PSY 105 - Perspectives in Psychology Midterm Review Key Terms - Chapter One sh Th is ar stu ed d vi y re aC s o ou urc rs e eH w er as o. co m Psychology - study of knowledge and reality Behaviour - observable activities of an organism, often in response to environmental causes Mental Processes - activities of our brain when thinking, observing, and using language Culture - set of shared beliefs and practices that are transmitted across generations Consciousness - personal awareness of ongoing mental processes, behaviours Voluntarism - theory in which will is regarded as the ultimate agency in human behaviour Introspection - method in psychological study involving careful evaluation of mental processes and how simple thoughts expand into complex ideas Structuralism - attempt to identify all elements of consciousness Functionalism - function of the brain and how it adapts to changing environments Gestalt Psychology - field of psychology arguing that we have inborn tendencies to structure what we see in particular ways Unconscious - hypothesized repository of thoughts, feelings, and sensations outside human awareness Psychoanalytic Theory - belief that people’s behaviours are based on their unconscious desires and conflicts Behaviourism - branch of psychological thought arguing that psychology should study only directly observable behaviours rather than abstract mental processes Stimuli - elements of the environment that trigger changes in our internal or external state Response - the way we react to stimuli Punishment - an experience that produced a decrease in a particular behaviour Reinforcement - a learning process that increases the likelihood a given response will be repeated Humanistic Psychology - theory that sought to give greater prominence to special and unique features of human functioning Information Processing - the means by which information is stored and operate internally Cognitive Psychology - field that studies mental processes as forms of information processing, or the ways in which information is stored Client-Centered Therapy - an approach to therapy based on the notion that the client is an equal, and positive gains are made by mirroring client's thoughts and feelings Cross-Cultural Psychology - study of what is generally or universally true about human beings in regards to culture Cultural Psychology - study of how cultural practices shape psychological and behavioural tendencies and influence human behaviour Neuroscience - study of psychological functions by looking at biological foundations of those functions Sociobiologists - theorists who believe humans have a genetically innate concept of how social behaviour should be organized Evolutionary Psychology - field of study believing that the body and brain are products of evolution and that genetic inheritance plays an important role in shaping the complete range of thoughts and behaviours This study source was downloaded by 100000823340137 from CourseHero.com on 05-17-2021 11:27:14 GMT -05:00 https://www.coursehero.com/file/27068605/PSY-105-Midterm-Reviewdocx/ is ar stu ed d vi y re aC s o ou urc rs e eH w er as o. co m Behavioural Genetics - subfield of psychology looking at the influence of genes on human behaviour Cultural Universality - behaviours and practices that occur across all cultures Academic Psychology - branch of psychology focusing on research and instruction in the various areas or fields of study in psychology Applied Psychology - branch of psychology applying psychological principles to practical problems in other fields, such as education, marketing, or industry Clinical and Counselling Psychology - study of abnormal psychological behaviour and interventions designed to change that behaviour Collectivist - a culture whose members focus more on the needs of the group and less on individual desires Individualistic - a culture that places the wants or desires of the person over the needs of the group Social Neuroscience - study of social functioning and how it is tied to brain activity Cognitive Neuroscience - study of mental processes and how they relate to the biological functions of the brain Before you go on Questions - Chapter One 1. How is behaviour different from mental processes? How are they the same? Mental processes describe the activity of our brains when we are engaged in thinking, processing information, etc. Behaviour is our observable activities that we project outwards. The two are obviously very different due to the fact that one is happening internally and the other is happening outwards. They are related because our mental processes affect our behaviours. 2. What are the three levels of analysis in psychology? The three levels are the brain, the person, and the group. The brain is how brain structure and activity differs from each individual and situation. The person is how an individual’s mental processes form and influence behaviour. The group is how behaviour is shaped by social and cultural environment. 3. What did the earliest myths have in common with today’s scientific studies? Th Early myths sought out to explain or rationalize fundamental mysteries of life and are common among all cultures. Theorists today believe that myths reflect the innate human need to understand people and the natural world. Science is similar is this way because it represents our attempt to describe, explain, predict, and control our reality. sh 4. Greek philosophers who believed reasoning would uncover ideals or core ideas were focused on which aspect of psychology? Early Greek philosophers took great steps forward in theories focussed on our core understanding of mental states and processes, which would eventually become the building blocks of modern psychology. 5. How did the Greek philosopher Hippocrates explain mental processes and behaviour? How did Hippocrates research methods influence today’s study of psychology? This study source was downloaded by 100000823340137 from CourseHero.com on 05-17-2021 11:27:14 GMT -05:00 https://www.coursehero.com/file/27068605/PSY-105-Midterm-Reviewdocx/ He believed that individual’s psychology was influenced by four vital fluids, also known as humours. These four fluids are: blood, black bile, yellow bile, and phlegm. Collectively, these fluids made up a person’s well being and influenced their actions. He tested his theory and because of his efforts, academic study has become rooted in detailed scientific methods of study. 6. What is introspection, and which early school of psychologists relied most heavily upon it? Introspection is a method in which we observe the details of mental processes and how they expand simple thoughts into complex ideas; this requires self-observation and self-reflection in an individual. Structuralists relied heavily on this method. 7. What is the main difference in approach between functionalism and structuralism? is ar stu ed d vi y re aC s o ou urc rs e eH w er as o. co m Structuralism is the approach that studies the structure of the conscious mind, depicting the parts and how they’re related, while functionalism focuses on the function or purpose rather than the the structure. 8. What did the Gestalt psychologists study? They believed that we are all born with inborn tendencies to impose structure on what we see, and these tendencies cause us to perceive things in a broad perceptual unit as opposed to individual sensations. For example, when looking at a computer screen, we know it’s made up of little pixels but our brains put it together to produce a whole image. 9. Which theorist is most closely associated with psychoanalytic theory - the theory that unconscious conflicts, rooted in childhood, affect much of our behaviour? Sigmund Freud developed this theory. He believed that our childhood experiences help set the stage for later psychological functioning by contributing interactions among conscious and unconscious forces. 10. According to behaviourist theorists, what are the various reinforcement principles, and what impact does each have on behaviour? Th The two types of reinforcement are positive and negative. Positive reinforcement brings out a desired outcome, and negative reinforcement tries to change behaviour to avoid an undesired outcome. Punishment is another principle in which an experience produces a decrease in a particular behaviour. 11. What did humanist theorist Abraham Maslow suggest is the ultimate goal of human beings? sh He believed that as human beings we are all striving towards something called “selfactualization”. It’s a broad motive in which humans fill their special potential, leading to a happy life. 12. What are cognitions? This study source was downloaded by 100000823340137 from CourseHero.com on 05-17-2021 11:27:14 GMT -05:00 https://www.coursehero.com/file/27068605/PSY-105-Midterm-Reviewdocx/ Cognition is the mental processes involved in knowing, perceiving, and remembering and includes research in areas such as decision-making, problem solving, and understanding language. 13. What is the main idea of evolutionary psychology? The main idea is that the body and brain are products of evolution, and much of our thoughts and behaviours come from our inherited genetics. 14. What are the three major branches of psychology? First is academic psychology which focuses on research and teaching in a specific area of psychology. Applied psychology is the application of psychology in other fields such as education, marketing, or law. Clinical and counselling psychology is the study of abnormal behaviour and the attempts to help individuals overcome those. is ar stu ed d vi y re aC s o ou urc rs e eH w er as o. co m 15. What is cultural universality, and what kinds of psychologists are interested in it? Cultural universality is behaviour and practices that occur across all cultures. Evolutionary psychologists are interested in this because they believe by studying universal behaviours, they can uncover inborn functions all humans are prone to. 16. What is the focus of positive psychology? Positive psychology studies human strengths, fulfillment, and creativity. Many believe that psychology focuses too much on the bad and ways to overcome it, so positive psychology looks at happiness, meaning, and the factors that make life worthwhile. Key Terms - Chapter Two sh Th Deductive Reasoning - reasoning proceeding from broad basic principles applied to specific situations Biases - distorted beliefs based on a person’s subjective sense of reality Inductive Reasoning - reasoning process proceeding from small specific situations to more general truths Empirical - able to be tested in objective ways Theories - ideas about laws that govern phenomena Hypothetico-Deductive Reasoning - process in which scientists begin with an educated guess about something then set out to make observations/studies to support or invalidate their hypothesis Hypothesis - general statement about the way variables relate that is objectively falsifiable Variable - condition, event, or situation that is studied in an experiment Independent Variable - the variable that you manipulate (cause) Dependant Variable - the outcome variable that the researcher measures to see if changes in the IV effect it Operationalize - develop a working definition of a variable that allows you to test it Sample - a portion of any population that is selected for the study Random Selection - randomly choosing a sample from a population Descriptive Research Methods - research method used to observe and describe behaviour This study source was downloaded by 100000823340137 from CourseHero.com on 05-17-2021 11:27:14 GMT -05:00 https://www.coursehero.com/file/27068605/PSY-105-Midterm-Reviewdocx/ is ar stu ed d vi y re aC s o ou urc rs e eH w er as o. co m Case Study - study focusing on a single person Naturalistic Observation - study in which researchers directly observe people in a study behaving as they normally would Hawthorne Effect - when people know they’re being observed, they change their behaviour to act better Survey - researchers give participants a questionnaire or interview Experiment - examines how one variable causes another variable to change Experimental Group - the group that is exposed to the IV (manipulation or treatment) Control Group - the group that isn’t exposed to the IV; this group is used to compare how the IV changes the DV Double-Blind Procedure - study in which neither the participant nor the researcher knows what treatment or procedure the participant is receiving Correlation - predictable relationship between two or more variables Correlation Coefficient - statistic expressing the strength and nature of a relationship between two variables Positive Correlation - when one variable increases, the other increases Negative Correlation - when one variable increases, the other decreases Perfect Correlation - one in which two variables are exactly related, such that low, medium, and high scores on both variables are always exactly related Mean - average of a set of scores Standard Deviation - how much participants’ scores in a group vary from one another Replication - repeated testing of a hypothesis to ensure that the results you achieve in one experiment are not due to chance Research Ethics Board - research oversight group that evaluates research to protect the rights of participants in the study Informed Consent - obtain permission from the participant before the study starts after letting the participant know what the study involves and the risks and benefits of participating Debriefing - supplying full information to participants at the end of their participation in a research study Before you go On - Chapter 2 1. What are the two core beliefs of a science? The two core beliefs are: the universe operate according to certain natural laws; such laws are discoverable and testable. Th 2. What is the difference between inductive and deductive reasoning? sh Deductive reasoning is reasoning proceeding from broad basic principles applied to specific situations while inductive reasoning is reasoning proceeding from small specific situations to more general truths. 3. What is the difference between a hypothesis and a theory? A hypothesis is a general statement about the way two variables relate that can be falsifiable while a theory is an idea about laws that govern phenomena. 4. What is the hypothetico-deductive method? This study source was downloaded by 100000823340137 from CourseHero.com on 05-17-2021 11:27:14 GMT -05:00 https://www.coursehero.com/file/27068605/PSY-105-Midterm-Reviewdocx/ The hypothetico-deductive method is a process in which scientists begin with an educated guess about something and then set out to make a small controlled observation to either support or disprove their hypothesis. 5. What are the four goals of psychology? The four goals are describing, explaining, predicting, and controlling the phenomena that’s being studied. It differs from science though in the fact that mental processes and behaviours are constantly changing among humans. 6. Which variable is controlled or manipulated by an experimenter? is ar stu ed d vi y re aC s o ou urc rs e eH w er as o. co m The independent variable is the thing being manipulated. For example, if there is a study to see who does better on a test, students who studied for a week and students for studied for a day, the independent variable would be the student because their outcome on the test depends on the amount of studying they did. 7. What are three descriptive research methods used in psychology? There’s the case study method, naturalistic observation, and surveys. The case study method is an intensive study of one or two people, often observing behaviours that are uncommon or rare. The naturalistic observation is systemic people watching to observe their natural behaviours. The survey method asks people directly about their behaviours and can be conducted in person, online, etc. in order to reach a large population. 8. Which research method allows researchers to say that one variable causes another? Experimental research methods are used in order to see how one variable causes the other to change. 9. What two pieces of information does a correlation coefficient give about the relationship between variables? Th The correlation coefficient shows whether there’s a positive or negative relationship between variables (eg. violent video games make for aggressive behaviour). In this example, if it were true, the correlation would be positive; if it were untrue, then it would be negative. The correlation coefficient also gives us a number between 1 and -1; the number shows how strong/weak the correlation is; the higher the number, the stronger the correlation between two variables. 10. What do the mean and standard deviation tell you about scores of a group? sh The mean is the average score of all results, and the standard deviation is how scores between individuals vary. The mean describes the overall results from an experiment/observation while the standard deviation looks more in depth at how each individual varies. 11. What does a research ethics board do? A research ethics board is considered the ethics police. They make sure everyone involved in an experiment/research study follows the proper ethical procedures which include receiving consent This study source was downloaded by 100000823340137 from CourseHero.com on 05-17-2021 11:27:14 GMT -05:00 https://www.coursehero.com/file/27068605/PSY-105-Midterm-Reviewdocx/ from participants, making sure no one is harmed, promising confidentiality, and provide debriefing. 12. What is informed consent and how does it relate to debriefing? Informed consent is the requirement that researches give as much detail about the purpose, procedures, risks, and benefits of the study so participants can make a decision of whether they want to participate or not. Debriefing is related to this because as part of a study, debriefing after it’s done is required because there might be some information that might alter their thinking during the study, so this information would be released at the end to fully explain the purpose and what is being studied. Key Term - Chapter Three sh Th is ar stu ed d vi y re aC s o ou urc rs e eH w er as o. co m Neuroscience - the study of the brain and the nervous system Neuroimaging - techniques that allow for studying brain activity and structure by obtaining visual images in awake humans CAT Scan - computerized axial tomography MRI - magnetic resonance imaging DTI - diffuser tension imager PET - positron emission tomography FMRI - functional magnetic resonance imaging Neuron - a nerve cell Dendrites - receive information from other neurons and sensory receptors Axon - carries the neuron’s message to other neurons Axon Terminal - end of a neuron’s axon from which neurotransmitters are released Glia - cells that also help the nervous system Astroglia - create the blood-brain barrier regulate flow of blood into different brain regions Resting Potential - electrical charge of a neuron when it is at rest Ion Channels - pores in the cell membrane Action Potential - sudden positive change in the neuron’s axon Depolarization - inside of the neuron membrane becomes less negative relative to the outside Hyperpolarization - inside of the neuron membrane becomes more negative relative to the outside Myelin - insulates the axons Refractory Period - immediately after a neuron has fired it cannot fire again Synapses - tiny gaps between neurons where chemicals pass Neurotransmitters - chemicals that transmit information across synapses to receiving neuron’s dendrites Serotonin - neurotransmitter involved in activity levels and mood regulation Neurotransmitter Receptors - proteins in the membranes of neuron that bind to neurotransmitters Postsynaptic Potentials - electrical events in postsynaptic neurons that occur when a neurotransmitter binds to one of its receptors Stem Cells - undifferentiated cells that can divide to create new cells that have the potential to become any other cell type Neuroplasticity - brain’s ability to create new neural pathways as a result of experience or following an injury This study source was downloaded by 100000823340137 from CourseHero.com on 05-17-2021 11:27:14 GMT -05:00 https://www.coursehero.com/file/27068605/PSY-105-Midterm-Reviewdocx/ sh Th is ar stu ed d vi y re aC s o ou urc rs e eH w er as o. co m Hindbrain - brain area that coordinates information coming into/out of spinal cord, and controls basic functions of life Medulla - coordinates heart rate, circulation, and respiration Reticulum Formation - regulates sleep, wakefulness, and arousal level Cerebellum - controls fine motor skills Pons - relays information from the cerebellum to the rest of the brain Thalamus - serves as a relay station for incoming sensory information Hypothalamus - important for motivation, basic drives, and control of endocrine system Pituitary Gland - regulates hormones Hippocampus - important for certain types of learning and memory Amygdala - involved in processing information about emotions, particularly fear Striatum - produces fluid movements and helps with learning and memory that require conscious awareness Nucleus Accumbens - important for motivation, reward, and addiction Prefrontal Cortex - memory, morality, mood, planning Parietal Lobe - sensory integration Occipital Lobe - vision Temporal Lobe - hearing, reorganizing complex visual stimuli This study source was downloaded by 100000823340137 from CourseHero.com on 05-17-2021 11:27:14 GMT -05:00 https://www.coursehero.com/file/27068605/PSY-105-Midterm-Reviewdocx/ Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)
