Tabl
eofCont
ent
s
I
nt
r
oduct
i
on
2
Quest
i
on1
3
Feat
ur
esofToy
ot
a’
sOr
gani
z
at
i
onal
Cul
t
ur
e
3
Teamwor
k:
3
Cont
i
nuousI
mpr
ov
ementt
hr
oughLear
ni
ng:
4
Qual
i
t
y
:
4
Secr
ecy
:
4
I
mpl
i
cat
i
onsofToy
ot
a’
sOr
gani
z
at
i
onal
Cul
t
ur
e
4
St
r
at
egi
esI
mpl
ement
ed
4
4Pr
i
nci
pl
esofSoci
al
Lear
ni
ng
5
For
mul
at
edf
ourpr
i
nci
pl
esofsoci
al
l
ear
ni
ng
5
Forent
er
pr
i
ses,
t
her
ear
esev
er
al
r
easonst
oadoptsoci
al
l
ear
ni
ngi
nt
hewor
kpl
ace,
i
ncl
udi
ng:
5
Quest
i
on2
6
W.
Ri
char
dScot
t(
1987)
.
6
Subf
i
el
dsandpr
act
i
cesar
easi
nI
Opsy
chol
ogy
7
Descr
i
pt
i
onoft
y
pi
cal
t
asksi
nv
ar
i
oussubf
i
el
ds
7
Kar
l
Mar
x(
181883)
I
nt
r
oduct
i
on:
7
8
Di
f
f
er
entdi
mensi
onsofper
sonal
i
t
ybyunconsci
ousandr
el
at
edpr
ocesses,
andwhatt
he
appl
i
edv
al
ueoft
hi
sappr
oachi
sf
ort
hewor
kcont
ext
8
Emi
l
eDur
khei
m(
18581917)
9
MaxWeber
9
Abackgr
oundt
ot
het
r
ai
tappr
oacht
ohumannat
ur
e
10
Mai
nt
r
ai
t
assumpt
i
ons
10
Tr
ai
t
s,
t
y
pesandst
y
l
esi
nper
sonal
i
t
yst
r
uct
ur
e
10
Tr
ai
t
s:
10
Per
sonal
i
t
yasf
i
v
ef
act
or
s
11
Gar
et
hMor
gan
11
Quest
i
on3
12
Cr
i
t
i
cst
hatpsy
chol
ogyhasex
per
i
encedwi
t
hi
t
sappl
i
cat
i
oni
ni
ndi
genouscount
r
i
es
12
Not
esi
xsour
cesofi
nf
l
uenceont
hedev
el
opmentofgl
obal
i
ndi
genouspsy
chol
ogi
es: 12
Ex
pl
ai
nhowAf
r
i
canpsy
chol
ogywasdev
el
opedasat
ool
t
ocl
oset
hegapbet
weent
he
west
er
nandi
ndi
genousknowl
edge
13
Decol
oni
z
at
i
onasAf
r
i
cani
z
at
i
on
14
Decol
oni
z
at
i
onaspl
ur
i
v
er
sal
i
sm
14
Quest
i
on4
15
Resear
chMet
hodol
ogy
15
I
nt
hesoci
al
sci
ences,
t
her
ear
et
hr
eer
esear
chmet
hodol
ogi
est
hatcanbeusedt
o
conductacademi
cr
esear
ch
15
Var
i
oust
y
pesex
i
sti
nquant
i
t
at
i
v
e,
qual
i
t
at
i
v
e,
andmi
xedmet
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ogi
es,
whi
chhav
ebeen
consi
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edbyaut
hor
s:
16
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v
ey
s
16
Ex
per
i
ment
s
16
Et
hnogr
aphy
16
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oundedt
heor
y
16
Casest
udy
16
Phenomenol
ogy
16
Nar
r
at
i
v
er
esear
ch
17
Act
i
onr
esear
ch
17
Sequent
i
al
pr
ocedur
e
17
Concur
r
entpr
ocedur
e
17
Tr
ansf
or
mat
i
v
epr
ocedur
e
17
Ref
l
ect
i
ononst
r
at
egi
esofi
nqui
r
y
17
Concl
usi
on
18
Bi
bl
i
ogr
aphy
19
Ref
er
ence
19
I
nt
r
oduct
i
on
Thesoci
al
l
ear
ni
ngt
heor
i
st
sobser
v
edt
hatt
hecompl
exi
t
yofhumanbehav
i
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l
y
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pl
ai
nedbyt
r
adi
t
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onal
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our
al
t
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es.Bandur
ar
ecogni
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hatpeopl
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ear
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gr
eatdeal
f
r
om wat
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ngt
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ewar
dsand/
orpuni
shment
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ot
herpeopl
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ngt
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i
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l
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cement
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,
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at
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equi
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ect
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per
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naddi
t
i
on,
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v
at
i
onal
l
ear
ni
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equi
r
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t
i
on,
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our
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st
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out
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det
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ch,
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oncannotbeobser
v
ed.Bandur
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t
ookabr
oadt
heor
et
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cal
per
spect
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ng,
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ocused
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i
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nt
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hi
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i
on.Chapt
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s10,
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er
oughl
ysetupaschapt
er
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adi
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behav
i
our
i
sm andf
or
mal
l
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ni
ngt
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y
,
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ol
l
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al
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ni
ng,
andt
henconcl
udi
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t
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et
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i
esonper
sonal
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t
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el
opment
.Howev
er
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l
l
beev
i
dent
,
t
hechapt
er
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ov
er
l
apagr
eatdeal
.Forex
ampl
e,
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l
ar
dandMi
l
l
er
’
sat
t
emptt
of
i
ndami
ddl
egr
ound
bet
weenFr
eudandSki
nnerl
edt
ot
hei
ri
ni
t
i
al
descr
i
pt
i
onsofsoci
al
l
ear
ni
ng,
whi
chpr
ov
i
ded
apr
el
udet
ot
hi
schapt
er
.Bandur
a,
Rot
t
er
,
andMi
schel
addr
essanumberofaspect
sof
cogni
t
i
oni
nt
hei
rt
heor
i
es,
butt
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enotascompl
et
el
yf
ocusedoncogni
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onasar
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l
y
,
Beck,
andEl
l
i
s,
hencet
hesepar
at
i
onoft
hi
schapt
erf
r
om t
hef
ol
l
owi
ngone.I
nSoci
al
Lear
ni
ngTheor
y
,
Bandur
ahadt
hi
st
osay
:
Av
al
i
dcr
i
t
i
ci
sm ofex
t
r
emebehav
i
our
i
sm i
st
hat
,
i
nav
i
gor
ousef
f
or
tt
oav
oi
dspur
i
ousi
nner
causes,
i
thasnegl
ect
eddet
er
mi
nant
sofbehav
i
ourar
i
si
ngf
r
om cogni
t
i
v
e
f
unct
i
oni
ng…Becausesomeoft
hei
nnercausesi
nv
okedbyt
heor
i
st
sov
ert
hey
ear
shav
e
beeni
l
l
f
oundeddoesnotj
ust
i
f
yex
cl
udi
ngal
l
i
nt
er
nal
det
er
mi
nant
sf
r
om sci
ent
i
f
i
c
i
nqui
r
y
…suchst
udi
esr
ev
eal
t
hatpeopl
el
ear
nandr
et
ai
nbehav
i
ourmuchbet
t
erbyusi
ng
cogni
t
i
v
eai
dst
hatt
heygener
at
et
hanbyr
ei
nf
or
cedr
epet
i
t
i
v
eper
f
or
mance…At
heor
yt
hat
deni
est
hatt
hought
scanr
egul
at
eact
i
onsdoesnotl
endi
t
sel
fr
eadi
l
yt
ot
heex
pl
anat
i
onof
compl
exhumanbehav
i
our
.(
pg.10;
Bandur
a,
1977
Quest
i
on1
1.
1
Thi
si
saJobDesi
gn,
whi
chi
st
hepr
ocessofst
r
uct
ur
i
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kanddesi
gni
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kf
ort
he
speci
f
i
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obi
nToy
ot
a.Jobdesi
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v
est
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i
onsofhowt
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obi
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per
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st
oper
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or
m.Bot
hj
obanal
y
si
sandj
obdesi
gnar
el
i
nkedwi
t
heachot
her
.
Twodi
mensi
onsofj
obdesi
gni
ncl
udej
obscopeandj
obdept
h(
Ronal
dJ.Bur
ke,
Car
yL.
Cooper
,
2006)
.Wi
t
haJobscope,
t
hi
sr
ef
er
st
ot
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ar
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et
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.
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ot
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por
at
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ur
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t
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om i
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om t
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ol
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ows,
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angedaccor
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osi
gni
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i
cance:
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k
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ear
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t
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k:
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ausest
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ol
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ngonmi
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akes/
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i
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st
o
i
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i
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hatToy
ot
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act
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cal
i
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ool
l
i
ke
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z
en.Toy
ot
aact
ual
l
yconduct
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ent
s(
l
i
kekai
z
enev
ent
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oi
mpr
ov
e
pr
oduct
sandpr
ocesses.Ashansei
i
sut
i
l
i
z
ed,
t
hei
mpr
ov
ement
sar
ef
edbacki
nt
o
t
heor
gani
z
at
i
onanddi
ssemi
nat
ed.
 Ut
i
l
i
z
epol
i
cydepl
oy
ment(
hoshi
nkanr
i
)
.
Thi
si
sToy
ot
a’
spr
ocessofcascadi
ng
obj
ect
i
v
esf
r
om t
het
opoft
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ot
hewor
kgr
oupl
ev
el
.Aggr
essi
v
e
goal
sst
ar
tatt
het
opl
ev
el
andeachl
ev
el
dev
el
opsobj
ect
i
v
est
osuppor
tt
hesegoal
s.
Manysy
st
emsl
i
ket
hi
sar
ebei
ngusedatcompani
esacr
osst
heUni
t
edSt
at
es,
but
of
t
ent
heyar
ef
ai
l
ur
esbecauset
heobj
ect
i
v
esr
ar
el
ysuppor
ti
mpor
t
antcompany
goal
s;
t
heyusual
l
yar
eputi
npl
acet
oensur
et
hatani
ndi
v
i
dual
get
shi
s/
heri
ncent
i
v
e.
 Thel
astpoi
ntt
hatLi
kermakesr
egar
di
ngToy
ot
a’
sl
ear
ni
ngor
gani
z
at
i
oni
st
he
numberofy
ear
si
thast
akenf
orToy
ot
at
oachi
ev
ei
t
ssuccess.Forex
ampl
e,
i
tt
ook
Toy
ot
amor
et
hanadecadet
obui
l
danor
gani
z
at
i
ont
hatev
encomescl
oset
ot
he
l
ear
ni
ngor
gani
z
at
i
oni
thasi
nJapan
1.
3
Thesoci
al
l
ear
ni
ngt
heor
i
st
sobser
v
edt
hatt
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exi
t
yofhumanbehav
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l
y
beex
pl
ai
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r
adi
t
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onal
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our
al
t
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i
es.Bandur
ar
ecogni
zedt
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ear
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gr
eatdeal
f
r
om wat
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orpuni
shment
st
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ot
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heor
i
st
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nf
l
uenceofr
ei
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or
cement
andpuni
shment
,
butr
at
her
,
t
heysuggestt
hati
tcanbeex
per
i
encedt
hr
oughobser
v
at
i
onand
doesnotr
equi
r
edi
r
ect
,
per
sonal
ex
per
i
enceasSki
nnerwoul
dar
gue.I
naddi
t
i
on,
obser
v
at
i
onal
l
ear
ni
ngr
equi
r
escogni
t
i
on,
somet
hi
ngt
hatr
adi
cal
behav
i
our
i
st
sconsi
der
out
si
det
her
eal
m ofpsy
chol
ogi
cal
r
esear
ch,
si
ncecogni
t
i
oncannotbeobser
v
ed.Bandur
a
t
ookabr
oadt
heor
et
i
cal
per
spect
i
v
eonsoci
al
l
ear
ni
ng,
wher
easRot
t
erandMi
schel
f
ocused
mor
ecl
osel
yonspeci
f
i
ccogni
t
i
v
easpect
sofsoci
al
l
ear
ni
ngandbehav
i
our
.(
pg.10;
Bandur
a,
1977)
4Pr
i
nci
pl
esofSoci
al
Lear
ni
ng
For
mul
at
edf
ourpr
i
nci
pl
esofsoci
all
ear
ni
ng:At
t
ent
i
on:
Wecan’
tl
ear
ni
fwear
en’
t
f
ocusedont
het
askathand.I
fwebel
i
ev
esomet
hi
ngasbei
ngnov
el
ordi
f
f
er
ent
,
i
t
’
smor
e
l
i
kel
yt
hatt
hatconceptbecomest
hef
ocusofourat
t
ent
i
on.Soci
al
cont
ext
sr
ei
nf
or
cet
hese
per
cept
i
ons.
1.Ret
ent
i
on:
Humansl
ear
nbyi
nt
er
nal
i
zi
ngi
nf
or
mat
i
on.Wer
ecal
l
l
ear
nedi
nf
or
mat
i
on
whenweneedt
or
espondt
oasi
t
uat
i
onsi
mi
l
art
ot
hesi
t
uat
i
oni
nwhi
chwef
i
r
st
l
ear
nedt
hati
nf
or
mat
i
on.
2.Repr
oduct
i
on:
Wer
epr
oducepr
ev
i
ousl
yl
ear
nedi
nf
or
mat
i
on(
behav
i
our
,
ski
l
l
s,
knowl
edge)whenr
equi
r
ed.Pr
act
i
cet
hr
oughment
al
andphy
si
cal
r
ehear
sal
gener
al
l
y
i
mpr
ov
esr
esponses.
3.Mot
i
v
at
i
on:
Weneedmot
i
v
at
i
ont
odoany
t
hi
ng.Mor
eof
t
ent
hannot
,
humansar
e
mot
i
v
at
edbysomeoneel
sebei
ngr
ewar
dedorpuni
shedf
orsomet
hi
ngt
heyhav
e
sai
dordone.Thi
sgener
al
l
ymot
i
v
at
esust
odo,
orav
oi
ddoi
ng,
t
hesamet
hi
ng.
Forent
er
pr
i
ses,
t
her
ear
esev
er
alr
easonst
oadoptsoci
all
ear
ni
ngi
n
t
hewor
kpl
ace,
i
ncl
udi
ng:
 Shor
t
eror
i
ent
at
i
ont
i
mesf
ornewhi
r
es:
I
tcant
akeupt
o2y
ear
sbef
or
eanempl
oy
ee
i
s“
f
ul
l
ypr
oduct
i
v
e.
”Forsomeempl
oy
ees,
t
heymayr
equi
r
easl
ongas6mont
hst
o
si
mpl
yf
eel
f
ul
l
ycomf
or
t
abl
ei
nt
hei
rnewposi
t
i
on.Soci
al
l
ear
ni
ngaccel
er
at
est
hi
s
pr
ocessbyaccl
i
mat
i
ngnewhi
r
est
ot
hei
rpeer
sandi
nt
er
nal
subj
ectmat
t
erex
per
t
s
qui
ckl
y
,
encour
agi
ngt
hem t
of
eel
comf
or
t
abl
easki
ngquest
i
onsandcr
eat
i
ng
connect
i
onsacr
osst
heent
i
r
eor
gani
z
at
i
onmor
eef
f
ect
i
v
el
y
.
 I
tpr
omot
esconst
r
uct
i
v
i
sm:
Const
r
uct
i
v
i
sm i
sast
andar
dt
hatpr
omot
esl
ear
ni
ngas
anact
i
v
eandconst
r
uct
i
v
epr
ocessi
nwhi
chl
ear
ner
sbecomet
eacher
s.I
tassi
st
si
n
cr
eat
i
ngawor
kf
or
cef
ul
l
ofst
akehol
der
st
hatar
eengagedwi
t
ht
hei
rt
r
ai
ni
ngasa
r
esul
tofi
nf
or
mal
l
yt
r
ai
ni
ngt
hei
rpeer
s.
 I
ti
mpr
ov
escommuni
cat
i
oni
nt
hewor
kpl
ace:
Communi
cat
i
onshoul
dbecl
eari
n
ev
er
ywor
kpl
ace,
atev
er
yl
ev
el
oft
heor
gani
z
at
i
on.I
tcanbeeasyt
ol
osemeani
ng
ov
eremai
l
andot
herel
ect
r
oni
ccommuni
cat
i
ons,
i
ncr
easi
ngt
heneedf
orf
acet
of
ace
i
nt
er
act
i
ons.Soci
al
l
ear
ni
ngf
aci
l
i
t
at
escol
l
abor
at
i
onor
gani
cal
l
y
,
especi
al
l
yi
nanel
ear
ni
ngenv
i
r
onment
,
i
nwhi
chi
nsi
ght
sar
eshar
edandv
al
uedacr
osst
heent
i
r
e
or
gani
z
at
i
on.
Quest
i
on2
W.
Ri
char
dScot
t(
1987)
.
Scot
ti
spastedi
t
orofTheAnnual
Rev
i
ewofSoci
ol
ogy19881991)andpastPr
esi
dentoft
he
Soci
ol
ogi
cal
Resear
chAssoci
at
i
on(
20062007)
.Hehasser
v
edonmul
t
i
pl
eedi
t
or
i
al
boar
ds
andonsci
ent
i
f
i
cr
ev
i
ewpanel
satt
henat
i
onal
l
ev
el
undert
heauspi
cesoft
heNat
i
onal
Cent
erf
orHeal
t
hSer
v
i
cesResear
ch,
t
heNat
i
onal
CancerI
nst
i
t
ut
e,
t
heNat
i
onal
Sci
ence
Foundat
i
on,
t
heNat
i
onal
I
nst
i
t
ut
eofMent
al
Heal
t
h,
t
heNat
i
onal
AcademyofMedi
ci
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and
t
heNat
i
onal
Resear
chCounci
l
.
Scot
twasel
ect
edt
ot
heNat
i
onal
AcademyofMedi
ci
nei
n1975.Wi
t
hi
nt
heAcademyof
Management(
AOM)
,
her
ecei
v
edt
heRi
char
dD.I
r
wi
n(
Di
st
i
ngui
shedSchol
ar
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yCar
eer
)awar
d
(
1996)
,
andf
r
om t
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at
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onDi
v
i
si
onoft
heAOM,
her
ecei
v
edt
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Di
st
i
ngui
shedSchol
ar(
1988)
,
andt
heDi
st
i
ngui
shedEducat
orawar
d(
2013)
.I
n2000,
t
he
Sect
i
ononOr
gani
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at
i
on,
Occupat
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onsandWor
koft
heAmer
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canSoci
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cal
Associ
at
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on
cr
eat
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he“
W.Ri
char
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oannual
l
yr
ecogni
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eanout
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andi
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i
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engt
h
cont
r
i
but
i
ont
ot
hef
i
el
d.I
n2015,
hewasnamed“
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nentSchol
aroft
heYear
”byt
he
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nt
er
nat
i
onal
Busi
ness.Scot
thasr
ecei
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edhonor
ar
ydoct
or
at
esf
r
om t
he
CopenhagenSchool
ofBusi
ness(
2000)
,
t
heHel
si
nki
School
ofEconomi
candBusi
ness
(
2001)
,
andAar
husUni
v
er
si
t
yi
nDenmar
k(
2010)
.
Subf
i
el
dsandpr
act
i
cesar
easi
nI
Opsy
chol
ogy
I
OPsy
chol
ogyhasmanysubf
i
el
ds(
Coet
zeeandSchr
ei
ber
,
2010)andi
sr
el
at
edt
oot
her
di
sci
pl
i
nesi
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st
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y
,
r
esear
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ons(
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orexampl
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er
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/
mar
ket
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)
.Psy
chol
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i
f
i
edi
nt
hepr
act
i
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easofI
O
Psy
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ogyar
eempl
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i
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obs(
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orex
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l
ect
ur
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ncor
por
at
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nment
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pr
i
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at
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act
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ce,
school
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col
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egesanduni
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er
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t
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.Thi
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i
ef
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ydescr
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i
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at
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psy
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Descr
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y
pi
calt
asksi
nv
ar
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oussubf
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ds
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gani
zat
i
onal
Psy
chol
ogy
.
2.Per
sonnel
Psy
chol
ogy
.
3.Resear
chMet
hodol
ogy
.
4.Wor
kr
el
at
edPsy
chol
ogi
cal
assessment
.
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eerPsy
chol
ogyandcounsel
l
i
ng.
6.Empl
oy
mentr
el
at
i
ons.
7.Empl
oy
eeandor
gani
sat
i
onal
wel
l
bei
ng.
8.Er
gonomi
cs.
9.ConsumerPsy
chol
ogy
.
10.Ot
herappl
i
edf
i
el
ds.
Kar
l
Mar
x(
181883)
Kar
l
Hei
nr
i
chMar
x(
Ger
man:
[
maʁks]
;
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ch1883)wasaGer
man
phi
l
osopher
,
economi
st
,
hi
st
or
i
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pol
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our
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.Bor
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many
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udi
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l
osophyatuni
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er
si
t
y
.He
mar
r
i
edJennyv
onWest
phal
eni
n1843.Duet
ohi
spol
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i
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publ
i
cat
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ons,
Mar
xbecame
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at
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sbest
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hr
eev
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.Mar
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andphi
l
osophi
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t
houghthadenor
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nf
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uenceon
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l
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hi
st
or
y
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snamehasbeenusedasan
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e,
anoun,
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.
Mar
x
’
scr
i
t
i
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heor
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et
y
,
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cs,
andpol
i
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el
yunder
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Mar
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i
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et
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nt
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hatcont
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at
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oachknownashi
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Mar
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oducedi
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ensi
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uent
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ai
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ormuchof
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ebeen
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uencedbyMar
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ed
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I
nt
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oduct
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er
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om whatt
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endedsay
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Fr
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ongue.Of
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r
om t
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essobser
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er
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oacht
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yi
s
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.
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er
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el
at
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andwhatt
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sf
ort
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ext
1.Abackgr
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ol
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emai
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Dur
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nt
ai
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er
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MaxWeberi
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Mar
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andEmi
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Dur
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but
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mpet
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i
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eor
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ent
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aw,
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t
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ence,
andr
el
i
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smet
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t
i
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nst
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ument
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;
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andHobbes.Assuch,
MaxWeber
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ef
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ect
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i
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ar
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ought
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el
at
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oot
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i
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or
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psy
chomet
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i
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ect
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v
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he
quant
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t
at
i
v
eanal
y
si
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sofper
sonal
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t
y
.
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nt
r
ai
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assumpt
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ons
Peopl
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or
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espectoft
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r“
basi
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sonal
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t
y
char
act
er
i
st
i
csandway
sofdoi
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hi
ngs.Howev
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,
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si
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ceabl
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i
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i
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,
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i
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et
ounconsci
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het
r
ai
t
appr
oaches,
peopl
emi
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l
ari
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espect
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er
yi
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v
i
dual
al
sohasauni
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di
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t
i
on,
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r
ai
t
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f
estdi
f
f
er
ent
l
yi
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f
f
er
entpeopl
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f
er
ent
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c,
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ear
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ur
al
andsi
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uat
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onal
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per
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ences.
Tr
ai
t
s,
t
y
pesandst
y
l
esi
nper
sonal
i
t
yst
r
uct
ur
e
Tr
ai
t
s:
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sonal
i
t
yast
hr
eef
act
or
s;
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ov
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r
ov
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on
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ot
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ci
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abi
l
i
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oughmi
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act
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yi
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el
at
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ar
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eusedi
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ni
cal
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andoccupat
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ons.
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i
v
ef
act
or
s
TheFi
v
ef
act
orModel
(
FFM)ofper
sonal
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yhasdev
el
opedi
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oanappr
oacht
hatar
guabl
y
enj
oy
st
hemostsuppor
tatpr
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nt
egr
at
i
v
et
r
ai
tdescr
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pt
i
onof
per
sonal
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t
y
.
Gar
et
hMor
gan
I
thasbeen30y
ear
ssi
ncet
hepubl
i
cat
i
onoft
hef
i
r
stedi
t
i
onofGar
et
hMor
gan’
ssemi
nal
book,
I
magesofOr
gani
z
at
i
on(
Mor
gan,
1986)
.I
twasagr
oundbr
eaki
ngbooki
nmany
r
espect
s,
nott
hel
eastbecausei
twasanunusual
andt
hought
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ov
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ex
ton
or
gani
z
at
i
ont
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y
.Thebookhasbeenci
t
ed15,
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i
mes(
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eSchol
ar
,
2015)and
t
r
ansl
at
edi
nt
o14l
anguages(
Mor
gan,
2015)
.I
t
sf
i
r
stedi
t
i
onsol
dov
er250,
000copi
es
(
Oswi
ckandGr
ant
,
2015)
,
andt
he1996aand2006v
er
si
onssol
dmor
et
han100,
000copi
es
(
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eSt
anl
ey
,
SAGE,
August2015,
per
sonal
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at
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]
.Af
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udent
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s:
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’
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kwi
t
ht
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m ofcont
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i
but
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ngt
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ut
ur
eway
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ual
i
zi
ng
or
gani
z
at
i
ons.I
nkeepi
ngwi
t
hMor
gan’
sov
er
al
l
ai
m,
weseet
hear
t
i
cl
esi
nt
hi
sspeci
al
i
ssue
asaddi
ngt
oor
gani
zat
i
onal
t
heor
y
.
Quest
i
on3
Cr
i
t
i
cst
hatpsy
chol
ogyhasexper
i
encedwi
t
hi
t
sappl
i
cat
i
oni
ni
ndi
genous
count
r
i
es
I
ndi
genouspsy
chol
ogyi
sdef
i
nedbyKi
m andBer
r
y(
1993)as“
t
hesci
ent
i
f
i
cst
udyofhuman
behav
i
ourormi
ndt
hati
snat
i
v
e,
t
hati
snott
r
anspor
t
edf
r
om ot
herr
egi
ons,
andt
hati
s
desi
gnedf
ori
t
speopl
e.
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ndi
genouspsy
chol
ogygener
al
l
yadv
ocat
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ami
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edge,
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l
l
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ef
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hemsel
v
esandst
udy
i
ngt
hem i
nt
hei
rnat
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cont
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t
s.
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i
es,
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el
opedt
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r
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t
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chol
ogi
cal
phenomena.I
ndi
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ogyexpl
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l
yadv
ocat
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por
at
i
ngbot
ht
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andt
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tofr
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ch.I
ndi
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chol
ogyi
sconsi
der
ednecessar
ysi
nceex
i
st
i
ng
psy
chol
ogi
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t
heor
i
esar
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l
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er
sal
,
andmayof
t
enr
epr
esentt
he
psy
chol
ogyandcul
t
ur
al
t
r
adi
t
i
onsofEur
opeandNor
t
hAmer
i
ca.“
I
ndi
genouspsy
chol
ogy
seekst
odi
scov
erhowt
hecul
t
ur
al
v
i
ews,
t
heor
i
es,
assumpt
i
onsandcl
assi
f
i
cat
i
onscoupl
ed
wi
t
hov
er
ar
chi
ngsoci
al
i
nst
i
t
ut
i
onsi
nf
l
uencepsy
chol
ogi
cal
t
opi
csi
neachr
espect
i
v
ecul
t
ur
e
(
2007)
.I
ndi
genouspsy
chol
ogi
esar
er
oot
edi
nt
hesy
st
emat
i
ci
nf
l
uencesoff
or
mal
,
pol
i
t
i
cal
andeducat
i
onal
i
nst
i
t
ut
i
onsaswel
l
associ
al
f
act
or
st
hathav
eandwi
l
l
cont
i
nuet
ochange
t
hest
at
eofpsy
chol
ogy
Not
esi
xsour
cesofi
nf
l
uenceont
hedev
el
opmentofgl
obali
ndi
genous
psy
chol
ogi
es:
1.Changesi
ndev
el
opi
ngcount
r
i
esi
nt
he1970sst
i
mul
at
edendogenousand
i
ndi
genousr
et
hi
nki
ngaboutt
hei
rsoci
al
andeconomi
ccondi
t
i
onsbysoci
al
and
behav
i
our
al
sci
ent
i
st
s;
2.Thei
rdi
ssat
i
sf
act
i
onwi
t
hwhatt
heyhadl
ear
nedf
r
om West
er
ndi
sci
pl
i
nesf
orsol
v
i
ng
pr
obl
emsoft
hei
rhomel
ands;
3.Thei
rgr
owi
ngdi
ssat
i
sf
act
i
onwi
t
ht
heunquest
i
oned,
i
mi
t
at
i
v
e,
andex
pl
i
cat
i
v
enat
ur
e
ofpsy
chol
ogi
cal
r
esear
cht
hati
sdeepl
yr
oot
edi
nWest
er
npsy
chol
ogy
;
4.Sel
f
r
ef
l
ect
i
onont
hei
rownsoci
al
andcul
t
ur
al
char
act
er
i
st
i
cst
hatwer
ebey
ond
West
er
npsy
chol
ogi
cal
const
r
uct
i
on;
5.Theawar
enessbysomeWest
er
npsy
chol
ogi
st
st
hatt
henat
ur
eofpsy
chol
ogywas
‘
monocul
t
ur
al
,
’
‘
Eur
oAmer
i
can,
’
and‘
i
ndi
genouspsy
chol
ogyoft
heWest
’
;
and
6.Thepar
ochi
al
andi
nsul
arst
andsofWest
er
npsy
chol
ogy
,
whi
chdi
sr
egar
dedt
he
i
nt
er
est
sandr
esear
chdonei
not
hercount
r
i
esandl
anguages.
Expl
ai
nhowAf
r
i
canpsy
chol
ogywasdev
el
opedasat
oolt
ocl
oset
hegap
bet
weent
hewest
er
nandi
ndi
genousknowl
edge
Thef
or
mat
i
onoft
heFor
um ofAf
r
i
canPsy
chol
ogy(
FAP)di
v
i
si
onbyt
hePsy
chol
ogi
cal
Soci
et
yofSout
hAf
r
i
ca(
Psy
SSA)i
n2009hasr
eani
mat
edt
hepol
i
t
i
csoft
her
el
ev
anceof
psy
chol
ogyi
nSout
hAf
r
i
ca,
t
hathadbeent
houghtt
ohav
ei
npar
tbeennegot
i
at
edbyt
he
i
nt
er
v
ent
i
onbyNsamenang(
1990)andt
het
henJour
nal
ofAf
r
i
canPsy
chol
ogyi
n1990and
1991.Decol
oni
al
psy
chol
ogi
st
si
nAf
r
i
ca,
asMol
l
(
2007)obser
v
es,
ar
egener
al
l
yoft
wo
per
suasi
ons–t
hosewhov
i
ewpsy
chol
ogyasani
ndi
genousar
eaofst
udymar
kedby
di
st
i
nct
i
v
ewor
l
dv
i
ewsandl
i
v
edex
per
i
encesoft
hecont
i
nent(
f
orex
ampl
e,
Akot
i
a&Ol
owu,
Bal
oy
i
,
Bodi
be,
Mat
oane,
Mbi
t
i
,
Mkhi
z
e,
Nobel
s,
Ny
asani
,
Sodi
,
Tempel
s,
et
c)
,
andt
hosewho
seei
tasauni
v
er
sal
di
sci
pl
i
nar
ypr
act
i
sepr
edi
cat
edonandconcer
nedwi
t
hpsy
chol
ogi
cal
af
f
ai
r
sofAf
r
i
cansy
etwhosepost
ul
at
est
r
av
er
secul
t
ur
esandr
ace(
f
orex
ampl
e,
Akbar
,
Dawes,
Fanon,
Gul
er
ce,
Hount
ondj
i
,
Mol
l
,
Mashegoane,
Nsamenang,
Nwoy
e,
Okpar
a,
Rat
el
e,
et
c)
.Rat
el
e(
2016)of
f
er
sanal
t
er
nat
i
v
echar
act
er
i
sat
i
onofAf
r
i
ca(
n)
cent
r
edpsy
chol
ogy
,
t
hr
oughwhathet
er
ms“
f
ourpsy
chol
ogi
es”
,
namel
y
,
Af
r
i
canpsy
chol
ogyaspsy
chol
ogyi
n
Af
r
i
ca;
ascul
t
ur
al
Af
r
i
canpsy
chol
ogy(
t
r
adi
t
i
onal
l
y
,
met
aphy
si
cal
l
yorspi
r
i
t
ual
l
ydi
sposed)
;
cr
i
t
i
cal
Af
r
i
canpsy
chol
ogy(
of
f
er
i
ngamat
er
i
al
i
standpol
i
t
i
cal
r
eadi
ngofpsy
chol
ogi
cal
i
ssues)
;
andpsy
chol
ogi
cal
Af
r
i
canSt
udi
es(
psy
chol
ogi
cal
l
yat
t
ent
i
v
eAf
r
i
canSt
udi
es.
Decol
oni
zat
i
onasAf
r
i
cani
zat
i
on
Thedomi
nantdecol
oni
al
i
deol
ogyi
nSout
hAf
r
i
canpsy
chol
ogygest
at
est
hepr
ocessof
“
decol
oni
z
i
ng”asequi
v
al
entt
o“
Af
r
i
cani
z
i
ng”
.Thi
sdi
scour
sei
snotnewandhasal
sonot
goneuncont
est
ed(
seeDawes,
1998;
Mashegoane,
1998;
Nsamenang&Dawes,
1998;
Long,
2016)
.Thi
sul
t
r
aessent
i
al
i
stt
heor
i
si
ng,
bysomeAf
r
i
canpsy
chol
ogi
st
s,
i
sr
edol
entofa
r
el
at
i
v
i
sm t
hatr
ei
f
i
escul
t
ur
east
heonl
ydet
er
mi
nantofbehav
i
ourandi
t
spsy
chol
ogi
cal
v
ar
i
ant
s.Agi
t
at
i
ngf
ort
hi
smov
ement
,
Mat
oane(
2012a)asser
t
st
hati
ndi
genouspsy
chol
ogy
i
si
nt
endedatpr
omot
i
ngt
hesi
gni
f
i
canceoft
hel
ocal
cul
t
ur
ei
nt
heunder
st
andi
ngand
r
esol
v
i
ngofpsy
chol
ogi
cal
pr
obl
ems.
Decol
oni
zat
i
onaspl
ur
i
v
er
sal
i
sm
Decol
oni
z
i
ngpsy
chol
ogi
cal
sci
enceshoul
dt
her
ef
or
enotmer
el
ybeaboutdeWest
er
ni
z
at
i
on.
Boi
di
n,
CohenandGr
osf
oguel
(
2012)ar
guet
hatar
epr
oachf
orepi
st
emi
ccol
oni
al
i
t
ydoes
notnecessar
i
l
yequat
et
ot
hewhol
esal
edeni
al
ofal
l
r
esear
chmaki
ngcl
ai
msofuni
v
er
sal
i
t
y
andt
heWest
er
nar
chi
v
e.Psy
chol
ogyi
nAf
r
i
caoughtt
o“
shedi
t
spet
t
y
,
ov
er
used
monocul
t
ur
al
coatanddev
el
opi
nt
oauni
v
er
sal
sci
ence”(
Nsamenang,
1992:
218)f
ori
tt
o
pr
oper
l
yser
v
ei
t
ssubj
ect
s.Assuch,
cal
l
sf
or“
t
hemov
ef
r
om Uni
v
er
sal
i
stunder
st
andi
ngof
humanbehav
i
ourt
oacul
t
ur
ei
nf
or
med”byBal
oy
i
andMakobeRabot
hat
a(
2012:
241)shoul
d
beunt
enabl
e.I
nf
act
,
l
at
estr
ef
l
ect
i
onsont
hi
smat
t
erunder
scor
et
heneedf
orapr
ocessof
“
et
hi
cal
”uni
v
er
sal
t
hi
nki
ngi
nknowl
edgepr
oduct
i
on,
whi
chi
sanchor
edonpl
ur
i
v
er
sesof
knowl
edgeorepi
st
emi
cdi
v
er
si
t
y(
Mbembe,
2015)
.
Quest
i
on4
Aspar
toft
her
equi
r
ement
sf
ort
heawar
dofdegr
eesi
nhi
ghereducat
i
oni
nst
i
t
ut
i
ons,
st
udent
satunder
gr
aduat
eandpost
gr
aduat
el
ev
el
snor
mal
l
ycar
r
youtr
esear
ch,
whi
cht
hey
r
epor
ti
nt
hef
or
m ofdi
sser
t
at
i
onsort
heses.Ther
esear
chj
our
neycommenceswi
t
ht
he
sel
ect
i
onofar
esear
cht
opi
candt
hepr
epar
at
i
onofapr
oposal
ont
hesel
ect
edt
opi
c.
Ex
per
i
encehasshownt
hatst
udent
st
endt
oencount
erdi
f
f
i
cul
t
i
esi
nwr
i
t
i
ngr
esear
ch
pr
oposal
sf
ort
hei
rsuper
v
i
sor
sbecauset
heydonotf
ul
l
ycompr
ehendwhatconst
i
t
ut
esa
r
esear
chpr
oposal
.Thepur
poseoft
hi
sar
t
i
cl
ei
st
ot
akest
udent
st
hr
oughast
epby
st
ep
pr
ocessofwr
i
t
i
nggoodr
esear
chpr
oposal
sbydi
scussi
ngt
heessent
i
al
i
ngr
edi
ent
sofa
goodr
esear
chpr
oposal
.Thus,
i
ti
snotadi
dact
i
cpi
ece—t
heai
mi
st
ogui
dest
udent
si
n
r
esear
chpr
oposal
wr
i
t
i
ng.I
ndi
scussi
ngt
hesei
ngr
edi
ent
s,
r
el
ev
antexampl
esar
epr
ov
i
ded
wher
enecessar
yf
oreaseofunder
st
andi
ng.I
ti
sex
pect
edt
hatonr
eadi
ngt
hi
sar
t
i
cl
e,
st
udent
sshoul
dbeabl
et
o:
a.Demonst
r
at
eknowl
edgeandunder
st
andi
ngofwhatr
esear
chi
sal
laboutandi
t
s
chal
l
engi
ngnat
ur
e;
b.Di
spl
ayanenl
ar
gedcompr
ehensi
onofr
esear
chgap(
s)
,pr
obl
em orquest
i
on(
s)
,ai
m,
obj
ect
i
v
es,
andhy
pot
hesesaswel
l
ast
hei
rdi
st
i
ngui
shi
ngchar
act
er
i
st
i
cs;
c. Demonst
r
at
eagoodunder
st
andi
ngoft
her
el
ev
antel
ement
st
obeconsi
der
edi
nt
he
const
i
t
uentsect
i
onsofagoodr
esear
chpr
oposal
;
and
d.Compr
ehendt
heel
ement
sofar
esear
chpr
oposalt
hatshoul
df
eat
ur
ei
nt
hef
i
nal
wr
i
t
t
endi
sser
t
at
i
onort
hesi
s.
Resear
chMet
hodol
ogy
Resear
ch met
hodol
ogy (
al
so known as r
esear
ch appr
oach)i
st
he st
r
at
egy of
i
nv
est
i
gat
i
on,whi
chi
saboutt
hewhol
edi
sser
t
at
i
onort
hesi
sf
r
om t
hebegi
nni
ngt
o
t
heendi
ncl
udi
nghowt
her
esear
chobj
ect
i
v
eshav
ebeenf
oundedf
r
om t
her
esear
ch
pr
obl
em,
howt
hel
i
t
er
at
ur
er
ev
i
ewhasbeencar
r
i
edout
,
pi
l
otst
udi
es,
dat
acol
l
ect
i
on,
anal
y
t
i
cal
met
hods,
andt
hepr
ocessofdev
el
opi
ngf
i
ndi
ngsandconcl
usi
ons.
I
nt
hesoci
alsci
ences,
t
her
ear
et
hr
eer
esear
chmet
hodol
ogi
est
hatcanbe
usedt
oconductacademi
cr
esear
ch
a.Quant
i
t
at
i
v
er
esear
ch met
hodol
ogy
,al
so known as t
he t
r
adi
t
i
onal
,
posi
t
i
v
i
st
,
orempi
r
i
ci
str
esear
chappr
oach;
b.Qual
i
t
at
i
v
er
esear
chmet
hodol
ogy
,whi
chi
sv
ar
i
ousl
yr
ef
er
r
edt
oast
he
const
r
uct
i
v
i
st
,
nat
ur
al
i
st
i
c,
i
nt
er
pr
et
at
i
v
e,
post
posi
t
i
v
i
st
,
or
post
moder
n
per
spect
i
v
eappr
oach;
and
c. Mi
x met
hodol
ogi
es and t
he ot
her t
er
mi
nol
ogi
es f
or i
t ar
e mul
t
i
met
hodol
ogyandpr
agmat
i
cappr
oach.
Var
i
oust
y
pesexi
sti
nquant
i
t
at
i
v
e,
qual
i
t
at
i
v
e,
andmi
xed
met
hodol
ogi
es,
whi
chhav
ebeenconsi
der
edbyaut
hor
s:
Sur
v
ey
s
Asur
v
eyi
sasy
st
em ofgat
her
i
ngi
nf
or
mat
i
onandi
ncl
udescr
osssect
i
onalandl
ongi
t
udi
nal
st
udi
est
hatusemost
l
yquest
i
onnai
r
es,i
nt
er
v
i
ews,andobser
v
at
i
onf
ordat
acol
l
ect
i
on.I
na
cr
osssect
i
onalsur
v
ey
,al
lt
hedat
aonr
el
ev
antv
ar
i
abl
esar
ecol
l
ect
edatt
hesamet
i
meor
wi
t
hi
nar
el
at
i
v
el
yshor
tt
i
mef
r
ame.I
t
,t
her
ef
or
e,pr
ov
i
desasnapshotoft
hev
ar
i
abl
es
i
ncl
udedi
nt
hei
nv
est
i
gat
i
onatonepar
t
i
cul
arpoi
nti
nt
i
me.Howev
er
,
i
nl
ongi
t
udi
nalsur
v
ey
s,
dat
aar
ecol
l
ect
edov
erl
ongper
i
odsoft
i
me.Measur
ement
sar
et
akenoneachv
ar
i
abl
eov
er
t
woormor
edi
st
i
nctt
i
meper
i
ods.Thi
sper
mi
t
st
hemeasur
ementofchangei
nv
ar
i
abl
esov
er
t
i
me.
Exper
i
ment
s
Thebasi
ci
nt
entofanex
per
i
menti
st
ot
estt
hei
mpactofat
r
eat
mentorani
nt
er
v
ent
i
onon
an out
come (
t
he ef
f
ect
—dependentv
ar
i
abl
e)
,whi
l
e cont
r
ol
l
i
ng al
lot
herf
act
or
s(
t
he
det
er
mi
nant
s orcauses—i
ndependentv
ar
i
abl
es) t
hatmi
ghti
nf
l
uence t
hatout
come.
Exper
i
ment
alst
r
at
egi
esar
enor
mal
l
yusedi
nt
hephy
si
calsci
enceswher
et
heexper
i
ment
s
ar
el
abor
at
or
y
based.Howev
er
,
t
heycanbeusedi
nt
hesoci
alsci
ences—whent
heyar
eused
i
nt
hesoci
al
sci
ences,
t
heex
per
i
menti
sf
i
el
dbased.
Et
hnogr
aphy
Thi
si
swher
et
her
esear
cherst
udi
esani
nt
actcul
t
ur
algr
oupi
nanat
ur
alset
t
i
ngov
era
pr
ol
ongedper
i
odoft
i
mebycol
l
ect
i
ngpr
i
mar
i
l
yobser
v
at
i
onaldat
a.Ther
esear
chpr
ocessi
s
f
l
ex
i
bl
eandt
y
pi
cal
l
yev
ol
v
escont
ex
t
ual
l
yi
nr
esponset
ot
hel
i
v
edr
eal
i
t
i
esencount
er
edi
nt
he
f
i
el
dset
t
i
ng.
Gr
oundedt
heor
y
I
ngr
oundedt
heor
y
,
t
her
esear
cherat
t
empt
st
oder
i
v
eat
heor
yofapr
ocess,
act
i
on,
behav
i
or
,
ori
nt
er
act
i
ongr
oundedi
nt
hev
i
ewsofpar
t
i
ci
pant
si
nt
hest
udy
.Thi
spr
ocessi
nv
ol
v
es
mul
t
i
pl
est
agesofdat
acol
l
ect
i
onandt
her
ef
i
nementandi
nt
er
r
el
at
i
onshi
pofcat
egor
i
esof
i
nf
or
mat
i
on.
Casest
udy
I
ti
sani
ndept
hsy
st
emat
i
ci
nv
est
i
gat
i
onofaphenomenon(
whi
chcanbeapr
ogr
am,an
ev
ent
,anact
i
v
i
t
y
,apr
ocess,ageogr
aphi
call
ocat
i
on,oneormor
ei
ndi
v
i
dual
s,et
c.
)bya
r
esear
cher
.Thecasesar
eboundedbyt
i
meandact
i
v
i
t
yandr
esear
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I
ti
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nphenomenol
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est
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“
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l
i
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edex
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ur
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ual
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sposed)
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ogy(
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i
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i
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es(
psy
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y
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t
ent
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v
eAf
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ay
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i
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or
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hemov
ementi
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ent
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nat
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aphi
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ar
s(
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hef
or
merst
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edt
endencybyMol
l
)
.
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l
et
he t
wo per
suasi
ons (
i
f usi
ng Mol
l
’
s br
oad char
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i
sat
i
on) hav
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st
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nst
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eam psy
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ogy
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her
ear
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howev
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gni
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i
cantdi
f
f
er
encesi
nst
r
at
egi
esonhow t
or
espondt
oi
t
.Rat
el
e(
2016:5)
under
scor
est
hi
sf
act
,i
nhi
sobser
v
at
i
ont
hat
:“
wher
easAf
r
i
canpsy
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ogyi
st
heumbr
el
l
a
t
er
mt
hatcanbegi
v
ent
ot
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oadt
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r
ai
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kconduct
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act di
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nt
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oaches,per
spect
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or
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ent
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i
onst
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nci
palobj
ect
s:psy
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ogyandAf
r
i
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.Onei
ssue,t
hough,t
hat
t
hr
eat
enst
or
educet
hei
nf
l
uenceandsi
gni
f
i
canceofet
hnogr
aphi
cschol
ar
si
npsy
chol
ogyi
n
Af
r
i
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st
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ri
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st
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i
bi
ngadi
st
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nctki
ndof“
ment
al
i
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y
”t
ot
hepeopl
esof
Af
r
i
ca.Theseat
t
r
i
but
i
onshav
egener
al
l
yr
esul
t
edi
nadoubl
est
andar
dt
hatdef
i
nesAf
r
i
ca’
s
i
ndi
genouscul
t
ur
esandci
v
i
l
i
sat
i
onsasbei
ngsomewhati
nt
el
l
ect
ual
l
ysubst
andar
d.
Bi
bl
i
ogr
aphy
Ref
er
ence
Cr
eat
i
ngunst
abl
esoci
et
i
es(
Lawson,
Gr
aham,
&Baker
,
2007,
p.436)
TheAnnual
Rev
i
ewofSoci
ol
ogy19881991)edi
t
or
,
Scot
t
Soci
ol
ogi
cal
Resear
chAssoci
at
i
on(
20062007)
.
Dawes,
1998;
Mashegoane,
1998;
Nsamenang&Long,
2016)
,
Af
r
i
canPsy
chol
ogy
I
ndi
genouspsy
chol
ogi
es,
Rat
el
e(
2016:
5)
St
anf
or
dBusi
nessCl
assi
c,
2003)
,
:
ACompar
at
i
v
eAppr
oach,
wi
t
hPet
erM.Bl
au.