chosen phrase
C. The smallest meaningful unit of a word
D. The minimal item of a linguistic unit
 How many morphemes does the word "antiestablishment" have?
3-4-5-6
 6. What is the main difference between free and bound morphemes?



A. Free morphemes are dependent and must be attached to another morpheme
where as bound morphemes are independent.
B. Free morphemes belong in the close class and all bound morphemes belong in
the open class.
C. Free morphemes can stand alone, but bound morphemes have to be
attached to a base morpheme or a root.
 7. The closed class is the functional categories which are not derivable.


A. True
B. False
 . Which is NOT an example of derivational morphemes?




A. Walk --> walked
B. Entertain --> entertainment
C. Move --> movement
D. Paint --> painter
 9. Which choice shows an example of an inflectional morpheme?



A. Replace --> replacement
B. Reform --> reformation
C. Regret --> regrets
 . Which choice describes the basic properties of derivational morphemes?


A. Derivational morphemes are affixes which can change the meaning or
parts of speech of words.
B. Derivational morphemes are affixes which change numbers or tenses.
 . Which is an example of using affixation to form new words?



A. Appears
B. Usage
C. Blanket (v.) --> blanket (n.) --> blanket (adj.)
 . __________ is a word formation process which you mix two parts of two separate
words together to create new words.




A. Blending
B. Conversion
C. Affixation
D. Clipping
 .Which of the following is an example of an inflectional morpheme in English?




A. Tall --> taller
B. Create --> creator
C. Write --> writer
D. Generate --> generator
. Which type of morpheme can stand alone?
Free Morphemes
Bound Morphemes
. How many morphemes are there in the word 'intolerable'?
1234
. How many morphemes are there in the word 'immaturity'?
1 2 3 4
. Which suffixes refer to adjectives?
-ful and -ous
-ment and -ness
-ly and -en
. English speakers recognize that the words dog and dogs are closely related. What does
the letter "s" means?
Plurality morpheme "-s".
That means apostrophe.
Doesn't mean anything at all.
The morpheme of the letter "g".
1.
2. 1-_________ defined as "what is meant by what is said or
written".
3. (Discourse Analysis- Linguistics-Pragmatics)
4.
5. 2- Pragmatics as a science is concerned with using language in
social interaction or______
6. (Society-Context-Text)
7. 3-Another definition of pragmatics says that it is the study of
language in ______
8. (Use-Writing-Speech)
9. 4-Paul Grice, a linguist, said that people interact with each other
and have some ________about one another
10.
(Complication-Implicature-Complexities)
11.
5-There are two types of implicatures; conventional and
_________
12.
(Conversational-Contextual-Contrastive)
13.
6- _________________implicatures do not require any
particular context in order to be understood
14.
(Conversational-Conventional-Contrastive)
15.
7- Conversational implicatures are _________ based or
dependent this means that the meaning varies according to the
situation.
16.
17.
(Context-Contradiction-Contra lingual)
8-In __________implicature, we have to figure out what
someone is really saying.
18.
(Conventional-Conversational-Contrastive)
19.
9-Paul Grice proposed a ___________ which direct them
through their speech. This shows their cooperation.
20.
(Cooperative Principle-Conventional Principle-
Linguistic Principle)
21.
10-In Cooperative Principle, We should aim to make our
contribution in a _______ such as required ; at the stage it
occurs, following the accepted purposed of our speech
22.
23.
(Conversation-Contradiction-Continent)
11-Paul Grice said that the cooperative principle is based
on four elements called _____________
24.
(Maxims-Axioms- Axiomatic)
25.
12-The maxim of ________ depends on making your
contribution as informative as required no more or less
information
26.
(Quality-Quantity-Relation)
27.
13-The maxim of ________ stipulates that you make your
contribution true. Don't say what you believe is false Don't say
anything you lack evidence about.
28.
(Quality-Quantity-Relation)
29.
14- The maxim of ________ Try to be relevant to the
subject you are talking or discussing
30.
(Quality-Quantity-Relation)
31.
15-The maxim of _______ A void ambiguity and try b
brief, be orderly and ( to be clear)
32.
(Relation-Manner-Quality)
33.
34.
16- The term _______ refers to the whole communicative
situation, including the context of the utterance
35.
(Speech Act-Speech behavior-Speech meaning)
36.
17-Speech Act theory refers to the situation in which the
discourse occurs, the participants and any preceding verbal or
physical and _________features which may contribute to the
meaning of the interaction.
37.
(Paralinguistic-Contra Linguistic-Literary)
38.
18-Speech Act theory is concerned with ______ speech.
39.
(Contextualized-Contradicted-Complex)
.
.40
41.
19-Whenever we produce an utterance we are engaged in
three acts; Locution, Illocution and ________
42.
(Perlocution-Para linguistics-Principle)
43.
44.
20- A ________ act is the production of a well-formed
utterance in whatever language one is speaking.
45.
(Perlocution-Illocution- locutionary)
46.
21-The________ act is the meaning one wishes to
communicate and intends to convey.
47.
(Perlocution-Locutionary- illocutionary)
48.
22-The ______act is the e effect of our words. If I say,
please open the window and you do so, I have achieved my
perlocutionary aim.
49.
(Perlocutionary-Illocutionary-Locutionary)
50.
23-It is important to look for the ______aim of most
literary works.
51.
52.
(Illocutionary-Locutionary- Perlocutionary)
53. 24-J.L Austen noted that there are speakers and hearers
perform two types of acts _______
54.
(Explicit and implied-Direct and Indirect-Clear and
Unclear)
25- ________ are direct propositions or statements given by the
speaker to the hearer (they are truthful ones) such as "pat has a cat"
(Comissive-Declarative-Representative)
26-________ are speech acts which represent a state of affairs and
can generally be characterized as true or false by using verbs like
"suggest, assert, claim, state..."
(Representatives-Comissives-Declaratives)
27-__________are speech acts which commit the speaker to a course
of action using verbs like "Promise, pledge, swear,…"
(Declaratives- Comissives-Representatives
28-_________are speech acts intended to get the hearer to carry out
an action using words like command, request, ask, demand, order,…"
(Directives-Representatives-Declaratives)
29-________ are speech acts which indicate the speaker’s
psychological state of attitude using words like "apologize,
congratulate, greet,"
(Expressives-Declaratives-Comissives)
30-_______ are direct speech acts that use performative verbs like
promise, threat, warn and so on.
(Performative Acts-Locutionary acts-Representative acts)
31- There is a direct correlation between the grammatical form of an
utterance and its _______force
(Perlocutionary- illocutionary-Locutionary)
32-When we use one speech act rather than another, and leave our
hearer to work out the meaning we intend, we are dealing with
_______ speech acts.
)Direct-Indirect-Explicit)
33-We normally avoid the ________ form except in specific
circumstances as in the military or in addressing small children.
(Imperative-indirect-Declarative)
34-Questions have many different functions according to ____and it is
up to our pragmatic experience to interpret them appropriately.
(Context-Place-Society)
35-Searle states that "Speech-act theory is an account of the
conditions of
(Wisdom- intelligibility-Ambiguity)
36-Petrey (1990) offers a defense of the contribution of speech act
theory to the study of ________
(Literary texts-Social texts-Scientific texts)
37-________ making clear that one is aware of the maxim, but is
prevented for some reason from observing it.
(Opting out-Flouting-Lying)
40- A ______ arises when one cannot be fully co-operative and there is
a conflict between the maxims.
(Agreement-Clash-Disagreement)
41-________ this is the most interesting way of breaking a maxim. One
makes clear to the hearer that one is aware of the co-operative
principle and the maxims, so that the audience is led to consider why
the principle or a maxim was broken.
(Lying-Avoiding- Flouting)
42-The maxim of ______ is flouted when we use a metaphor or irony,
but we assume that it has communicative effects.
(Manner-Quantity-Quality)
43- Paul Grice outlined an approach which he called ________which
shows how hearers manage to work out the complete message when
speakers mean more than they say)
(Conventional implicature- Conversational Implicature)
44- Grice proposed three things to understand conversational
implicature: the usual linguistic meaning of what is said,
_________ information and obeying the cooperative principle
(Contextual-Implicature-Implied)
45- _________ is using an indirect way of speech which seems more
agreeable and acceptable by hearers than the strict direct forms of
expression.
(Cooperation-Politeness-Direction)
46-_________are implicit assumptions required to make a sentence
meaningful.
(Presuppositions-Predication-Pre knowledge)
47-Leech supposes some conditions called ________ conditions
required for the success of Communication like preparatory conditions,
Execution conditions and Sincerity conditions.
(Felicity-Complexity-Facility)
48-Pragamatics is concerned with the relation of a\an ________ to the
context in which it is said.
(Utterance-Text-Sign)
49- The study of ______ depends on our understanding of much of what we read
and hear is tied to the time and place in which we encounter linguistic expressions.
(Context-Text-Discourse)
50- We can usually recognize the type of _______performed by a speaker in uttering
a sentence.
(Behavior-Act-Speech)
Choose the Correct Answer
1- The word “consonants” refers to the sounds produced with
no obstruction in the air stream. (True -False)
2- Stress is one of the items studied by acoustic phonetics.
(True- False)
3- Organs of speech are all the organs involved in describing
the anatomical features of the vocal tract. (True- False)
4- ............................ are alveo-palatal
The sounds /k/, and /g /
The sounds /l/, and /r /
The sounds /ʧ/, and /ʤ/
5- The sound /p/ is.....................
a voiced bilabial stop .
a voiced alveolar stop .
a voiceless bilabial stop.
6- The word “labio-dentals” refers to.......................
Sounds produced by the lower and the upper teeth .
Sounds produced by the lower lip and the upper
teeth .
Sounds produced by both the lower and the upper lips.
7- ..................... are bilabials
The sounds /p/, /k/, and /d /
The sounds /v/, /k/, and /m /
The sounds /p/, /b/, and /m/
8- The word “alveolar” refers to.......................
The sounds produced by the tip of the tongue and the upper lip .
The sounds produced by the tip of the tongue and
the upper alveolar ridge .
The sounds produced by the blade of the tongue and the upper
alveolar ridge.
9- Auditory phonetics explains all the possible types of stress
patterns.
(True –False)
10-Vocal cords are the main source of energy in the production
of speech.
(True –False)
11- The sound /t/ is a......................
Voiceless bilabial stop.
Voiced bilabial stop.
Voiceless dental stop.
12- In a given utterance that is connected speech……..
All words receive the same stress .
Some words receive more stress than other words .
All words receive no stress.
13- The phonetic symbol for the first sound in “knife” is …………
/ k/
/ g/
/n/
14- Stress is…….
Phonemic.
Syllabic.
15- The word “language” is used to indicate a system which
relates form (sounds or otherwise) to meaning. (True –False)
16- The information needed to describe the articulation of
speech sounds include place of articulation, parts of speech
and parts of the tongue.
(True –False)
17-The symbol that corresponds to the phonetic descriptions
“voiced palatal fricative” is...................
/Ʒ/ as in vision .
/ k/ as in cat .
/s/ as in sat.
18 -Stop, Fricative, affricate and liquid are all terms describing
manners of articulation. (True –False)
19 - Phonetics is a branch of linguistics which studies single
speech sounds. (True –False)
20-The main divisions of the tongue are: high, mid and low.
(True –False)
20-The sound whose symbol is /i:/ is...........
High front consonant.
Back short rounded vowel.
high front spread long vowel.
21-Stop, fricative, palatal, affricate and liquid are all terms
describing manners of articulation. (True –False)
22-Velars are the sounds produced
At the alveolar ridge.
At the hard palate.
At the velum.
23- The phonetic symbol for the first sound in “church” is
…………
/ʌ/
/ʃ/
/ʧ/
24 - On defining language a distinction between human
language and human habits is necessary.
(True –False)
25-Acoustic phonetics studies the........ properties of sounds
made by the vocal tract.
Philosophical.
Chemical.
Physical.
25-The sound /ʤ/ is..........
Voiced alveolar fricative.
Voiceless dental fricative.
Voiced alveo-palatal affricate.
26- The sounds /k/, /l/, /f/, /g/, / v/ share the phonetic
features.......
Fricative, oral, consonant.
Vowels, long, oral.
Consonants, oral.
27-The information needed to describe the articulation of
speech sounds include place of articulation, rules of affixation
and voice. (True –False)
28 - The symbol that corresponds to the phonetic
descriptions “voiceless palatal fricative” is...................
/k/ as in cat.
/l/ as in lamb.
/ʃ/ as in shop.
29 -Oral and nasal cavities are the main source of energy in
the production of speech. (True –False)
30 - What is the main source of energy in the production of
speech?
Vocal cords.
Oral and nasal cavities.
Lungs.
31 - The word “consonants” refers to the sounds produced with
a free air stream. (True –False)
32-The sounds /a:/, /i:/, /e:/, /u:/, /ͻ:/ share the phonetic
features…..
Vowels, long, oral.
Consonants, oral.
Consonants, stop, bilabial.
33 -The sounds ............................ are stops
/k/, /g/, /d/, /t/, /p/, and /b/
/f/, /v/, /s/, /z/, /θ/, /ð/, / ʃ/, and /ӡ/
/l/, /g/, /r/, /t/, /ʧ/, /ʤ/ , and /b/
34 - Fricatives are ......................
-Sounds whose production is characterized by a complete
closure released with the production of the sounds.
-Sounds whose production is characterized by a partial
closure and a gradual release of the air stream
accompanying the production of the sounds.
-Sounds whose production is characterized by a complete
closure and a gradual release of the air stream accompanying
the production of the sounds.
35 - The word “vowels” refers to the sounds produced with an
obstruction in the air stream. (True –False)
57- Articulatory Description is a description of the speech
organs. (True –False)
36- The expression “white house” receives tertiary-primary
(ˋ+ʹ) stress. (True –False)
37- What are the organs of speech?
-They are all the organs involved in speech production.
They are mainly lips, teeth, tongue, hard and soft palates.
-They are all the organs involved in recognizing and
interpreting sounds as distinctive units.
-They are all the organs involved in describing the anatomical
features of the vocal tract.
38 -............................ are velar
The sounds /f/, /g/, and /s/
The sounds /ʃ/, and /Ʒ/
The sounds /k/, and /g/
39 -The word “vowels” refers to.................
-The sounds produced with an obstruction in the airstream.
-The sounds produced with no obstruction in the
airstream.
-The sounds produced with or without obstructing the
airstream.
40 -The symbol that corresponds to the phonetic descriptions
“voiced velar stop” is...................
/g/ as in good.
/ŋ/ as in king.
/z/ as in dogs.
41 - Acoustic phonetics looks at ............
-The place and manner of articulating speech sounds.
-The physical properties of sounds made by the vocal
tract.
-How the human ear perceives sounds.
42 -The word “palatal” refers to.......................
-Sounds produced by the two lips.
-Sounds produced by the lower lip and the upper teeth.
-Sounds produced by the front of the tongue and the hard
palate.
43- The front low short vowel /æ/ is found in words like...........
Choose one answer.
Bed, fed, lead.
Bad, fat, lad.
Boot, foot, door.
44 -The symbol that corresponds to the phonetic descriptions
“voiced alveolar fricative” is...................
Choose one answer.
a./ŋ/ as in king
b./z/ as in dogs
c./v/ as in live
45 . The Number of diphthongs in English Sound is
A. 12
B. 8
C. 44
D. 20
46. Which total number of sounds in English language is
A. 12
B.8
C. 20
D. 44
47 - Which one of the following is not an organ of speech?
A. leg
B. Tongue
C. Vocal chord
D. Lips
48 . Total Number of consonant sound in English is
A. 12
B. 8
C. 20
D. 24
49 . We need an air stream mechanism for the
A. Production of Speech
B. Digestion process
C. Blood circulation process
D. Dexidation Process
50 . The hard convex surface just Behind the upper front teeth
is called
A. soft palate
B. teeth ridge
C. hard palate
D. tongue
51 .Diphthong is a
A. Pure vowel sound
B. Pure consonant sound
C. Vowel glides or mixed vowel sounds
D. none of the above
52 . The letters a,e,i,o,u in English alphabet are called
A. Clusters
B. Consonants
C. Vowels
D. Words
53 . When one sound is given by two consonants, it is called
A. vowel sound
B. consonant sound
C. single sound
D. consonant cluster
.54 . which of the following has /: i / sound
A. Car
B. seat
C. fit
D. books
55. which of the following has /au/sound
A. but
B. arm
C. about
D. aunt
56. The example of consonant cluster at the beginning is
A. sea
b. guard
C. guilty
D. play
57. "The smallest unit of words" is called
A. Phoneme
B. Allophone
C. Juncture
D. Morpheme
True-False)
1. Female linguistic behavior encompasses a desire to take turns in conversation with
others, which is opposed to men's tendency towards centering on their own point or
remaining silent (True-False)
2. Changing the topic of conversation for females tend to change subject more
frequently than males. (True-False)
3. Female tendencies toward self-disclosure contrasts with male tendencies to non-self
disclosure and professing advice when confronted with another's problems. (TrueFalse)
4. As for Politeness, Women are more polite than men because they respect the others'
desire to be liked and admired by others more than men. (True-False)
5. There is an increased use of compliments by men in relation to women. (TrueFalse)
6. Any variety of a language characterized by systematic differences in pronunciation,
grammar, and vocabulary from other varieties of the same language is called dialect.
(True-False)
7. The people who speak a certain dialect are called a speech community. (True-False)