CHAPTER ONE
1.0
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Background of the study
The environmental public health has become a prominent, but complex and multi-dimensional
issue on the public policy agenda of states, national and international organizations (Aluko, 2000). This
transformation after a long period of benign neglect, began in Rio in 1992. The issue of the
environment is today perceived not simply as a narrow ecological problem of how to ensure a
symbiotic and congruent inter-face between man and his environment. It is more than that. Its inner
core has political, developmental, sociological and scientific implications, all of which are anchored to
the new concept.
Indiscriminate disposal of wastes is a threat to human health. Okebukola (2001) states that
inadequate disposal of waste is a major factor in the spread of gastrointestinal diseases primarily caused
by vectors. He further asserted that diarrhea, cholera and typhoid fever are among the major killer
diseases due to improper disposal of waste. Healthy people contribute greatly to the health and wealth
of nation. A healthy environment remains one source of well being. In is the responsibility of
individuals, households, communities, organizations and the government to promote healthy
environment. However, people can only promote healthy environment only if only if they are aware of
its benefits.
According to Adelakun (2003), promotion of environmental quality depends on how individual
and community see themselves in relation to their environment. It is the ways people perceive the
environment that they will treat it, and it is the way the environment is treated that it will in turn
support life. He believes that illiteracy, ignorance, poverty and greediness are some of the major
contributors of environmental degradation because each influences people’s behaviour and attitudes
towards the environment. A person who is ignorant of his/her environment will likely have wrong
perception about the effects of that action on his health.
A community that understands the link between a healthy environment and good health can
save time, money and avoidable agonies. Noibi (1992) states that environmental deterioration had
arisen to a large extent because people are not aware of the implications of their actions. He further
asserts that a persons’ level of ignorance of the environment can be said to be positively related to the
degree of his/her damage to the environment.
The fact that the essence of waste management is to maintain acceptable environmental quality,
sound public health and creation of aesthetic value, the behavioural pattern and awareness of the people
health dictates how they treat the environment.
1.2
Statement of the problems
The beauty of any environment lies on its good sanitary condition. This is so because, when an
environment is clean, the lives of citizenry are not threatened by illness and diseases. Proper refuse
disposal management involves the dumping of waste (solid, liquid or gaseous) from homes, industries
and public outfits for example hotels, hospitals and schools, e.t.c. at a specific place or in government
provided containers and the control and removal of refuse from places where they can cause hazards to
a place where they are less hazardous to public health.
Oyo town presents a ghastly picture, the neglect of filled refuse bins in recent time has its
effects on inhabitants. Many areas around the home are littered with domestic refuse, sewage waste,
1
garbage and other wastes from industrial operations. Industrial operations are characterized by the
generation of large volume of wastes in the forms of solid, liquid and gases. Some of these wastes are
toxic with negative impacts on the environment, land, water and air.
1.3
Aim and Objectives
The main aim of this study is to examine indiscriminate waste disposal and its environmental
implication and the objectives of this study are:
i.
to establish the current situation of solid waste disposal in Atiba local government area of
Oyo town.
ii.
find out whether inhabitants of Oyo are aware of the implications of indiscriminate waste
disposal in their environment.
iii.
evaluate the level of efficiency in the control and management of urban waste in Oyo.
iv.
to know the contributions of the local government in the disposal of waste in the study area.
v.
to examine the spatial distribution of wastes in the study area.
vi.
to evaluate environmental implications of indiscriminate waste disposal.
1.4
Research Questions
The study was designed to address the following questions
i.
Are the people of Oyo metropolis aware of the implications of indiscriminate waste disposal
in the area?
ii.
What is the level of efficiency of Oyo township urban waste control and management?
iii.
Is solid waste a major environmental issue?
iv.
Is the quality of waste disposal services satisfactory?
v.
Does the method of waste disposal adopted work for the residents living within the local
government area?
1.5
Significance of the Study
The collection of refuse is irregular and inefficient in Oyo township. Litters of refuse often
accumulated along roads and public places, creating breeding ground for mosquitoes, flies, cockroaches
and rodents responsible for the spread of many diseases. The vehicles used were open trucks, which
expose their putrefying load for all to see and smell as they moved through the city. Drains and rivers
are choked with refuse and there are open burning of waste everywhere. The result would reveal
whether the publics is aware of the health implications of indiscriminate of refuse dumps. It also shows
why government efforts may not be enough in solving environmental problems and why individuals
must be involved.
This study will educate the general public, stake and policy makers holders, students,
government on environmental management and problems of indiscriminate waste disposal focusing on
Atiba local government area with a view of identifying management strategies to combat the menace
associated with poor solid waste disposal.
This research will also serve as resource base to other scholars and researchers interested in
carrying out further research in this field.
1.6
The Study Area
Atiba Local Government is one of the thirty-three (33) local Government in Oyo state. It is
located on the longitude 4o East of the green which meridian and latitude 8°44’ North of savannah
which umbrella like crown and tall grasses (Williams, 2003) Atiba Local Government is bounded in the
2
North and Northwest by Irepo Local Government, in the East by Asa and Kaima local Government
area. It has a landmass area of 3389 km with a distance of above 170km to Ibadan the Oyo state capital
(Adeyemi, 2002)
1.7
Definition of the study
Waste is seen as the leftovers, used products whether liquid or solid having no economic value or
demand and which must be disposed or thrown away
Waste Management refers to the act of maintaining an acceptable environmental quality, sound
public health and creation of aesthetic value.
Public health is the control of all those factors in human’s physical environment that exercise or
may exercise, deleterious effects on their physical fitness, health or survival. Health: It is a
condition of the body, which makes a person to function effectively. It is the absence of sickness or
stress of any form.
Environment: It refers to the total surroundings of humans that support life.
Environmental Health: It refers to the health implications of the interaction between individuals
and their natural and built environments
Environmental Sanitation: This is an intervention to reduce people exposure to disease by
providing a clean environment in which to live, with measures to break the cycle of diseases.
3
CHAPTER TWO
2.0
LITERATURE REVIEW
Refuses are rubbish or materials that are not needed and are economically unusable without
further processing (Waste Management Information Link 2006). Olanipekun, Oyeniyi and Konwea
asserted that refuse are unwanted, discarded, non-liquid materials emanating from various human
activities at home, workshop, in the community and farms. Refuse and solid wastes include materials
from house (paper, wood, dust, garbage) the street (paper, animal droppings, carcass, cellophane bags
and leaves), market (empty sachets, bottles cartons etc) abandoned automobiles from industries, toxic
industrial wastes, agricultural wastes and so on.
For this study, waste is any solid or semi-solid materials which have been discarded by its
primary owner or original user, and may or may not be found useful by any other person but constitute
nuisance to people’s health and the environment when left untreated. Waste could be explained to
mean leftovers, used products whether liquid or solid having no economic value or demand and which
must be disposed or thrown away (Oluwande, 2002, Bartone, 2000; Buckle and Smith 2000). The issue
of waste disposal and management were not problems to early humans, due to the fact that there were
not population explosion and technological advancement at that time. However with the growing
population at alarming rate coupled with technological advancement overtime waste disposal and
management began to constitute a serious problem to human race.
Solid waste can be classified according to their sources and basically from the origin of
generation with a view of obtaining workable and efficient methods of storage, collection, treatment
and disposal. Primarily, solid wastes are classified as garbage (which includes the organic matter that
results from the preparation and consumption of food) ashes (residue that result after cooking and
heating process), and rubbish (which embraces most solid waste which are included in the other two
classes) Adedibu, 1985:Adebayo, 1995;RPDC, 2004).
Wastes could be classified as:
(a)
household wastes –municipal wastes;
(b)
industrial wastes –hazardous wastes; and
(c)
biomedical wastes –infectious wastes.
Municipal solid wastes are made up of household wastes, construction and demolition debris,
sanitation residue and waste from the streets. Residential and commercial complexes generated the
garbage that forms part of the wastes that is classified as municipal/household wastes. With the rising
of urbanization in Oyo metropolis and, the change in lifestyles and food habits, the amount of
municipal wastes has been increasing rapidly. In the last few years, the consumer market has growth
rapidly leading to products being packed in cans, aluminum foils, plastics, nylon and nonbiodegradable items that can cause incalculable harm to the environment (Adebayo, 1995; Aribisala,
1997). Proper handling of biodegradable wastes will lessen the burden of solid waste that each city has
to tackle (Hoornweg, 2000; Aribisala, et al, 2004).
Hazardous waste (Industrial) may contain toxic substances. These could be highly toxic to
humans, animals and plants; they could be corrosive, highly inflammable, or explosive and react when
exposed to certain things e.g. gases. Household wastes that can be categorized as hazardous include old
batteries, shoe polish, paint tins, old medicines, and medicine bottles. Hospital wastes contaminated by
chemicals (formaldehyde and phenols) used in hospitals is considered hazardous. For the industrial
4
sector, the major generators of hazardous waste are metal, chemicals, papers, pesticides, dyes, refining
and rubber goods.
Hospital wastes are generated during the diagnosis treatment, or immunization of human beings
or animals or during research activities. These may include sharps, soiled wastes, disposables, and
anatomical wastes, discarded medicines, chemicals wastes etc which could be in form of disposable
syringes, swabs, bandages, body fluids, human excreta etc. Wastes of this nature are highly infectious.
Akpan (1995) cited by Lawal provides the diagrammatic summary of classification of refuse.
Indiscriminate disposal of refuse is a situation where refuse are dumped in any convenient place
whether at home, school, street or market place not minding the environmental risk-factors that are
likely to follow. Olokor (2001) discovered that the problem of indiscriminate disposal of refuse and
unsanitary environment should be given urgent attention because of the risk-factors on human health.
Such risk-factors range from ill-health to severe health calamities, such as outbreak of epidemic
diseases with adverse effects in some cases.
Ekpu and Archibong (2007) discovered that the high rate of refuse generation by people both in
rural and urban areas is a direct reflection of the inefficient ways materials and energy resources are
being used. Nearly every human activity creates refuse, which may be difficult to get rid of, especially
with the careless attitude of many people to refuse disposal. Lucas and Gilles (2006) asserted that
indiscriminate habit of refuse disposal has significantly affected environmental cleanliness and in turn
bred environmental risk-factors affecting the health and well-being of people.
Achalu and Achalu (2004) stated that refuse refers to all the component parts of solid wastes
found in the human environment; while Moronkola and Okanlawon (2003) stressed that solid wastes
are unwanted, discarded, non-liquid materials emanating from various activities of man at home, school
and workplace which may be combustible. Similarly Alakija (2002) regards refuse as discarded
materials from houses, streets markets and industries. Refuse disposal is a process of collecting and
discarding garbage and other waste materials while indiscriminate refuse disposal is a process of
unhygienic practice of dumping waste in any convenient place whether at home, street, school or
market place thereby producing devastating risk-factors to man and its environment.
The environment comprises the land on which we cultivate and build, the water that we drink
and use for irrigation, fishing, farming and navigation, the air that we breathe, and other living and nonliving resources. The quality of the environment has been declining rapidly over the years as a result of
environmental pollution. The cost/effect of environmental damage to man, which may be borne
immediately or at some point in the future are principally losses in health, productivity and amenities,
all which can affect human well-being. The well-being of a man depends on an environmental balance
in land use between the urban areas and the agricultural and forest zones (Gleen2003).Anderson (2003)
asserted that environmental risk-factors are not only a national concern, but are also a worldwide
problem with grave implications for human survival. It was discovered that it has also constituted
serious health threat in the past to man and its environment.
Indiscriminate dumping is a common and prevalent though risky practice, especially among
developed and developing communities. For example, a study in Nigeria found that 68% of the solid
waste generated by communities was indiscriminately dumped, 20.8% disposed of through appropriate
landfill sites and 10.7% burnt (Regassa, Sundaraa, and Seboka 2011; Adeniran, Adewole, and Olofa
2014).
5
Environmental health risks are made complex by the lack of classification of indiscriminately
dumped waste. According to Demirbas (2011) and Musingafi et al. (2014) a number of criteria are
employed to classify wastes into types, including their sources, physical state, material composition
and the level of risks associated with waste substances. Indiscriminate dumping is a major
environmental and public health hazard prevalent in most developing countries as this practice is still
rife (Ogedengbe and Oyedele 2006; Akindutire and Alebiosu 2014). The formalization of households
into high density settlements, together with inefficient refuse removal services, compound the
indiscriminate dumping problem in most developing communities.
2.1
Concept of Environmental Health Impact
Human health and wellbeing rely on the quality of the surrounding environment (Oluranti and
Omosalewa 2012; Rim-Rukeh 2012; Sankoh, Yan, and Tran 2013), and environmental health factors
affect human health through multiple pathways, amongst which are exposure to biological, physical
and chemical substances (Mathee 2011; Sankoh, Yan, and Tran 2013; Muchangos, Liu, and Li 2014).
Indiscriminate dumping of solid waste allows, for example, the accumulation of metals in edible
vegetables such as waterleaf, thus posing communities that collect these vegetables to environmental
health risks. In a study conducted in Nigeria and Ghana, waterleaf plants were found to have very high
concentration levels of lead, cadmium and zinc (Rim-Rukeh 2012). The study found that much of the
toxic metal such as lead and cadmium enters the human body by direct ingestion of vegetables or other
plants that absorb the metals from contaminated soils (Loboka et al. 2013; Olayinka and Adedeji
2014). Al-Jassir, Shaker, and Khaliq (2005) and Ali et al. (2014) conclude that these chemicals are
very harmful because of their non-biodegradable nature and potential to accumulate in different body
parts. Therefore, environmental health risks posed by indiscriminate dumping can have immediate as
well as delayed effects on both human health and the environment.
According to Palfreman (2014) in a study of several unplanned settlements in low-income areas
of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, the ministry of health reported 7000 cases of cholera between 1998 and
2005 which were associated with indiscriminate dumping of solid waste. In Ghana, attempts made at
controlling cholera outbreaks were not successful because no long-term approaches to proper solid
waste disposal and provision of potable water have been implemented (Ashitey 2014).Improper solid
waste management does not only have a negative impact on human health: it can also cause economic
loss in the form of ill-health of citizens as a result of the outbreak of diseases.
One important example of municipal solid waste is plastic bags, which form a large component
of such waste. At times they are burnt as a means of disposal or removal from the environment, and
this result in the release of toxic heavy metals and the emission of greenhouse gases like dioxins and
furans. These gases cause air pollution and contribute to global warming (Mangizvo 2012).
Furthermore, plastics are capable of holding rain water for several days, thereby providing breeding
habitats for mosquitoes. In some developing countries in Africa, such conditions have been blamed for
the increasing incidence of malaria (Aziegbe 2007; Muchangos, Liu, and Li 2014).The uncontrolled
dumping of unknown waste in any available open spaces and sites leaves the safety and health of
humans, animals and the environment at risk.
More importantly, major environmental health risks often emanate from the co-disposal of
municipal, health care and industrial waste in these dumps (Machete and Shale 2015). In most African
6
countries, indiscriminately dumped solid waste is found in trenches, on roadsides, in or near rivers, on
open lands or burnt (Din and Cohen 2013; Akindutire and Alebiosu 2014). Environmental
consequences and risks associated with these practices, such as air pollution, flooding due to clogged
storm water drains, land degradation, poor soil fertility, contamination of groundwater and surface
water bodies, amongst many others, are widespread across the continent (Loboka et al. 2013; Ali et al.
2014). In addition, a relationship was found between the value of rental properties and dump sites
where indiscriminate dumping of solid waste takes place, with most properties no longer being rented,
resulting in economic losses for the property owners (Ogedengbe and Oyedele 2006; Oluranti and
Omosalewa 2012).
2.2
Sources of Refuse
The output of daily waste depends upon the dietary habits, life styles, living standards and the
degree of urbanization and industrialization of people living in a community. Sources of refuse as
identified by Park (2007) include:
1. Refuse collected by the street cleansing service or scavenging called street refuse which
consists of leaves, straw paper, animal droppings and litter of all kinds.
2. Market refuse collected from markets which contains a large proportion of putrid vegetables
and animal matters.
3. Stable litter collected from stables which contain mainly animal droppings and left-over
animal feeds.
4. Industrial refuse comprises a wide variety of waste, ranging from completely inert materials,
such as calcium carbonate, to highly toxic and explosive compounds.
5. Domestic refuse consists of ash, rubbish and garbage. Ash is the residue from fire used for
cooking and heating. Rubbish comprises of paper, clothing, bits of wood, metal, glass, dust and dirt.
Garbage is the waste material arising from the preparation, cooking and consumption of food. It
consists of waste food, vegetable peelings and other organic matter.
2.3
Indiscriminate Solid Waste Management Systems
Generally municipal solid waste are dumped along some major streets, open space, abandoned
house, median strip of the road, and some close to river, upon the fact that refuse bins/incinerator are
provided by the state government in few areas and along the expressway and as well as major and
minor roads of the metropolis. More than two-third of the residents do not use authorized dumpsites
for their waste (Nabegu, 2013). Oyo state government is doing the best in ensuring that the
indiscriminate solid waste are properly managed in all the local government in Oyo state, but the
social-cultural characteristics of the residents are counterproductive. In addition, some areas are totally
inaccessible for collection of these wastes because of poor urban planning and this cause for reason for
some of the resident dumping refuse along the bridges in market places, abandoned land.
The practice of disposing solid waste indiscriminately has a price to pay in terms of collection,
transport and disposal costs and loss of valuable raw materials (recyclables, reusable and repairable)
and the impact on the environment due to air, water and soil pollutions, and associated health risks that
ultimately impact the economic sustainability. It was also observed that, even the residents that collect
and transport the wastes to the collection/transport point from where the waste should be collected
7
immediately, collection is not immediate and this creates not only unhygienic dumpsites but resistance
from residents close to the collection points. Furthermore, the attitudes of some traders of Ibadan South
West local government in management of municipal solid waste is poor; little or no individuals effort
is accorded to the immediate dangers on humans and the environmental impacts it has on the
environment. Programmes to disseminate knowledge and to improve behaviour patterns and attitudes
regarding waste management are therefore critical for the residents of Ibadan. However for such
programmes to yield positive results it must be based on sound understanding of the social and cultural
characteristics of the communities.
2.4
Risk-factors of Indiscriminate Refuse Disposal
Olokor (2001) asserted that the impact of indiscriminate disposal of refuse has been a
worrisome health issue for quite some time. One aspect of the problem is the fact that the cause-effect
relationship takes a long time to establish in some cases while in other cases, the effects are seen
immediately. The environmental risk factors attached to indiscriminate refuse disposal can cause mild
to moderate illness and at times severe illnesses that can lead to death. There could also be outbreak of
diseases like cholera, typhoid fever, and other diseases, in severe forms causing death, especially in
children ages 0-15 years, whose immunity is not as strong as the adult population.
Some risk-factors of indiscriminate refuse disposal include:
1. Breeding of arthropod borne-diseases: Indiscriminate dumping of refuse promote the prolific
breeding of arthropod-borne diseases like mosquitoes, houseflies, lice, tsetse flies, cockroaches
which transmit diseases like malaria, viral encephalitis, typhoid, paratyphoid fever, diarrhea,
dysentery, cholera, gastro-enteritis, amoebiasis, conjunctivitis, sleeping sickness, relapsing fever,
scabies, filariasis, enteric pathogens etc. (Park 2007).
2. Breeding of flies: the organic portion of solid waste ferments, giving rise to breeding of flies which
can deposit infective materials on the skin or on food or other objects thereby contaminating it.
Huge piles of refuse can constitute nuisance and unsightly scene especially when dumped in
strategic places like motor parks, market places or on the streets causing offensive odour and health
hazards. (Alakija 2002).
3. Refuse dumps give rise to smug and air pollution when burnt openly. There is a risk-factor of air
pollution in the event of accidental or spontaneous combustion of refuse. Air pollution signifies the
presence in the atmosphere of substances generated by the activities of man that interfere with
human health, safety or comfort. It is injurious to vegetation and animals and other environmental
media, resulting in chemicals entering the food chain or being present in drinking water, causing
health problems to man. Discharge of carbon monoxide by industries, domestic combustion of coal,
wood or oil, open burning of refuse, incinerators, pesticide spraying, wind borne dust, fungi,
moulds, bacteria and nuclear energy all contribute to air pollution (Ayodele 2007).
4. Andrew (2007) noted that natural water sources provide convenient reservoir for disease agents,
whether in their developmental or adult forms, human industrial activities heavily pollute available
water sources due to noxious and hazardous chemicals as sullage from industries. There is
possibility of water pollution if rain water passes through deposits of fermented refuse to
contaminate underground water table through leakage or there is a more serious aspect of water
pollution caused by human activity such as indiscriminate sewage and refuse disposal which
8
contain decomposable organic matter and pathogenic organisms. Man's health could be adversely
affected by the ingestion of contaminated water either directly or through food and by the use of
contaminated water for purpose of personal hygiene leading to water-borne diseases like diarrhea
and vomiting, hepatitis A, hepatitis E, poliomyelitis, typhoid and paratyphoid fever, bacillary
dysentery, cholera, amoebiasis, worm infestations, schistosomiais and guinea worm or tape worm.
(Park 2007).
5. Indiscriminate dumping of refuse along streams and river courses can cause flooding thereby
leading to natural disasters. A typical example was when flood carried away a young girl of seven
years old in Ado Ekiti that was sent to dump refuse on the drainage when rain was falling (Punch
Feb 2013).
6. Fire Disaster:-Unguarded burning of refuse or indiscriminate throwing of cigarette stubs into refuse
dumps may cause fire disasters which can lead to serious devastating effect on human beings. Also
fire may break out from the methane gas from the organic matter in refuse piles destroying lives
and properties. (Lucas and Gilles 2006).
Ayodele (2007) asserted that apart from the fact that disease agents in the air cause ill-health to
man, air pollution by dust, smoke, other toxic substances and chemical vapours cause various forms of
illness conditions and deaths. Indiscriminate disposal of house and industrial wastes are responsible for
air pollution with toxic or hazardous substances. Through such pollution several people might be killed
within few hours. Outbreak of infestations and communicable diseases like measles, chicken pox,
diphtheria and pertussis are favoured through air-pollution as the diseases are air-borne in origin.
1. Blockages in drainages and flooding: Achalu and Achalu (2004) discovered that indiscriminate
dumping of refuse hinders free flow of erosion and floods when it rains causing blockage of
drainages, diversion of flood to various places like living houses, farm lands leading to overflooding, which results in destruction of lives and properties. Refuse dump along streams and river
courses cause flooding which can result in natural disasters. It can also result in outbreak of
diseases and plagues. Many people were killed due to flood in the Northern and Easter parts of
Nigeria in 2012 and many properties were lost to flood including farm lands, schools and industries,
leading to famine and draught
2. Environmental hazards/degradation: Moronkola (2003) claimed that indiscriminate dumping of
refuse will give rise to offensive odour which is a source of nuisance to human existence as
excessive intake of this polluted air can lead to choking of the lungs and breathing difficulty. People
who are asthmatic patients can also react to the offensive odour by suffering from asthmatic attacks;
death can also result if any of the breathing problems is not promptly managed. Accumulated refuse
gives rise to noxious and offensive odour as a result of Ammonia (NH3), Hydrogen Sulphide
(H2S), and amines that are produced when organic wastes are decomposed.
3. Environmental accidents: Ajayi (2004) asserted that if an environment is polluted with filthy
things like broken bottles, heaps of hazardous things, children and adults could receive injuries
from the materials and if not quickly attended to, can lead to tetanus infection, which in turn, can
kill the host. Heaps of refuse along motor parks or motor pathways can lead to road traffic accidents
which could destroy lives and properties especially, when driving in the night and the driver is not
aware of the heaps of refuse ahead.
9
4. Spread of water-borne diseases: Indiscriminate disposal of refuse can give rise to spread of waterborne diseases like cholera, typhoid fever, diarrhoea, poliomyelitis, worm infestations and
onchocerciasis and hepatitis which has continued to be a major public health problem in Oyo-State.
There appears to be an epidemic of typhoid and cholera in many communities in Nigeria now.
Careful observations show that too many septic tanks are close to major sources of water, such as
wells and boreholes. Refuse dumping sites are also close to streams and rivers that are being
employed for domestic use like cooking, washing and drinking. If this unhealthy trend is not
checked, the risk-factors of indiscriminate disposal of refuse may continue to increase. (Ajayi,
2004).
5. Unsound Environmental Sanitation: According to Nwankwo (2004) indiscriminate disposal of
refuse can constitute serious threat to human health and the achievement of sound environmental
sanitation. Briggs (2000) submitted that refuse dumpsites are converted to urinals and defecation
sites by the destitute, invaded by scavengers and animals, and served as breeding ground for disease
vectors (flies, rodents, etc). Also accumulated garbage and rubbish become eyesore in the
community and pollute the air, and act as breeding grounds for mosquitoes and other harmful
insects. They also encourage street flooding.
6. Epidemic Outbreak: Bassis (2004) claimed that serious and devastating outbreak of diseases and
epidemics had been recorded owing to indiscriminate dumping of refuse. Such diseases include,
cholera, typhoid and paratyphoid fever, diarrhea and vomiting leading to serious health
implications, unnecessary and unavoidable spending and in some cases, death of the victims.
2.5
Health and the Environment
Health and the environment are unquestionably interrelated. Poor air quality, contaminated
water, exposure to toxic chemicals and some vector-borne diseases affect eco system health as well as
human health. A healthy environment is a pre-condition for good public health and health issues are
key drivers for concrete action on the environment. Medical Press International (1999) defines public
health as the practice and organization of preventive medicine within a community. Preventive
medicine is the key phrase in the definition. It involves taken positive action either by the individuals,
the community or the government to prevent the onset or anything that can cause disease. This could
be through maintenance of clean environment, immunization and others. Public health attempts to
prevent diseases and injury by eliminating or modifying health hazards; which include improper
handing of refuse. Encyclopedia Americana (1995) defines public health as the organization and
application of resources used to prevent the societal burden that would otherwise result from disease or
injury. Public health strives to improve health and maintain viability within a population, by addressing
four broad areas:
i)
The life style and behaviour of people as it affects their health.
ii)
The environment in which people live as it affects their health.
iii)
The biological make-up of man
iv)
The organization of health programmes which include awareness creation or health
education.
Encyclopaedia Britannica (1983) sees public health as the art and science of preventing disease,
prolonging life, and promoting physical and mental efficiency through organized community efforts. It
10
emphasizes community action in the promotion of health and the prevention of diseases. This
recognition is expressed in the concept of public health and by extension, environmental education.
In towns and cities, government or its agencies are mostly responsible for public health
activities. In Nigeria, the Federal Government is sometimes responsible for public health services as it
is seen in immunization programmes and the activities of the National Food and Drug Administration
Control (NAFDAC). However, at the grassroots level, local government and state government play
significant role in waste management, sanitation, water supply and others.
Proper environmental management is the key to avoiding the quarter of all preventable illnesses
which are directly caused by environmental factors. This understanding led the United Nations
Commission for Sustainable Development to declare in 1992, that "human beings are at the centre of
sustainable development” and that “they are entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony with
nature". In 2001, with a matured understanding of the correlation between health and environment,
United Nations Economic and Social Council more forcefully accentuated the link in stating that
"population health cannot be maintained without ecologically sustainable development”.
The environment influences our health in many ways — through exposures to physical, chemical
and biological risk factors, and through related changes in our behavior in response to those factors. On
the other hand, humans are constantly and gradually polluting themselves to death through their way of
life and activities and this has continued to assume an alarming or devastating proportion.
It is on this note that the Nigerian Environment Study Team (NEST, 1991), described the
Nigerian environment as “threatened”. This (Faniran and Adeboyejo, 1999) revealed was not the first
time that attention has been called to the dangers being faced by Nigerian’s natural heritage. The
question is, has anything seriously been done by the governments (local, State and Federal levels) to
reduce the impact of this problems on the citizenry and the natural environment? The model below
described human’s relationship with their environment.
Table 2.6
Humans-Environment Interaction Model
HUMANS
Preservation
& conservation
of environment
.
uncontrolled
activities of humans
on the environment
Environment
Sustainable
Healthy
En vironm e nt
Destruction of
the environment
The model portrays a system of dependency of humans on its environment and the impact of its
attitude and activities on the same environment. From the Model, humans can either chose to protect or
destroy their own environment through his/her actions.
11
The result of this action is either total destruction or sustainability of the environment. The
model also revealed the fact that either humans choose to destroy or protect their environment; the
repercussion of their choice goes back to humans. The people’s health is at risk when the environment
is not properly managed. Oyaigbevwen (1988) states that the disposal of solid waste and hazardous
waste in or on land without careful planning and management can present a danger to human health
and the environment. The unrestricted dumping of domestic, industrial, hospital and agricultural waste
at the city's main dumping site was cause for concern. The land cannot be used for domestic and
agricultural use. The dumpsite occupies about 10acres, with at least 700 tonnes of waste deposited
daily.
Indiscriminate dumping of refuse and open dumping of refuse contaminate drinking water from
both underground and surface supplies. It also pollutes air and land. Above all it provides easy arena
for disease spread.
Many environment-related diseases developed from filthy environments, which are human
creation. Many people live and carry out their businesses in these environments without concern for
their health. When the waste is burnt, toxic gases are formed and it is very noxious. Many people were
suffering from respiratory abnormalities, many had blocked airways. Cases of skin disorders,
abdominal problems and eye infections were also common among the people. Malaria is another
threat, since blocked drains collected water and became breeding grounds for mosquitoes.
The most serious long-term threat facing the world today is the danger that human actions are
producing irreversible harmful changes to the environmental conditions that support life on Earth. If
this problem is not overcome, there may be no viable world for our descendents to inhabit. In order to
curb the mountain of environmental problems, especially urban solid waste management that is
currently threatening the quality of life in most developing countries, environmentalists through
various conferences have advocated for a shift from technical and scientific solution to the
modifications of human behavioural pattern towards the environment (UNCHE, 1972.,UNCED,
1992,DOE, 1994and DEFRA, 2002).
Developing responsible environmental behaviour has become one of the tasks of
environmentalists’ most especially environmental educators. Several approaches that can be employed
to promote environmentally responsible behavior have been advocated (Oskamp, 2002, Kurtycz, 2005
and Ayodele, 2005). In Nigeria, evidence abounds, where ordinary citizens have arbitrarily dumped
their solid waste refuse into gutters or open drains (even when hoppers or waste bins are provided). For
example, in a study carried out in Lagos in 2005to assess the success of Lagos Environmental
Sanitation Authority and Malaria Control Project in six communities of Surulere, Ajeromi and Mushin
Local Government Areas, about 70 percent of the sampled 1403 respondents confirmed that they often
dumped their refuse inside the gutters (CPH, 2005).
12
2.6
Methods of Refuse Disposal
The correct disposal of waste is very important and many options are available depending on
the types of wastes being produced, the volume of wastes being produced and the best disposal method
to use. The principal disposal methods of refuse are:1. Controlled tipping or sanitary land-fill
2. Incineration or burning
3. Compositing
4. Dumping
5. Manure pits
6. Burial
These methods are discussed below
1. Controlled tipping or sanitary land-fill: sanitary land fill is the most satisfactory method of
domestic waste disposal. It consists of four steps:
Depositing waste in a planned controlled manner
Spreading and compacting it in layers to reduce its volume
Covering the material with a layer of earth
Compacting the earth cover
Landfill areas should be located on the periphery of the town.
Care is needed in the selection of landfill sites as domestic waste could be highly polluting.
(Lucas and Gilles 2006).
2. Incineration or burning: burning is carried out where waste content is low and always at a
localized level where there is no adequate collection services. Burning has a lot of disadvantages
because of its close proximity to domestic dwelling. It could create fire risk in addition to producing
atmospheric pollution.
3. Composting: it is best suited in situations where waste high in organic matter content is produced.
Composting is a method of combined disposal of refuse and night soil or sludge.
4. Open Dumping or Indiscriminate Dumping: refuse is dumped in low lying areas as an easy
method of disposal of dry refuse. The risk-factors of open dumping are:
The refuse is exposed to flies and rodents;
It serves as nuisance from the smell and unsightly appearance;.
The loose refuse is dispersed by wind;
And drainage from dumps contributes to the pollution of surface and ground water;
This method is considered as a most unsanitary method that creates public health hazards, a
nuisance and severe pollution of the environment (Park 2007).
5. Manure pits: this method of refuse disposal is effective and simple in rural communities. The
problem of refuse disposal in rural areas can be solved by digging ‘manure pits' by individual
householders. The garbage, cattle dung, straw and leaves could be dumped into the manure pits and
covered with earth after each day's dumping.
6. Burial: Nwankwo (2004) discovered that burial of refuse is a method suitable for small camps. A
trench 1.5m wide and 2m deep is evacuated and after each day use, the refuse is covered with 20 to
30cm of earth.
13
2.7
Benefits of Solid Waste Disposal
Waste is not something that should be discarded or disposed of with no regard for future use. It
can be valuable resource if addressed correctly, through policy and practice. With rational and
consistent waste management practices there is an opportunity to reap a range of benefits. Those
benefits include:
a) Economic: Improving economic efficiency through the means of resource use, treatment and
disposal and creating markets for recycles can lead to efficient practices in the production and
consumption of products and material resulting in valuable materials being recovered for reuse and
potential for new jobs and new business opportunities, (Wikipedia 2014).
b) Social: By reducing adverse impacts on health by proper waste management practices, the
resulting consequences are more appealing settlements. Better social advantages can lead to new
sources of employment and potentially lifting communities out of poverty especially in some of the
developing poorer countries and cities, (Wikipedia 2014).
c) Environmental: Reducing or eliminating adverse impacts on the environment through reducing,
reusing and recycling and minimizing resource extraction can provide improved air and water
quality and help in the reduction of greenhouse emissions, (Wikipedia 2014).
d) Inter-generational Equity: Following effective waste management practices can provide
subsequent generations a more robust economy, a fairer and more inclusive and cleaner
environment, as stated by the United Nations Environmental Programme (2014).
2.8
Solutions to Indiscriminate Disposal of Waste
Scattered in the existing literature are several prescriptions as to how to solve indiscriminate
disposal of waste and the inherent/associated problems. For instance, writing on options for effective
sanitation, Booth et al. (2001), among other things, are of the opinion that effective waste management
requires a metropolitan authority that is open to new or bold ideas, relatively efficient and politically
stable; and not overwhelmed by civil unrest, high levels of dept and rampant corruption. The researcher
added that it also requires an improvement that is based on low-cost, innovative and often unorthodox
technology, that depends heavily on community input and suggestions; and is based on providing a
toilet for each individual household. From the above, it would be purely speculative to say whether or
not the metropolitan authorities in Oyo are open to new and bold ideas or whether they are corrupt, but
with certainty, one can say that they are politically stable, at least, for the past couple of years.
Commenting on improvement, it is common knowledge that most of the technologies operating
in the country are highly orthodox, lacking innovativeness and usually above the means of the ordinary
person. It is also clear that choice of technologies does not usually depend on community input and
suggestions. It is in view of these observations that the suggestions are considered with much
importance.
On their part, Lucas and Gilles (2003) opine that sufficient containers or bins are needed to cope
with the volume of waste prior to collection whether or not this is the case in towns and cities is the big
question. Lucas and Gilles further direct that the waste storage containers must be convenient to access
both for the user and the collector.
14
On collection, the research suggests that where the collection of domestic waste is possible,
collections should be at regular and consistent intervals. The frequency of collection will often depend
on the capacity and quality of the storage containers used. What pertains in cities and many areas in
Oyo is clearly the direct opposite of these suggestions. It is, however, understandable in some cases in
view of huge financial requirements which can simply not be mobilized by some Metropolitan
Assemblies.
The solutions to waste problems continue with the suggestion that there is the need to involve
beneficiary communities in programme choice, design and implementation (Cotton & Saywell, 1998).
Another suggestion is mandating sanitary disposal of human excreta (use of toilets) through legislation
and intensification of health education (Lucas & Gilles, 2003). The adoption of appropriate
technological design of toilet facilities is also suggested by Zajac et al. (1995) while Whittington et al.
(1992) suggest the sharing of ownership of latrines by households to reduce cost of acquiring them.
Recommended solutions to indiscriminate waste disposal pertaining to Oyo, for the purpose of this
study are based on what the study found as predisposing factors to the problem and what is practicable,
reliable, acceptable and sustainable.
15
CHAPTER THREE
3.0
Research methodology
This chapter looks at the research methodology adopted in this study.
3.1
Research design
This research work is designed to examine indiscriminate waste disposal and its environmental
implications.
3.2
Population of the Study
The population of this study comprises of all areas that has open dump site in the whole Oyo
metropolis.
3.3
Sample and Sampling Technique
The research was conducted in Oyo. In view of limited time and resources it was considered
that the best approach to the problem would be categories of sampling techniques through simple
random technique twenty five questionnaires were administered in each area.
The whole town was stratified into four areas and twenty five questionnaires were administered
in each area.
3.4
Research instrument
The main instrument used in this research work is questionnaire. The researcher explained
necessary information and rules to the respondents before they attempt the questions
3.5
Validity of the Instrument
The drafted questionnaire was given to the project supervisor and other experts who made
necessary corrections for the validation of the instrument, and view was printed for distribution to the
respondent. The questionnaire was carefully drawn in order to receive reliable response from the
respondents.
3.6
Reliability of the Instrument
Based on the vetting and prompt supervision while administering the questionnaires, the
instruments were considered to be reliably.
3.7
Administration of the Instrument
The questionnaire was designed for residents of places close to open dump sites in Oyo
metropolis. The questionnaire was administered directly by the researcher. The subjects were told to
tick (√) in the box provided in rating their appropriate feelings.
They were also instructed to be truthful with the statements because no names were requested to
be written on the questionnaire as to maintain anonymity and confidentiality.
16
3.8
Method of data collection
The researcher make use of a well prepared questionnaire consisting of two sections, A and B.
Section A deals with demographic characteristics of the respondents and section B contains questions
items relating to the topic, the questionnaire were administered on
hundred
(100) respondents
randomly selected from the study area.
The research was conducted in Oyo. In view of limited time and resources it was considered
that the best approach to the problem would be categories of sampling techniques through simple
random technique twenty five questionnaires were administered in each areas.
The whole town was stratified into four areas and twenty five questionnaires were administered
in each area.
3.9
Method of data analysis
Analysis of data takes the form of presentation in tables, the use of simple percentage and bar
chart.
17
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