Tabl eofCont ent s I nt r oduct i on 2 Quest i on1 3 Feat ur esofToy ot a’ sOr gani z at i onal Cul t ur e 3 Teamwor k: 3 Cont i nuousI mpr ov ementt hr oughLear ni ng: 4 Qual i t y : 4 Secr ecy : 4 I mpl i cat i onsofToy ot a’ sOr gani z at i onal Cul t ur e 4 St r at egi esI mpl ement ed 4 4Pr i nci pl esofSoci al Lear ni ng 5 For mul at edf ourpr i nci pl esofsoci al l ear ni ng 5 Forent er pr i ses, t her ear esev er al r easonst oadoptsoci al l ear ni ngi nt hewor kpl ace, i ncl udi ng: 5 Quest i on2 6 W. Ri char dScot t( 1987) . 6 Subf i el dsandpr act i cesar easi nI Opsy chol ogy 7 Descr i pt i onoft y pi cal t asksi nv ar i oussubf i el ds 7 Kar l Mar x( 181883) I nt r oduct i on: 7 8 Di f f er entdi mensi onsofper sonal i t ybyunconsci ousandr el at edpr ocesses, andwhatt he appl i edv al ueoft hi sappr oachi sf ort hewor kcont ext 8 Emi l eDur khei m( 18581917) 9 MaxWeber 9 Abackgr oundt ot het r ai tappr oacht ohumannat ur e 10 Mai nt r ai t assumpt i ons 10 Tr ai t s, t y pesandst y l esi nper sonal i t yst r uct ur e 10 Tr ai t s: 10 Per sonal i t yasf i v ef act or s 11 Gar et hMor gan 11 Quest i on3 12 Cr i t i cst hatpsy chol ogyhasex per i encedwi t hi t sappl i cat i oni ni ndi genouscount r i es 12 Not esi xsour cesofi nf l uenceont hedev el opmentofgl obal i ndi genouspsy chol ogi es: 12 Ex pl ai nhowAf r i canpsy chol ogywasdev el opedasat ool t ocl oset hegapbet weent he west er nandi ndi genousknowl edge 13 Decol oni z at i onasAf r i cani z at i on 14 Decol oni z at i onaspl ur i v er sal i sm 14 Quest i on4 15 Resear chMet hodol ogy 15 I nt hesoci al sci ences, t her ear et hr eer esear chmet hodol ogi est hatcanbeusedt o conductacademi cr esear ch 15 Var i oust y pesex i sti nquant i t at i v e, qual i t at i v e, andmi xedmet hodol ogi es, whi chhav ebeen consi der edbyaut hor s: 16 Sur v ey s 16 Ex per i ment s 16 Et hnogr aphy 16 Gr oundedt heor y 16 Casest udy 16 Phenomenol ogy 16 Nar r at i v er esear ch 17 Act i onr esear ch 17 Sequent i al pr ocedur e 17 Concur r entpr ocedur e 17 Tr ansf or mat i v epr ocedur e 17 Ref l ect i ononst r at egi esofi nqui r y 17 Concl usi on 18 Bi bl i ogr aphy 19 Ref er ence 19 I nt r oduct i on Thesoci al l ear ni ngt heor i st sobser v edt hatt hecompl exi t yofhumanbehav i ourcannoteasi l y beex pl ai nedbyt r adi t i onal behav i our al t heor i es.Bandur ar ecogni zedt hatpeopl el ear na gr eatdeal f r om wat chi ngot herpeopl eandseei ngt her ewar dsand/ orpuni shment st hat ot herpeopl er ecei v e.Soci al l ear ni ngt heor i st sdonotdenyt hei nf l uenceofr ei nf or cement andpuni shment , butr at her , t heysuggestt hati tcanbeex per i encedt hr oughobser v at i onand doesnotr equi r edi r ect , per sonal ex per i enceasSki nnerwoul dar gue.I naddi t i on, obser v at i onal l ear ni ngr equi r escogni t i on, somet hi ngt hatr adi cal behav i our i st sconsi der out si det her eal m ofpsy chol ogi cal r esear ch, si ncecogni t i oncannotbeobser v ed.Bandur a t ookabr oadt heor et i cal per spect i v eonsoci al l ear ni ng, wher easRot t erandMi schel f ocused mor ecl osel yonspeci f i ccogni t i v easpect sofsoci al l ear ni ngandbehav i our . I ti sal soi mpor t antt opoi ntoutanar t i f i ci al di st i nct i ont hati sdi f f i cul tt oav oi di nt hechapt er s oft hi ssect i on.Chapt er s10, 11, and12ar er oughl ysetupaschapt er sonr adi cal behav i our i sm andf or mal l ear ni ngt heor y , f ol l owedbysoci al l ear ni ng, andt henconcl udi ng wi t hcogni t i v et heor i esonper sonal i t ydev el opment .Howev er , aswi l l beev i dent , t hechapt er s ov er l apagr eatdeal .Forex ampl e, Dol l ar dandMi l l er ’ sat t emptt of i ndami ddl egr ound bet weenFr eudandSki nnerl edt ot hei ri ni t i al descr i pt i onsofsoci al l ear ni ng, whi chpr ov i ded apr el udet ot hi schapt er .Bandur a, Rot t er , andMi schel addr essanumberofaspect sof cogni t i oni nt hei rt heor i es, butt heyar enotascompl et el yf ocusedoncogni t i onasar eKel l y , Beck, andEl l i s, hencet hesepar at i onoft hi schapt erf r om t hef ol l owi ngone.I nSoci al Lear ni ngTheor y , Bandur ahadt hi st osay : Av al i dcr i t i ci sm ofex t r emebehav i our i sm i st hat , i nav i gor ousef f or tt oav oi dspur i ousi nner causes, i thasnegl ect eddet er mi nant sofbehav i ourar i si ngf r om cogni t i v e f unct i oni ng…Becausesomeoft hei nnercausesi nv okedbyt heor i st sov ert hey ear shav e beeni l l f oundeddoesnotj ust i f yex cl udi ngal l i nt er nal det er mi nant sf r om sci ent i f i c i nqui r y …suchst udi esr ev eal t hatpeopl el ear nandr et ai nbehav i ourmuchbet t erbyusi ng cogni t i v eai dst hatt heygener at et hanbyr ei nf or cedr epet i t i v eper f or mance…At heor yt hat deni est hatt hought scanr egul at eact i onsdoesnotl endi t sel fr eadi l yt ot heex pl anat i onof compl exhumanbehav i our .( pg.10; Bandur a, 1977 Quest i on1 1. 1 Thi si saJobDesi gn, whi chi st hepr ocessofst r uct ur i ngwor kanddesi gni ngwor kf ort he speci f i cj obi nToy ot a.Jobdesi gngi v est heanswer st obasi cquest i onsofhowt hej obi s per f or med, whoi st oper f or m.Bot hj obanal y si sandj obdesi gnar el i nkedwi t heachot her . Twodi mensi onsofj obdesi gni ncl udej obscopeandj obdept h( Ronal dJ.Bur ke, Car yL. Cooper , 2006) .Wi t haJobscope, t hi sr ef er st ot henumberandv ar i et yoft asksper f or medby t hej obhol der si nt heToy ot aMot orCompany . 1. 2 Toy ot aMot orCor por at i on’ sor gani z at i onal cul t ur edef i nest her esponsesofempl oy eest o chal l engest hecompanyf acesi nt hemar ket .Asagl obal l eaderi nt heaut omobi l ei ndust r y , Toy ot ausesi t sor gani zat i onal cul t ur et omaxi mi z ehumanr esour cecapabi l i t i esi n i nnov at i on.Thecompanyal sobenef i t sf r om i t sor gani z at i onal cul t ur ei nt er msofsuppor tf or pr obl em sol v i ng.Thedi f f er entf eat ur esorchar act er i st i csofToy ot a’ sor gani zat i onal cul t ur e i ndi cat eacar ef ul appr oachi nf aci l i t at i ngor gani z at i onal l ear ni ng. Feat ur esofToy ot a’ sOr gani zat i onalCul t ur e Fol l owi ngi t sr eor gani z at i oni mpl ement edi n2013, Toy ot a’ sor gani z at i onal cul t ur eunder went cor r espondi ngchange.Pr i ort o2013, i t sor gani zat i onal cul t ur eemphasi zedasenseof hi er ar chyandsecr ecy , whi cht r ansl at edt oempl oy ees’ per cept i ont hatal l deci si onsmust comef r om t heheadquar t er si nJapan.Howev er , af t er2013, t hechar act er i st i csofToy ot a’ s or gani z at i onal cul t ur ear easf ol l ows, ar r angedaccor di ngt osi gni f i cance: Teamwor k Cont i nuousi mpr ov ementt hr oughl ear ni ng Qual i t y Secr ecy Teamwor k: Toy ot ausest eamsi nmostofi t sbusi nessar eas.Oneoft hecompany ’ s pr i nci pl esi st hatt hesy ner gyoft eamwor kl eadst ogr eat ercapabi l i t i esandsuccess.Thi s par toft heor gani z at i onal cul t ur eemphasi zest hei nv ol v ementofempl oy eesi nt hei r r espect i v et eams.Toensur et hatt eamwor ki spr oper l yi nt egr at edi nt heor gani z at i onal cul t ur e, ev er yToy ot aempl oy eegoest hr oughat eambui l di ngt r ai ni ngpr ogr am. Cont i nuousI mpr ov ementt hr oughLear ni ng: Toy ot a’ sor gani z at i onal cul t ur e f aci l i t at est hedev el opmentoft hef i r m asal ear ni ngor gani zat i on.Al ear ni ngor gani zat i on ut i l i z esi nf or mat i ongai nedt hr ought heact i v i t i esofi ndi v i dual wor ker st odev el oppol i ci es andpr ogr amsf orbet t err esul t s.Toy ot a’ sor gani zat i onal cul t ur ehi ghl i ght sl ear ni ngasaway ofdev el opi ngsol ut i onst opr obl ems.I nt hi sway , t hecompanyi sabl et ocont i nuousl y i mpr ov epr ocessesandout putwi t ht hesuppor tofi t sor gani z at i onal cul t ur e. Qual i t y : Qual i t yi satt hehear tofToy ot a’ sor gani z at i onal cul t ur e.Thesuccessoft he companyi st y pi cal l yat t r i but edt oi t sabi l i t yt opr ov i dehi ghqual i t yaut omobi l es.To ef f ect i v el yi nt egr at equal i t yi ni t sor gani z at i onal cul t ur e, t hef i r m usesPr i nci pl e#5ofThe Toy ot aWay , whi chsay s, “ bui l dacul t ur eofst oppi ngt of i xpr obl ems, t ogetqual i t yr i ghtt he f i r stt i me. ”TheToy ot aWayi sasetofpr i nci pl est hatdef i nest hebusi nessappr oachesused i nt hecompany . Secr ecy :Toyot a’ sor gani z at i onal cul t ur ehasaconsi der abl edegr eeofsecr ecy .Howev er , t hel ev el ofsecr ecyhasdecl i nedi nr ecenty ear sf ol l owi ngt her eor gani z at i onoft hecompany i n2013.Bef or e2013, i nf or mat i onaboutpr obl emsencount er edi nt hewor kpl acemustgo t hr ought hef i r m’ sheadquar t er si nToy ot aCi t y , Japan.Howev er , f ol l owi ngt her eor gani zat i on, t hecompany ’ sor gani z at i onal cul t ur enowdoesnotemphasi z esecr ecyasmuch. I mpl i cat i onsofToy ot a’ sOr gani zat i onalCul t ur e Thechar act er i st i csofToy ot a’ sor gani z at i onal cul t ur eenabl et hecompanyt ocont i nue gr owi ng.I nnov at i oni sbasedoncont i nuousi mpr ov ementt hr oughl ear ni ng.Qual i t y i mpr ov ementandpr obl em sol v i ngar eachi ev edt hr ought heact i v i t i esofwor kt eams. Howev er , t hesecr ecyf eat ur eofToy ot a’ sor gani z at i onal cul t ur epr esent spossi bl e dr awbacksbecausei tr educesor gani zat i onal f l ex i bi l i t yi nr api dpr obl em sol v i ng. St r at egi esI mpl ement ed Usehansei : Responsi bi l i t y , sel f r ef l ect i on, andor gani zat i onal l ear ni ng.I nanut shel l , t hi sconcepti saboutr ef l ect i ngonmi st akes/ weaknessesanddev i si ngway st o i mpr ov e.Hansei i saconceptt hatToy ot ausesasapr act i cal i mpr ov ementt ool l i ke kai z en.Toy ot aact ual l yconduct shansei ev ent s( l i kekai z enev ent s)t oi mpr ov e pr oduct sandpr ocesses.Ashansei i sut i l i z ed, t hei mpr ov ement sar ef edbacki nt o t heor gani z at i onanddi ssemi nat ed. Ut i l i z epol i cydepl oy ment( hoshi nkanr i ) . Thi si sToy ot a’ spr ocessofcascadi ng obj ect i v esf r om t het opoft hecompanydownt ot hewor kgr oupl ev el .Aggr essi v e goal sst ar tatt het opl ev el andeachl ev el dev el opsobj ect i v est osuppor tt hesegoal s. Manysy st emsl i ket hi sar ebei ngusedatcompani esacr osst heUni t edSt at es, but of t ent heyar ef ai l ur esbecauset heobj ect i v esr ar el ysuppor ti mpor t antcompany goal s; t heyusual l yar eputi npl acet oensur et hatani ndi v i dual get shi s/ heri ncent i v e. Thel astpoi ntt hatLi kermakesr egar di ngToy ot a’ sl ear ni ngor gani z at i oni st he numberofy ear si thast akenf orToy ot at oachi ev ei t ssuccess.Forex ampl e, i tt ook Toy ot amor et hanadecadet obui l danor gani z at i ont hatev encomescl oset ot he l ear ni ngor gani z at i oni thasi nJapan 1. 3 Thesoci al l ear ni ngt heor i st sobser v edt hatt hecompl exi t yofhumanbehav i ourcannoteasi l y beex pl ai nedbyt r adi t i onal behav i our al t heor i es.Bandur ar ecogni zedt hatpeopl el ear na gr eatdeal f r om wat chi ngot herpeopl eandseei ngt her ewar dsand/ orpuni shment st hat ot herpeopl er ecei v e.Soci al l ear ni ngt heor i st sdonotdenyt hei nf l uenceofr ei nf or cement andpuni shment , butr at her , t heysuggestt hati tcanbeex per i encedt hr oughobser v at i onand doesnotr equi r edi r ect , per sonal ex per i enceasSki nnerwoul dar gue.I naddi t i on, obser v at i onal l ear ni ngr equi r escogni t i on, somet hi ngt hatr adi cal behav i our i st sconsi der out si det her eal m ofpsy chol ogi cal r esear ch, si ncecogni t i oncannotbeobser v ed.Bandur a t ookabr oadt heor et i cal per spect i v eonsoci al l ear ni ng, wher easRot t erandMi schel f ocused mor ecl osel yonspeci f i ccogni t i v easpect sofsoci al l ear ni ngandbehav i our .( pg.10; Bandur a, 1977) 4Pr i nci pl esofSoci al Lear ni ng For mul at edf ourpr i nci pl esofsoci all ear ni ng:At t ent i on: Wecan’ tl ear ni fwear en’ t f ocusedont het askathand.I fwebel i ev esomet hi ngasbei ngnov el ordi f f er ent , i t ’ smor e l i kel yt hatt hatconceptbecomest hef ocusofourat t ent i on.Soci al cont ext sr ei nf or cet hese per cept i ons. 1.Ret ent i on: Humansl ear nbyi nt er nal i zi ngi nf or mat i on.Wer ecal l l ear nedi nf or mat i on whenweneedt or espondt oasi t uat i onsi mi l art ot hesi t uat i oni nwhi chwef i r st l ear nedt hati nf or mat i on. 2.Repr oduct i on: Wer epr oducepr ev i ousl yl ear nedi nf or mat i on( behav i our , ski l l s, knowl edge)whenr equi r ed.Pr act i cet hr oughment al andphy si cal r ehear sal gener al l y i mpr ov esr esponses. 3.Mot i v at i on: Weneedmot i v at i ont odoany t hi ng.Mor eof t ent hannot , humansar e mot i v at edbysomeoneel sebei ngr ewar dedorpuni shedf orsomet hi ngt heyhav e sai dordone.Thi sgener al l ymot i v at esust odo, orav oi ddoi ng, t hesamet hi ng. Forent er pr i ses, t her ear esev er alr easonst oadoptsoci all ear ni ngi n t hewor kpl ace, i ncl udi ng: Shor t eror i ent at i ont i mesf ornewhi r es: I tcant akeupt o2y ear sbef or eanempl oy ee i s“ f ul l ypr oduct i v e. ”Forsomeempl oy ees, t heymayr equi r easl ongas6mont hst o si mpl yf eel f ul l ycomf or t abl ei nt hei rnewposi t i on.Soci al l ear ni ngaccel er at est hi s pr ocessbyaccl i mat i ngnewhi r est ot hei rpeer sandi nt er nal subj ectmat t erex per t s qui ckl y , encour agi ngt hem t of eel comf or t abl easki ngquest i onsandcr eat i ng connect i onsacr osst heent i r eor gani z at i onmor eef f ect i v el y . I tpr omot esconst r uct i v i sm: Const r uct i v i sm i sast andar dt hatpr omot esl ear ni ngas anact i v eandconst r uct i v epr ocessi nwhi chl ear ner sbecomet eacher s.I tassi st si n cr eat i ngawor kf or cef ul l ofst akehol der st hatar eengagedwi t ht hei rt r ai ni ngasa r esul tofi nf or mal l yt r ai ni ngt hei rpeer s. I ti mpr ov escommuni cat i oni nt hewor kpl ace: Communi cat i onshoul dbecl eari n ev er ywor kpl ace, atev er yl ev el oft heor gani z at i on.I tcanbeeasyt ol osemeani ng ov eremai l andot herel ect r oni ccommuni cat i ons, i ncr easi ngt heneedf orf acet of ace i nt er act i ons.Soci al l ear ni ngf aci l i t at escol l abor at i onor gani cal l y , especi al l yi nanel ear ni ngenv i r onment , i nwhi chi nsi ght sar eshar edandv al uedacr osst heent i r e or gani z at i on. Quest i on2 W. Ri char dScot t( 1987) . Scot ti spastedi t orofTheAnnual Rev i ewofSoci ol ogy19881991)andpastPr esi dentoft he Soci ol ogi cal Resear chAssoci at i on( 20062007) .Hehasser v edonmul t i pl eedi t or i al boar ds andonsci ent i f i cr ev i ewpanel satt henat i onal l ev el undert heauspi cesoft heNat i onal Cent erf orHeal t hSer v i cesResear ch, t heNat i onal CancerI nst i t ut e, t heNat i onal Sci ence Foundat i on, t heNat i onal I nst i t ut eofMent al Heal t h, t heNat i onal AcademyofMedi ci ne, and t heNat i onal Resear chCounci l . Scot twasel ect edt ot heNat i onal AcademyofMedi ci nei n1975.Wi t hi nt heAcademyof Management( AOM) , her ecei v edt heRi char dD.I r wi n( Di st i ngui shedSchol ar l yCar eer )awar d ( 1996) , andf r om t heManagementandOr gani z at i onDi v i si onoft heAOM, her ecei v edt he Di st i ngui shedSchol ar( 1988) , andt heDi st i ngui shedEducat orawar d( 2013) .I n2000, t he Sect i ononOr gani z at i on, Occupat i onsandWor koft heAmer i canSoci ol ogi cal Associ at i on cr eat edt he“ W.Ri char dScot tAwar d”t oannual l yr ecogni z eanout st andi ngar t i cl el engt h cont r i but i ont ot hef i el d.I n2015, hewasnamed“ Emi nentSchol aroft heYear ”byt he AcademyofI nt er nat i onal Busi ness.Scot thasr ecei v edhonor ar ydoct or at esf r om t he CopenhagenSchool ofBusi ness( 2000) , t heHel si nki School ofEconomi candBusi ness ( 2001) , andAar husUni v er si t yi nDenmar k( 2010) . Subf i el dsandpr act i cesar easi nI Opsy chol ogy I OPsy chol ogyhasmanysubf i el ds( Coet zeeandSchr ei ber , 2010)andi sr el at edt oot her di sci pl i nesi ni t st heor y , r esear chandappl i cat i ons( f orexampl e, er gonomi csand consumer / mar ket i ngpsy chol ogy ) .Psy chol ogi st squal i f i edi nt hepr act i cear easofI O Psy chol ogyar eempl oy edi nmanyt i mesofj obs( f orex ampl e, asspeci al i st , consul t ant s, manager s, l ect ur esandr esear cher si ncor por at ebusi ness, gov er nment , pr i v at epr act i ce, school s, col l egesanduni v er si t i es) .Thi ssect i onbr i ef l ydescr i bessomesubf i el dsand pr act i cear easofI OPsy chol ogyandment i onst y pesoft askand/ orcar eeroppor t uni t i es. Mostoft hesesubf i el dsar eappl i edi nor gani sat i onsandcompet enci esr el at edt ot hesesub f i el dswoul dappeari nt hepr of i l eofanexper i encedI OPsy chol ogyorconsul t i ng psy chol ogi st . Descr i pt i onoft y pi calt asksi nv ar i oussubf i el ds 1.Or gani zat i onal Psy chol ogy . 2.Per sonnel Psy chol ogy . 3.Resear chMet hodol ogy . 4.Wor kr el at edPsy chol ogi cal assessment . 5.Car eerPsy chol ogyandcounsel l i ng. 6.Empl oy mentr el at i ons. 7.Empl oy eeandor gani sat i onal wel l bei ng. 8.Er gonomi cs. 9.ConsumerPsy chol ogy . 10.Ot herappl i edf i el ds. Kar l Mar x( 181883) Kar l Hei nr i chMar x( Ger man: [ maʁks] ; 5May1818–14Mar ch1883)wasaGer man phi l osopher , economi st , hi st or i an, soci ol ogi st , pol i t i cal t heor i st , j our nal i standsoci al i st r ev ol ut i onar y .Bor ni nTr i er , Ger many , Mar xst udi edl awandphi l osophyatuni v er si t y .He mar r i edJennyv onWest phal eni n1843.Duet ohi spol i t i cal publ i cat i ons, Mar xbecame st at el essandl i v edi nexi l ewi t hhi swi f eandchi l dr eni nLondonf ordecades, wher ehe cont i nuedt odev el ophi st houghti ncol l abor at i onwi t hGer mant hi nkerFr i edr i chEngel sand publ i shhi swr i t i ngs, r esear chi ngi nt her eadi ngr oom oft heBr i t i shMuseum.Hi sbest known t i t l esar et he1848pamphl etTheCommuni stMani f est oandt het hr eev ol umeDasKapi t al ( 1867–1883) .Mar x ’ spol i t i cal andphi l osophi cal t houghthadenor mousi nf l uenceon subsequenti nt el l ect ual , economi candpol i t i cal hi st or y .Hi snamehasbeenusedasan adj ect i v e, anoun, andaschool ofsoci al t heor y . Mar x ’ scr i t i cal t heor i esaboutsoci et y , economi cs, andpol i t i cs, col l ect i v el yunder st oodas Mar x i sm, hol dt hathumansoci et i esdev el opt hr oughcl assconf l i ct .I nt hecapi t al i stmodeof pr oduct i on, t hi smani f est si t sel fi nt heconf l i ctbet weent her ul i ngcl asses( knownast he bour geoi si e)t hatcont r ol t hemeansofpr oduct i onandt hewor ki ngcl asses( knownast he pr ol et ar i at )t hatenabl et hesemeansbysel l i ngt hei rl abour poweri nr et ur nf orwages. Empl oy i ngacr i t i cal appr oachknownashi st or i cal mat er i al i sm, Mar xpr edi ct edt hat capi t al i sm pr oducedi nt er nal t ensi onsl i kepr ev i oussoci oeconomi csy st emsandt hatt hose woul dl eadt oi t ssel f dest r uct i onandr epl acementbyanewsy st em knownast hesoci al i st modeofpr oduct i on. Mar xhasbeendescr i bedasoneoft hemosti nf l uent i al f i gur esi nhumanhi st or yandhi s wor khasbeenbot hl audedandcr i t i ci sed.Hi swor ki neconomi csl ai dt hebasi sf ormuchof t hecur r entunder st andi ngofl abourandi t sr el at i ont ocapi t al andsubsequenteconomi c t hought .Manyi nt el l ect ual s, l abouruni ons, ar t i st sandpol i t i cal par t i eswor l dwi dehav ebeen i nf l uencedbyMar x ’ swor k, wi t hmanymodi f y i ngoradapt i nghi si deas.Mar xi st y pi cal l yci t ed asoneoft hepr i nci pal ar chi t ect sofmoder nsoci al sci ence. I nt r oduct i on: Peopl esomet i messaysomet hi ngdi f f er entf r om whatt heyt houghtt hey i nt endedsay i ng, maki ngasocal l ed“ Fr eudi ansl i p”oft het ongue.Of t enpeopl ewi l l wonder whatt hei rst r angedr eamsmean.Peopl emayal sodot hi ngst hatcannotbeex pl ai nedal ong r at i onal l i nes, f orexampl e, f eel i ngangr yorr ebel l i oust owar dsspeci f i cpeopl ewi t houtr eason. Thesebehav i our smayemanat ef r om t hehi ddenorl essobser v abl el ay er sofper sonal i t y , andst udy i ngt hese, i nanut shel l , i swhatt hepsy chody nami cappr oacht oper sonal i t yi s about . Di f f er entdi mensi onsofper sonal i t ybyunconsci ousandr el at edpr ocesses, andwhatt heappl i edv al ueoft hi sappr oachi sf ort hewor kcont ext 1.Abackgr oundt ot hepsy chody nami cv i ewofhumannat ur e. 2.Thebasi cassumpt i onsofpsy chody nami c. 3.Ther ol esoft heunconsci ousandt heconsci ousi nper sonal i t y . 4.Thest r uct ur eofper sonal i t y . 5.Mot i v at i onandper sonal i t y . 6.Thedev el opmentandgr owt hofper sonal i t y . 7.Per sonal adj ust ment .( Theheal t hper sonal i t yandpsy chopat hol ogyabnor mal behav i our . ) Emi l eDur khei m( 18581917) Émi l eDur khei m wasaFr enchsoci ol ogi stwhor oset opr omi nencei nt hel at e19thandear l y t h 20 cent ur i es.Al ongwi t hKar l Mar xandMaxWeber , hei scr edi t edasbei ngoneoft he pr i nci pal f ounder sofmoder nsoci ol ogy .Chi efamonghi scl ai msi st hatsoci et yi sasui gener i sr eal i t y , orar eal i t yuni quet oi t sel fandi r r educi bl et oi t scomposi ngpar t s.I ti scr eat ed wheni ndi v i dual consci encesi nt er actandf uset oget hert ocr eat easy nt het i cr eal i t yt hati s compl et el ynewandgr eat ert hant hesum ofi t spar t s.Usi ngt hi smet hod, hepubl i shed i nf l uent i al wor ksonanumberoft opi cs.Hei smostwel l knownast heaut horofOnt he Di v i si onofSoci al Labor , TheRul esofSoci ol ogi cal Met hod, Sui ci de, andTheEl ement ar y For msofRel i gi ousLi f e.Howev er , Dur khei m al sopubl i shedav ol umi nousnumberofar t i cl es andr ev i ews, andhashadsev er al ofhi sl ect ur ecour sespubl i shedpost humousl y . WhenDur khei m beganwr i t i ng, soci ol ogywasnotr ecogni zedasani ndependentf i el dof st udy .Aspar toft hecampai gnt ochanget hi shewentt ogr eatl engt hst osepar at esoci ol ogy f r om al l ot herdi sci pl i nes, especi al l yphi l osophy .I nconsequence, whi l eDur khei m’ si nf l uence i nt hesoci al sci enceshasbeenex t ensi v e, hi sr el at i onshi pwi t hphi l osophyr emai ns ambi guous.Nev er t hel ess, Dur khei m mai nt ai nedt hatsoci ol ogyandphi l osophyar ei nmany way scompl ement ar y , goi ngsof arast osayt hatsoci ol ogyhasanadv ant ageov er phi l osophy , si ncehi ssoci ol ogi cal met hodpr ov i dest hemeanst ost udyphi l osophi cal quest i onsempi r i cal l y , r at hert hanmet aphy si cal l yort heor et i cal l y .Asar esul t , Dur khei m of t en usedsoci ol ogyt oappr oacht opi cst hathav et r adi t i onal l ybeenr eser v edf orphi l osophi cal i nv est i gat i on. MaxWeber MaxWeberi sknownasapr i nci pal ar chi t ectofmoder nsoci al sci enceal ongwi t hKar l Mar x andEmi l Dur khei m.Weber ’ swi der angi ngcont r i but i onsgav ecr i t i cal i mpet ust ot hebi r t hof newacademi cdi sci pl i nessuchassoci ol ogyaswel l ast ot hesi gni f i cantr eor i ent at i oni nl aw, economi cs, pol i t i cal sci ence, andr el i gi ousst udi es.Hi smet hodol ogi cal wr i t i ngswer e i nst r ument al i nest abl i shi ngt hesel f i dent i t yofmoder nsoci al sci enceasadi st i nctf i el dof i nqui r y ; hei sst i l l cl ai medast hesour ceofi nspi r at i onbyempi r i cal posi t i v i st sandt hei r her meneut i cdet r act or sal i ke.Mor esubst ant i v el y , Weber ’ st womostcel ebr at ed cont r i but i onswer et he“ r at i onal i z at i ont hesi s, ”agr andmet ahi st or i cal anal y si soft he domi nanceoft hewesti nmoder nt i mes, andt he“ Pr ot est antEt hi ct hesi s, ”anonMar x i st geneal ogyofmoder ncapi t al i sm. Toget her , t heset wot heseshel pedl aunchhi sr eput at i onasoneoft hef oundi ngt heor i st sof moder ni t y .I naddi t i on, hi sav i di nt er estandpar t i ci pat i oni npol i t i csl edt oauni quest r andof pol i t i cal r eal i sm compar abl et ot hatofMachi av el l i andHobbes.Assuch, MaxWeber ’ s i nf l uencewasf ar r eachi ngacr osst hev astar r ayofdi sci pl i nar y , met hodol ogi cal , i deol ogi cal andphi l osophi cal r ef l ect i onst hatar est i l l ourownandi ncr easi ngl ymor eso. Abackgr oundt ot het r ai tappr oacht ohumannat ur e Accor di ngt ot r ai tpsy chol ogy , al l peopl epossessv ar y i ngdegr eesofi nher i t edandacqui r ed per sonal i t yt r ai t s.Somemi ghtbegener i ct oal l peopl e, whi l stot hert r ai t smi ghtbeuni quet o par t i cul arpeopl e.Si mi l ar i t i esanddi f f er encesbet weenpeopl ecanbemeasur edt hr ought he useofper sonal i t yandbecompar edandr el at edt oot herpsy chol ogi cal behav i our , f or ex ampl et opr edi ctj obsuccess.Thi si swhyt r ai tappr oachesar esomet i mesr ef er r edt oas psy chomet r i cappr oaches, becauseoft heemphasi sonobj ect i v emeasur ementandt he quant i t at i v eanal y si soft heel ement sofper sonal i t y . Mai nt r ai t assumpt i ons Peopl eof t enseem t or emai nmor eorl esst hesamei nr espectoft hei r“ basi c”per sonal i t y char act er i st i csandway sofdoi ngt hi ngs.Howev er , phy si cal changesmi ghtbemor e not i ceabl et hanchangesi nunder l y i ngbehav i our , al t houghmanyasser tt hataspect sof peopl e’ sbehav i ourmi ghtbeat t r i but abl et ounconsci ouscauses.Accor di ngt ot het r ai t appr oaches, peopl emi ghtbesi mi l ari nsomer espect s, butev er yi ndi v i dual al sohasauni que di sposi t i on, becauset r ai t scanmani f estdi f f er ent l yi ndi f f er entpeopl easar esul tofdi f f er ent gener i c, l ear ni ng, cul t ur al andsi t uat i onal ex per i ences. Tr ai t s, t y pesandst y l esi nper sonal i t yst r uct ur e Tr ai t s: Per sonal i t yast hr eef act or s; Ext r ov er si on–i nt r ov er si on Neur ot i ci sm –st abi l i t y Psy chot i ci sm –t oughmi nded Per sonal i t yassi xt eenf act or s; Aspr oposedt hatper sonal i t yi sr epr esent edby16r el at i v el yi ndependentf act or s, whi char e measur edbyt hewel l known16per sonal i t yf act orquest i onnai r ewi t hv ar i ousv er si onsof whi char eusedi ncl i ni cal , educat i onal andoccupat i onal appl i cat i ons. Per sonal i t yasf i v ef act or s TheFi v ef act orModel ( FFM)ofper sonal i t yhasdev el opedi nt oanappr oacht hatar guabl y enj oy st hemostsuppor tatpr esentasani nt egr at i v et r ai tdescr i pt i onof per sonal i t y . Gar et hMor gan I thasbeen30y ear ssi ncet hepubl i cat i onoft hef i r stedi t i onofGar et hMor gan’ ssemi nal book, I magesofOr gani z at i on( Mor gan, 1986) .I twasagr oundbr eaki ngbooki nmany r espect s, nott hel eastbecausei twasanunusual andt hought pr ov oki ngt ex ton or gani z at i ont heor y .Thebookhasbeenci t ed15, 496t i mes( Googl eSchol ar , 2015)and t r ansl at edi nt o14l anguages( Mor gan, 2015) .I t sf i r stedi t i onsol dov er250, 000copi es ( Oswi ckandGr ant , 2015) , andt he1996aand2006v er si onssol dmor et han100, 000copi es ( Maggi eSt anl ey , SAGE, August2015, per sonal communi cat i on)[ al l ci t at i onandsal esf i gur es ar ef ort heEngl i shv er si ononl y ] .Af t er30y ear s, t hebooki sst i l l qui t epopul ar . I magesofOr gani z at i onof f erschol ar sandst udent sacompr ehensi bl eov er v i ewof or gani z at i ont heor yandasetofdi v er seper spect i v est ogui der esear ch.I tal soembr acesa mul t i di mensi onal v i ewofor gani z at i onal l i f eandur gesr eader st obr oadent hei rper spect i v es basedont hecompl ex i t yofor gani z i ng.Thus, f ort hi sspeci al i ssueofHumanRel at i ons, ent i t l ed‘ Bey ondMor gan’ sei ghtmet aphor s: Addi ngt oanddev el opi ngor gani z at i ont heor y ’ , webui l donMor gan’ swor kwi t ht heai m ofcont r i but i ngt of ut ur eway sofconcept ual i zi ng or gani z at i ons.I nkeepi ngwi t hMor gan’ sov er al l ai m, weseet hear t i cl esi nt hi sspeci al i ssue asaddi ngt oor gani zat i onal t heor y . Quest i on3 Cr i t i cst hatpsy chol ogyhasexper i encedwi t hi t sappl i cat i oni ni ndi genous count r i es I ndi genouspsy chol ogyi sdef i nedbyKi m andBer r y( 1993)as“ t hesci ent i f i cst udyofhuman behav i ourormi ndt hati snat i v e, t hati snott r anspor t edf r om ot herr egi ons, andt hati s desi gnedf ori t speopl e. ”I ndi genouspsy chol ogygener al l yadv ocat esex ami ni ngknowl edge, ski l l sandbel i ef speopl ehav eaboutt hemsel v esandst udy i ngt hem i nt hei rnat ur al cont ex t s. Theor i es, concept sandmet hodsar edev el opedt ocor r espondwi t hpsy chol ogi cal phenomena.I ndi genouspsy chol ogyexpl i ci t l yadv ocat esf ori ncor por at i ngbot ht hecont ent andt hecont ex tofr esear ch.I ndi genouspsy chol ogyi sconsi der ednecessar ysi nceex i st i ng psy chol ogi cal t heor i esar enotnecessar i l yuni v er sal , andmayof t enr epr esentt he psy chol ogyandcul t ur al t r adi t i onsofEur opeandNor t hAmer i ca.“ I ndi genouspsy chol ogy seekst odi scov erhowt hecul t ur al v i ews, t heor i es, assumpt i onsandcl assi f i cat i onscoupl ed wi t hov er ar chi ngsoci al i nst i t ut i onsi nf l uencepsy chol ogi cal t opi csi neachr espect i v ecul t ur e ( 2007) .I ndi genouspsy chol ogi esar er oot edi nt hesy st emat i ci nf l uencesoff or mal , pol i t i cal andeducat i onal i nst i t ut i onsaswel l associ al f act or st hathav eandwi l l cont i nuet ochange t hest at eofpsy chol ogy Not esi xsour cesofi nf l uenceont hedev el opmentofgl obali ndi genous psy chol ogi es: 1.Changesi ndev el opi ngcount r i esi nt he1970sst i mul at edendogenousand i ndi genousr et hi nki ngaboutt hei rsoci al andeconomi ccondi t i onsbysoci al and behav i our al sci ent i st s; 2.Thei rdi ssat i sf act i onwi t hwhatt heyhadl ear nedf r om West er ndi sci pl i nesf orsol v i ng pr obl emsoft hei rhomel ands; 3.Thei rgr owi ngdi ssat i sf act i onwi t ht heunquest i oned, i mi t at i v e, andex pl i cat i v enat ur e ofpsy chol ogi cal r esear cht hati sdeepl yr oot edi nWest er npsy chol ogy ; 4.Sel f r ef l ect i onont hei rownsoci al andcul t ur al char act er i st i cst hatwer ebey ond West er npsy chol ogi cal const r uct i on; 5.Theawar enessbysomeWest er npsy chol ogi st st hatt henat ur eofpsy chol ogywas ‘ monocul t ur al , ’ ‘ Eur oAmer i can, ’ and‘ i ndi genouspsy chol ogyoft heWest ’ ; and 6.Thepar ochi al andi nsul arst andsofWest er npsy chol ogy , whi chdi sr egar dedt he i nt er est sandr esear chdonei not hercount r i esandl anguages. Expl ai nhowAf r i canpsy chol ogywasdev el opedasat oolt ocl oset hegap bet weent hewest er nandi ndi genousknowl edge Thef or mat i onoft heFor um ofAf r i canPsy chol ogy( FAP)di v i si onbyt hePsy chol ogi cal Soci et yofSout hAf r i ca( Psy SSA)i n2009hasr eani mat edt hepol i t i csoft her el ev anceof psy chol ogyi nSout hAf r i ca, t hathadbeent houghtt ohav ei npar tbeennegot i at edbyt he i nt er v ent i onbyNsamenang( 1990)andt het henJour nal ofAf r i canPsy chol ogyi n1990and 1991.Decol oni al psy chol ogi st si nAf r i ca, asMol l ( 2007)obser v es, ar egener al l yoft wo per suasi ons–t hosewhov i ewpsy chol ogyasani ndi genousar eaofst udymar kedby di st i nct i v ewor l dv i ewsandl i v edex per i encesoft hecont i nent( f orex ampl e, Akot i a&Ol owu, Bal oy i , Bodi be, Mat oane, Mbi t i , Mkhi z e, Nobel s, Ny asani , Sodi , Tempel s, et c) , andt hosewho seei tasauni v er sal di sci pl i nar ypr act i sepr edi cat edonandconcer nedwi t hpsy chol ogi cal af f ai r sofAf r i cansy etwhosepost ul at est r av er secul t ur esandr ace( f orex ampl e, Akbar , Dawes, Fanon, Gul er ce, Hount ondj i , Mol l , Mashegoane, Nsamenang, Nwoy e, Okpar a, Rat el e, et c) .Rat el e( 2016)of f er sanal t er nat i v echar act er i sat i onofAf r i ca( n) cent r edpsy chol ogy , t hr oughwhathet er ms“ f ourpsy chol ogi es” , namel y , Af r i canpsy chol ogyaspsy chol ogyi n Af r i ca; ascul t ur al Af r i canpsy chol ogy( t r adi t i onal l y , met aphy si cal l yorspi r i t ual l ydi sposed) ; cr i t i cal Af r i canpsy chol ogy( of f er i ngamat er i al i standpol i t i cal r eadi ngofpsy chol ogi cal i ssues) ; andpsy chol ogi cal Af r i canSt udi es( psy chol ogi cal l yat t ent i v eAf r i canSt udi es. Decol oni zat i onasAf r i cani zat i on Thedomi nantdecol oni al i deol ogyi nSout hAf r i canpsy chol ogygest at est hepr ocessof “ decol oni z i ng”asequi v al entt o“ Af r i cani z i ng” .Thi sdi scour sei snotnewandhasal sonot goneuncont est ed( seeDawes, 1998; Mashegoane, 1998; Nsamenang&Dawes, 1998; Long, 2016) .Thi sul t r aessent i al i stt heor i si ng, bysomeAf r i canpsy chol ogi st s, i sr edol entofa r el at i v i sm t hatr ei f i escul t ur east heonl ydet er mi nantofbehav i ourandi t spsy chol ogi cal v ar i ant s.Agi t at i ngf ort hi smov ement , Mat oane( 2012a)asser t st hati ndi genouspsy chol ogy i si nt endedatpr omot i ngt hesi gni f i canceoft hel ocal cul t ur ei nt heunder st andi ngand r esol v i ngofpsy chol ogi cal pr obl ems. Decol oni zat i onaspl ur i v er sal i sm Decol oni z i ngpsy chol ogi cal sci enceshoul dt her ef or enotmer el ybeaboutdeWest er ni z at i on. Boi di n, CohenandGr osf oguel ( 2012)ar guet hatar epr oachf orepi st emi ccol oni al i t ydoes notnecessar i l yequat et ot hewhol esal edeni al ofal l r esear chmaki ngcl ai msofuni v er sal i t y andt heWest er nar chi v e.Psy chol ogyi nAf r i caoughtt o“ shedi t spet t y , ov er used monocul t ur al coatanddev el opi nt oauni v er sal sci ence”( Nsamenang, 1992: 218)f ori tt o pr oper l yser v ei t ssubj ect s.Assuch, cal l sf or“ t hemov ef r om Uni v er sal i stunder st andi ngof humanbehav i ourt oacul t ur ei nf or med”byBal oy i andMakobeRabot hat a( 2012: 241)shoul d beunt enabl e.I nf act , l at estr ef l ect i onsont hi smat t erunder scor et heneedf orapr ocessof “ et hi cal ”uni v er sal t hi nki ngi nknowl edgepr oduct i on, whi chi sanchor edonpl ur i v er sesof knowl edgeorepi st emi cdi v er si t y( Mbembe, 2015) . Quest i on4 Aspar toft her equi r ement sf ort heawar dofdegr eesi nhi ghereducat i oni nst i t ut i ons, st udent satunder gr aduat eandpost gr aduat el ev el snor mal l ycar r youtr esear ch, whi cht hey r epor ti nt hef or m ofdi sser t at i onsort heses.Ther esear chj our neycommenceswi t ht he sel ect i onofar esear cht opi candt hepr epar at i onofapr oposal ont hesel ect edt opi c. Ex per i encehasshownt hatst udent st endt oencount erdi f f i cul t i esi nwr i t i ngr esear ch pr oposal sf ort hei rsuper v i sor sbecauset heydonotf ul l ycompr ehendwhatconst i t ut esa r esear chpr oposal .Thepur poseoft hi sar t i cl ei st ot akest udent st hr oughast epby st ep pr ocessofwr i t i nggoodr esear chpr oposal sbydi scussi ngt heessent i al i ngr edi ent sofa goodr esear chpr oposal .Thus, i ti snotadi dact i cpi ece—t heai mi st ogui dest udent si n r esear chpr oposal wr i t i ng.I ndi scussi ngt hesei ngr edi ent s, r el ev antexampl esar epr ov i ded wher enecessar yf oreaseofunder st andi ng.I ti sex pect edt hatonr eadi ngt hi sar t i cl e, st udent sshoul dbeabl et o: a.Demonst r at eknowl edgeandunder st andi ngofwhatr esear chi sal laboutandi t s chal l engi ngnat ur e; b.Di spl ayanenl ar gedcompr ehensi onofr esear chgap( s) ,pr obl em orquest i on( s) ,ai m, obj ect i v es, andhy pot hesesaswel l ast hei rdi st i ngui shi ngchar act er i st i cs; c. Demonst r at eagoodunder st andi ngoft her el ev antel ement st obeconsi der edi nt he const i t uentsect i onsofagoodr esear chpr oposal ; and d.Compr ehendt heel ement sofar esear chpr oposalt hatshoul df eat ur ei nt hef i nal wr i t t endi sser t at i onort hesi s. Resear chMet hodol ogy Resear ch met hodol ogy ( al so known as r esear ch appr oach)i st he st r at egy of i nv est i gat i on,whi chi saboutt hewhol edi sser t at i onort hesi sf r om t hebegi nni ngt o t heendi ncl udi nghowt her esear chobj ect i v eshav ebeenf oundedf r om t her esear ch pr obl em, howt hel i t er at ur er ev i ewhasbeencar r i edout , pi l otst udi es, dat acol l ect i on, anal y t i cal met hods, andt hepr ocessofdev el opi ngf i ndi ngsandconcl usi ons. I nt hesoci alsci ences, t her ear et hr eer esear chmet hodol ogi est hatcanbe usedt oconductacademi cr esear ch a.Quant i t at i v er esear ch met hodol ogy ,al so known as t he t r adi t i onal , posi t i v i st , orempi r i ci str esear chappr oach; b.Qual i t at i v er esear chmet hodol ogy ,whi chi sv ar i ousl yr ef er r edt oast he const r uct i v i st , nat ur al i st i c, i nt er pr et at i v e, post posi t i v i st , or post moder n per spect i v eappr oach; and c. Mi x met hodol ogi es and t he ot her t er mi nol ogi es f or i t ar e mul t i met hodol ogyandpr agmat i cappr oach. Var i oust y pesexi sti nquant i t at i v e, qual i t at i v e, andmi xed met hodol ogi es, whi chhav ebeenconsi der edbyaut hor s: Sur v ey s Asur v eyi sasy st em ofgat her i ngi nf or mat i onandi ncl udescr osssect i onalandl ongi t udi nal st udi est hatusemost l yquest i onnai r es,i nt er v i ews,andobser v at i onf ordat acol l ect i on.I na cr osssect i onalsur v ey ,al lt hedat aonr el ev antv ar i abl esar ecol l ect edatt hesamet i meor wi t hi nar el at i v el yshor tt i mef r ame.I t ,t her ef or e,pr ov i desasnapshotoft hev ar i abl es i ncl udedi nt hei nv est i gat i onatonepar t i cul arpoi nti nt i me.Howev er , i nl ongi t udi nalsur v ey s, dat aar ecol l ect edov erl ongper i odsoft i me.Measur ement sar et akenoneachv ar i abl eov er t woormor edi st i nctt i meper i ods.Thi sper mi t st hemeasur ementofchangei nv ar i abl esov er t i me. Exper i ment s Thebasi ci nt entofanex per i menti st ot estt hei mpactofat r eat mentorani nt er v ent i onon an out come ( t he ef f ect —dependentv ar i abl e) ,whi l e cont r ol l i ng al lot herf act or s( t he det er mi nant s orcauses—i ndependentv ar i abl es) t hatmi ghti nf l uence t hatout come. Exper i ment alst r at egi esar enor mal l yusedi nt hephy si calsci enceswher et heexper i ment s ar el abor at or y based.Howev er , t heycanbeusedi nt hesoci alsci ences—whent heyar eused i nt hesoci al sci ences, t heex per i menti sf i el dbased. Et hnogr aphy Thi si swher et her esear cherst udi esani nt actcul t ur algr oupi nanat ur alset t i ngov era pr ol ongedper i odoft i mebycol l ect i ngpr i mar i l yobser v at i onaldat a.Ther esear chpr ocessi s f l ex i bl eandt y pi cal l yev ol v escont ex t ual l yi nr esponset ot hel i v edr eal i t i esencount er edi nt he f i el dset t i ng. Gr oundedt heor y I ngr oundedt heor y , t her esear cherat t empt st oder i v eat heor yofapr ocess, act i on, behav i or , ori nt er act i ongr oundedi nt hev i ewsofpar t i ci pant si nt hest udy .Thi spr ocessi nv ol v es mul t i pl est agesofdat acol l ect i onandt her ef i nementandi nt er r el at i onshi pofcat egor i esof i nf or mat i on. Casest udy I ti sani ndept hsy st emat i ci nv est i gat i onofaphenomenon( whi chcanbeapr ogr am,an ev ent ,anact i v i t y ,apr ocess,ageogr aphi call ocat i on,oneormor ei ndi v i dual s,et c. )bya r esear cher .Thecasesar eboundedbyt i meandact i v i t yandr esear cher scol l ectdet ai l ed i nf or mat i onusi ngav ar i et yofdat acol l ect i onpr ocedur esov erasust ai nedper i odoft i me. Phenomenol ogy I ti st hest udyofev er y dayl i f e.I nphenomenol ogi calst udi es,t hei nv est i gat ori dent i f i est he “ essence”ofhumanexper i encesconcer ni ngaphenomenonasdescr i bedbypar t i ci pant si na st udy .Compr ehendi ngt he“ l i v edex per i ences”mar ksphenomenol ogyasaphi l osophyas wel lasanappr oachandt hepr ocedur ei nv ol v esst udy i ngasmal lnumberofsubj ect sor par t i ci pant sv i aex t ensi v eandpr ol ongedengagementt odev el oppat t er nsandr el at i onshi ps ofmeani ng.I nt hi spr ocess,t her esear cher“ br acket s”hi sexper i encest ounder st andt hose oft hepar t i ci pant si nt hest udy . Concl usi on Af r i canpsy chol ogyaspsy chol ogyi nAf r i ca;ascul t ur alAf r i canpsy chol ogy( t r adi t i onal l y , met aphy si cal l yorspi r i t ual l ydi sposed) ; cr i t i cal Af r i canpsy chol ogy( of f er i ngamat er i al i stand pol i t i cal r eadi ngofpsy chol ogi cali ssues) ; andpsy chol ogi calAf r i canSt udi es( psy chol ogi cal l y at t ent i v eAf r i canSt udi es) .Ii magi net hatt hesepor t r ay al sar enoti nar guabl eorf i xedandt hat t her ewi l lbecont est at i onsamongschol ar sont heabov ement i onedchar act er i sat i onsof psy chol ogi esi nAf r i caandt hatt her emayex i stmor emodesofor gani si ngt hi sf i el d, butt he af or ement i onedwi l lsuf f i cef ort hepoi ntIwantt oexpl or eher ei n.Al so,byt hi saccount ,I cl ai mt obynomeanst enderat er segeneal ogi calr ev i ewofdecol oni alpsy chol ogyi nAf r i ca, butunder l i net hef actt hat( Sout h)Af r i canpsy chol ogi esdecol oni almov ementi snota monol i t hi car eabutacont est edspace.Thi si sdespi t et hef actt hatt hemov ementi s cur r ent l ydomi nat edbyet hnogr aphi cschol ar s( t hef or merst at edt endencybyMol l ) . Whi l et he t wo per suasi ons ( i f usi ng Mol l ’ s br oad char act er i sat i on) hav e ar eas of concor dance,especi al l yont hepr obl em ofmoder ni st / mai nst r eam psy chol ogy ,t her ear e howev ersi gni f i cantdi f f er encesi nst r at egi esonhow t or espondt oi t .Rat el e( 2016:5) under scor est hi sf act ,i nhi sobser v at i ont hat :“ wher easAf r i canpsy chol ogyi st heumbr el l a t er mt hatcanbegi v ent ot hebr oadt er r ai nofwor kconduct edbypsy chol ogi st si nAf r i ca, t he t er r i t or yi si nf act di v i ded i nt o di f f er ent epi st emes,appr oaches,per spect i v es,and or i ent at i onst owar dst wopr i nci palobj ect s:psy chol ogyandAf r i ca” .Onei ssue,t hough,t hat t hr eat enst or educet hei nf l uenceandsi gni f i canceofet hnogr aphi cschol ar si npsy chol ogyi n Af r i cai st hatoft hei ri nsi st enceatascr i bi ngadi st i nctki ndof“ ment al i t y ”t ot hepeopl esof Af r i ca.Theseat t r i but i onshav egener al l yr esul t edi nadoubl est andar dt hatdef i nesAf r i ca’ s i ndi genouscul t ur esandci v i l i sat i onsasbei ngsomewhati nt el l ect ual l ysubst andar d. Bi bl i ogr aphy Ref er ence Cr eat i ngunst abl esoci et i es( Lawson, Gr aham, &Baker , 2007, p.436) TheAnnual Rev i ewofSoci ol ogy19881991)edi t or , Scot t Soci ol ogi cal Resear chAssoci at i on( 20062007) . Dawes, 1998; Mashegoane, 1998; Nsamenang&Long, 2016) , Af r i canPsy chol ogy I ndi genouspsy chol ogi es, Rat el e( 2016: 5) St anf or dBusi nessCl assi c, 2003) , : ACompar at i v eAppr oach, wi t hPet erM.Bl au.