A Pragmatic Study of Speech Acts in School Speeches
Abstract
Principals use different types of speech acts to achieve different academic and
educational purposes like, directing, declaring, correcting attitudes of the students,
participating others' thoughts and ideas, etc. The problem that the researcher deals with in this
paper is that the occurrence of the types of speech acts in the English high school graduation
speeches is not equally used.
This study aims at: analyzing the five types of speech acts (assertives, commessives,
directives, declaratives and expressives) pragmatically in some selected English high school
graduation speeches and finding out which types of speech acts that are mostly used in those
speeches and what are the forms used in such speeches.
Using Searle's (1969) model, this paper arrives at the following conclusions: The
mostly used type of speech acts in school graduation speeches is directive. Assertives and
declarations are always expressed through declarative sentences. Directives are sometimes
realized by declarative but mostly by imperative sentences. School principals use all the five
types of speech acts in high school graduation speeches, but not equally.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract
ii
Table of contents
iii
1.1 Pragmatics
1
1.2 Speech Acts
1
1.3 Classification of Speech Acts
2
1.3.1 Austin's Classification
2
1.3.2 Searle's Classification
4
2. Sample Analysis
7
Bibliography
11
2
1.1 Pragmatics
Pragmatics is a modern term that can be attributed to the philosopher
Charles Moriss (1938) who is interested in putting the general form of a field of
signs or semiotics. Within semiotics, he separates three branches: syntax,
semantics and pragmatics (Levinson, 1983:1). Moriss (1933: 6, in Saeed: 1997:
17) defines pragmatics as a part of his theory of semiotics along with syntax and
semantics describing it as the study of "the relationship of signs to interpreters".
So, he takes pragmatics as the use of language by users in real situations.
He goes on to increase the range of pragmatics in harmony with his particular
behavioristic theory of semiotics which is adequately precise description of
pragmatics that it deals with all the psychological, biological, and sociological
phenomena (Levinson, 1983:2). Pragmatics is taken as a new area in linguistics
which has its roots in language philosophy. Philosophically, the origin of
pragmatics can be attributed to the work of Charles Morris, Rudolf Carnap and
Charles Peirce in the 1930s (Hung, 2007: 2).
1.2 Speech Acts
Searle (1969:16) points out that "speaking a language is performing
speech acts". Accordingly, to make statements, to give commands, to ask
questions, to make promises, etc. are considered to be speech acts. With specific
rules for using language, these acts are in general made possible. Language
communication includes linguistic acts because any kind of linguistic
communication is used for a certain kind of intention under certain conditions
(ibid: 16).
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Sadock (2006: 53) mentions that speech act theory displays "the suitable
balance between convention and intention". So, people can use language to greet
a guest, to request something, to fire somebody, etc. These are called 'speech
acts' done in the process of speaking. Yule (1996: 47) adds that actions achieved
by speaking are generally called 'speech acts' such as apology, complaint,
complement, invitation, promise or request.
Perkins (2007: 15) implies that speech acts theory is essentially concerned
with "the communicative functions of utterances in terms of what the speaker
aims to achieve by virtue of speaking and in terms of the resulting effect on the
addressee".
Crystal (2008: 424) mentions that speech acts are utterances which
perform different purposes such as requesting, greeting, advising, complaining,
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warning, persuading, etc. In linguistics, they are employed to comprise a theory
that scrutinizes the role of utterances in relation to the behavior of speaker and
hearer in interpersonal communication.
Speech acts theory is first indicated by the Austrian philosopher Ludwig
Wittgenstein's, then, in the middle of the twentieth century, it is developed by
the Oxford philosopher J. L. Austin. In the late 1930s, Austin forms the basic
ideas of speech acts theory which are presented in his lectures given at Oxford in
1952-4, and later in his William James lectures delivered at Harvard in 1955.
Finally, in 1962, these lectures are printed under the title How To Do Things
With Words which made an enormous influence on linguistics (Huang, 2007: 93,
Mey, 2001: 92).
Language has a sort of power used by its users in transmitting message
among each other. This power is often labelled as Speech Act Theory which
concerned with the role of communication performed by people especially in
their functions and actual acts (Taylor,1978: 357). According to Speech Acts
Theory, every utterance said by a speaker is to perform an action (Allan, 1986:
164, Yule, 1996: 47). Cook (1989: 35) maintains that to perform an action via
speech, there must be certain conditions available, and these conditions are
called 'felicity conditions'.
1.3 Classification of Speech Acts
The first developer who has observed the significant system of the
taxonomy of speech act is Austin, then after his death in 1960, Austin's ideas
were refined, systematized, and advised especially by his Oxford student, the
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American philosopher J. R. Searle. Finally Bach and Harnish together come
with their classification (mixed classification).
Because of the fact that numerous speech acts are found to make diverse
purposes, many prominent proposals for categorizing speech acts, mainly
Austin's (1962) categorization, Searle's (1969) categorization and Bach and
Harnish's (1979) categorization have been presented. The subsequent sections
are to present the three mentioned above prominent classifications.
1.3.1 Austin's Classification
Austin (1962) implies that not all utterances are only meant for
describing different things or matters, that is to say, they cannot be true or false,
but they may indicate certain performances and acts being performed. He
names such sorts of utterances as performatives or performative utterances to
distinguish them from constatives. Austin (1962: 5) observes that this comes
from the observation that sentences such as, I name this ship Queen Elizabeth
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can't be true or false, because by speaking such a sentence is obviously
performing an action but not describing a true or false activity.
Austin's (1962: 55-6) effort is to postulate a grammatical criterion by
which performative and constative utterances are differentiated from each other.
But when applying his postulation, it has many difficulties. He realizes that there
are inconsistent instances to the formula he put.
He acknowledges that many performative utterances are not conventional.
So, after dealing with the conventional performatives, he expands the range of
the performative utterances, but new problems emerge when dealing with these
perfomatives. Therefore, he subdivides performatives into two other terms:
explicit performatives and implicit performatives (ibid: 32-3).
He maintains that there is a correspondence between the explicit
performatives, that is to say, they contain explicit expressions, such as 'I bet', 'I
promise', 'I bequeath'. In addition, explicit performatives are generally indicative
in specifying the act, for example betting, promising, bequeathing (ibid).
On the other hand, due to their having no explicit performative verbs, the
implicit (or primary) performatives are designated by the 'primitive devices'
accompanying the speech, such as: mood, tone of voice, adverbs, connecting
particals and the circumstances of the utterance (ibid.: 73-6).
Finally,
Austin
(ibid.101)
abandons
the
performative/
constative
classification and presents a different classification by which he divides an
utterance into three acts. These acts are: Locutionary Act, Illocutionary Act and
Perlocutionary Act.
1. Locutionary Acts, are acts of uttering specific sounds and words that
comprises the creation of speech in combination of grammatical rules of a
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particular language and with definite senses and references (Sadock,
2006: 54).
2. Illocutionary Acts, are acts done in speaking denoting the action achieved
by a speaker via performative (marrying, christening etc.) or constative
(sating or asserting) utterances (ibid.:54-5).
3. Perlocutionary Acts, are the result or outcome of speaking. They are acts
done by speaking. So, they denote the effect of illocutionary act, such as
making people to refer to a specific ship as the 'Joseph Stalin', convincing
somebody to the reality of a statement, making somebody to the necessity
to do something (Sadock, 2006: 55).
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Austin (1962: 101) presents the examples below to show he difference
between these three acts. First, Locutionary Act: He said to me ''shoot her!"
meaning by shoot 'shoot' and referring by her to 'her'. Second, llocutionary Act:
He urged, advised or ordered me to shoot her. Finally, Perlocutionary Act: He
persuaded me to shoot her.
According to the illocutionary force, Austin (1962.151-2) presents five
general classes of speech acts.
1. Verdictives
They are typically used to give a verdict, as the name suggests, by a jury,
arbitrator, or umpire. These are employed to give findings based on
information that proves its fact or value.
- I congratulate you for doing so well.
2. Exercitives
These are used to express power, rights, or influence. They may be a
decision for something to be done. Exercitives and verdictives share
common feature that they are used by arbitrators and judges.
- I appoint you a chairman.
3. Commisives
They are used to commit or undertake the speaker to do a specific action
and they show declarations or announcement of intention.
- I promise to pay the debt.
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4. Behabitives
They are varied group and they are related with the social behaviour and
attitudes. Behabitives involve the notion of how to behave with others, the
reaction toward other people's behavior, and attitudes.
- I apologize for being late.
5. Expositives
They are used in a way to expound the views, conduct arguments and
clarify of usage and references. The verb examples of this are: affirm,
state, deny, remark, inform, swear, correct, etc.
- I state that he did it.
1.3.2 Searle's Classification
The American philosopher, Austin's student, John R. Searle advances and
organizes Austin's Speech Acts Theory. After his professor's death, he has a
vital role in maturing the Speech Acts Theory. He maintains that all 'linguistic
communication' comprises linguistic acts (Searle, 1969:16). But, adding that not
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all the verbs listed within the classes of Austin's classification of speech acts
really fulfill the definitions of the classes (ibid:10).
Searle (ibid:24) infers that performing an illocutionary act implies
performing, at the same time, the propositional and utterance acts. To perform a
speech act is to follow certain fundamental rules that establish the type of act
(Huang, 2007:104).
Searle puts twelve significant dimensions for classifying speech acts, but
depends only on three of them.
1. Differences in the point (or purpose) of the (type of) act
Searle (1979:2) points out that the aim of an „order‟ can be indicated by
saying that it is an attempt to get the listener to do something. But the aim
of a „description‟ is to represent something as “true, false, accurate or
inaccurate”. And the aim of a „promise‟ is that the speaker is obliged to
do something.
2. Differences in the direction of fit between words and the world
It is concerned with how to get the words and the world correspond with
each other. For instance, in „assertions‟ the words must match something
true in the world. But „promise‟ requires the speaker to achieve his
commitment, i.e. the world changes to fit the speaker's words (Searle,
1979:3).
3. Differences in the psychological states
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In this point, the speaker expresses a state or an attitude to the
propositional content. Searle (ibid. 4) states that "in the performance of
any illocutionary act with a propositional content, the speaker expresses
some attitude to the propositional content". That is to say, the speaker
expresses his psychological state when he speaks. He (ibid. 5) adds that
"the psychological state expressed in the performance of the illocutionary
act is the sincerity condition of the act".
The Basic Categories of Illocutionary Act
1. Assertives (or representatives)
The assertive type of speech acts has the purpose to commit the speaker to
the fact of the expressed proposition. All types of the assertive speech acts
are measurable on the criteria which comprises 'true' and 'false'.
Therefore, this class is literally characterized in true and false assessment.
The direction of fit of this class is words to the world, that is to make the
speaker to provide a true description of the reality (Searle, 1979: 12).
Examples of this class are:
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- Sun is bigger than earth.
2. Directives
This class has the illocutionary point which is an attempt by the addresser
to make the addressee to do something. The direction of fit is world-toword (ibid: 13). The propositional content is that the addressee performs
some future action, and the sincerity condition is 'want', 'wish' or 'desire'.
There are some verbs that fall under this class such as 'ask', 'order',
'command', 'request', 'beg', 'plead', 'pray', 'entreat', 'permit', 'advise',
'invite', 'dare', 'defy' and 'challenge'. Because they are attempts by the
addresser to make the addressee to answer, questions are subclasses of
directives (ibid: 14). Examples of directives are:
- Close the door.
3. Commissives
The illocutionary point of this class is to make the addresser commit
himself to achieve future action. The propositional content is that the
addresser performs some future action. The direction of fit is world-toword and the sincerity condition expressed is intention. (ibid: 14).
Examples of this class are:
- I'll buy a new car.
4. Expressives
The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state
of the speaker indicated in the propositional content. In this class, there is
no direction of fit between words and the world. The type of verbs that
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fall under expressives are 'thank', 'congratulate', 'apologize', 'condole',
'deplore', and 'welcome' (Searle, 1979: 15).
- Thank you for coming with us.
5. Declarations
The successful performance of this class is to match between the
propositional content and reality or world, i.e. to make change in a
situation. For example, if X successfully does the act of assigning Y
chairman, then Y is chairman; if X successfully does the act of declaring a
state of war, then war is on; if X successfully achieves the act of marrying
Y, then Y is married etc (ibid: 16-7).
According to Searle's perspective, "to perform a speech acts is to obey
certain conventional rules that are constitutive of that type of act". Those rules
are called the 'Felicity Conditions'. Searle has an essential impact on the Speech
Act Theory for he develops the original Austinian felicity conditions into four
fundamental categories (prepositional content, preparatory condition, sincerity
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condition, and essential condition) (Huang, 2007:105). Searle (1969: 65-68)
points that for an act to be achieved happily and successfully, the act must
meet certain necessary conditions. If all these conditions exist in an
utterance, the act will be achieved successfully. These conditions are:
1. Propositional Content Conditions
It is fundamentally concerned with what the speech act is about. The
propositional content of a promise, for example, is to predicate some
act of the addresser, but in the case of a request, it is to predicate some
future act of the listener (Huang, 2007:105).
2. Preparatory Conditions
Preparatory conditions indicate what the speaker implies in the
performance of the act. They "state the real-world prerequisites for the
speech act". For example, a promise has two preparatory conditions:
the listener prefers the act to be achieved, the speaker realizes this,
and it is clear to both the speaker and hearer that the action of a
promise will not be achieved in the normal course of action (ibid), that
is to say, a speaker cannot promise to do something he would be
expected to do any way.
3. Sincerity Conditions
They reflect what the speaker intends, believes, and desires in the
performance of the act. Sincerity conditions "must be satisfied if the
act is to be performed sincerely" as in the case of request and promise.
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Although, the act is still performed when the sincerity condition is not
achieved, but there will be an abuse (Huang, 2007:105).
4. Essential Conditions
They delimit the achieved act in the sense that the addresser has the
purpose that his utterance will be taken as the identifiable act and the
hearer should know that intention (ibid). For example, in making a
promise, request, etc., the speaker intends the utterance to count as a
promise, request, etc.
2. Sample Analysis:
The following examples below are samples of analysis taken from
different speeches in order to analyze the types of speech acts.
Example 1
It is a great honor for me as principal of Weston High School to present
the class of 2014 tonight. (Page: 108, Text: 1)
The principal in this utterance asserts that he is honored as a principal of
Weston High School to present the class of 2014. The type of speech acts of
this utterance is assertive (boasting). It is clear that the principal boasts about
presenting the class of 2014 because he says "it is a great honor for me…".
This speech has the following felicity conditions: propositional content
conditions, the speaker expresses a fact about his pride towards the class of
2014. Preparatory condition, the assertion of the principal is based on the
fact that she is the principal of the school. The sincerity condition shows the
fact that the principal believes in what she asserts. And the essential
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condition indicates that what the principal asserts is real about his pride. This
example has the following realization: it is active, present tense, declarative,
positive.
Example 2
As you prepare to leave us, remember the importance of perseverance.
(Page: 109, Text: 1)
The type of speech act used in this example is directive (ordering). The
indication of ordering is that the sentence begins with a verb. The speaker
directs her students to remember the importance of perseverance. The
prepositional content condition: shows the prediction of the speaker that the
students will perform a future action. Preparatory condition: includes in the
speaker's position and authority as a principal to give orders to the students.
The sincerity condition is that the principal wants her ordered action done by
them sincerely. And the essential condition has to do with the fact that the
principal intends her utterance as an attempt to get the students to remember
the importance of perseverance. This example has the following realization: it
is active, present tense, and imperative, positive.
Example 3
As you leave Weston and begin a new journey, my advice is to keep it
simple and follow your heart. Don’t spend so much time planning your
future that you ignore your present. (Page: 109, Text: 1)
The type of speech act used in this example is directive (advising). The
indication of advice is the use of the expression my advice. The speaker
17
directs her students to keep it simple, follow their heart and do not spend
much time on future and neglecting the present. The prepositional content
condition: shows the prediction of the speaker that the students will perform
a future action. Preparatory condition: the principal has a reason to believe
that the act will benefit the hearer. The sincerity condition, the principal
believes the act benefits the hearer. And the essential condition counts as an
undertaking to the effect that the act is in the students' interest. This example
has the following realization: it is active, present tense, imperative, positive.
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Example 4
Listen to your hearts and persevere through the journey that awaits you.
(Page: 110, Text: 1)
The principal directs her students to listen to their hearts and to preserve through
the journey that awaits them. The type of speech act used in this example is
directive (ordering). The indication of ordering is clear through the use of the
verb at the beginning at the sentence. The prepositional content condition: shows
the prediction of the speaker that the students will perform a future action.
Preparatory condition: includes in the speaker's position and authority as a
principal to give orders to the students. The sincerity condition is that the
principal wants her ordered action done by them sincerely. And the essential
condition has to do with the fact that the principal intends her utterance as an
attempt to get the students to listen to their hearts and to preserve through the
journey that awaits them. This example has the following realization: it is active,
present tense, imperative, positive.
Example 5
Good evening. (Page: 111, Text: 2)
In this utterance, the principal greets the addressees. The type of speech acts
used is expressive (greeting). The indication of greeting is clear from the
expression. The preparatory condition shows the fact that the principal has just
been introduced to the addressees, and the essential condition reflects the
principal's polite recognition to the hearers. This example has the following
realization: it is active, present tense, declarative, positive.
Example 6
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After her long career leading our school district, Dr. Duvall is retiring this
year, making this her final graduation. (Page: 111, Text: 2)
The principal declares to the listeners that Dr. Duvall is retiring this year. The
type of speech acts of this sentence is declaration (declaring). The indication of
declaring is that the principal declared something about Dr. Duvall. In the
prepositional content condition, the principal informs the listeners that Dr.
Duvall is retiring this year. The preparatory condition, the speaker uses his
authority as a principal and declares this sentence, the sincerity condition, the
principal wants his utterance to be a declaration and the essential condition,
counts as a change in the academic situation of Dr. Duvall. This example has the
following realization: it is active, present tense, declarative, positive.
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Example 7
All right, Seniors, I want you to think back over your last 12 or 13 years of
school and I want you to think about all that you have learned along the
way. (Page: 112, Text: 2)
The principal directs the students to think back about the years of school and
about what they have learned. The type of speech act used in this example is
directive (ordering). The indication of ordering is clear from the use of the
expression I want you.The prepositional content condition: shows the prediction
of the principal that the students will perform a future action. Preparatory
condition: includes in the speaker's position and authority as a principal to order
his students. The sincerity condition is that the principal wants his order done by
them sincerely. And the essential condition has to do with the fact that the
principal intends his utterance as an attempt to get the students to think back
about the years of school and about what they have learned. This example has
the following realization: it is active, present tense, imperative, positive.
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