A critical review of “The Psychology of Working: A New
Framework for Counselling Practice and Public Policy”
The aim of this essay is to review and critically analyse “The Psychology of Working:
A New Framework for Counselling Practice and Public Policy” by Blustein et al 2008.
First, I will provide a summary of the article by presenting the main content and key
features. Then, based on my own work, I will critically analyse the article drawing from
relevant literature while reflecting on how the article informs my practice.
Summary
Introduction
According to the authors of this article, traditional theories of career counselling are of
limited use to those who are marginalised due to their social status. To tackle this
issue, the authors present and expand on the psychology-of-working perspective (D.
L. Bluestein, 2006; M. S. Richardson, 1993) though which they provide a critique to
the field for its luck of engagement with the marginalised of the world and at the same
time present psychology-of-working as a meta-perspective intended to work together
with the traditional career development theories of Holland, 1997, Lent et al., 2002 and
Super, 1980 to create an inclusive psychological practice. A case-study is presented
by the authors for illustration purposes. Proposals for changes in public policy are also
outlined.
The main aims of the article are the following:

Create a more inclusive view of working, one that accommodates the majority of
people around the world who do not have access to jobs that correspond to their
interests and attributes nor fulfils their hopes and values.

Acknowledge and understand what it means for the majority of the world’s
population to perform jobs that can be painful, tedious, and condescending and
consider ways to alter this experience.

Promote systemic and institutional changes to create better work environments
and increase access to educational and occupational recourses and
opportunities.

Steer the field toward placing work in a more central role in terms of the
intersection it has with other aspects of life.

Convince researchers and practitioners in the field that work, being a key aspect
of human experience, should gain a more central role in counselling practice.

Expand the evolving psychology-of-working framework with practices and
applications (such as SDT of Deci and Ryan 2000) that are relevant in
contemporary career counselling.

Inspire practitioners to explore new roles and responsibilities in their efforts to
promote career development for the full range of workers and potential workers
around the globe.
To begin with, it is useful to highlight a significant distinction that is present throughout
the whole article and is implicit in the psychology-of-working perspective: the
distinction between the privileged and the marginalised. The authors bring out this
distinction to point out a lack of engagement in counselling discourse and practice.
This is where the authors are aiming to draw the attention of scholars and practitioners
in the field.
The authors define the privileged as those pertaining to the middle class, individuals
with relative access to resources including educational and vocational opportunities,
those who experience different degrees of privilege and can thus exercise choice and
agency in their working lives. For these people work may act as another way for them
to express and determine themselves (Richardson, 1993).
In comparison, the marginalised are the poor or other groups that have been ignored
or discriminated against due to amongst other reasons: their sexual orientation,
immigration status, gender and racial background. What all the marginalised have in
common is a lack of access to resources both material and social. For the marginalised
work is a means of survival rather than a way for them to satisfy their interests and
values, express their talents and identity. Choice itself is not a typical construct for the
marginalized.
Besides the lack of engagement with the marginalised, the authors also criticize the
field for creating an artificial and unhelpful division between work-related and
socioemotional issues. They argue that work-related, psychosocial and emotional
problems are intertwined in complex ways and cannot always be dealt with separately.
Solutions for this issue is also suggested by the authors with the perspective of
inclusive psychological practice (Blustein 2006) which I summarise in section
‘Implications for Practice’.
Function of Work in Human Experience
The authors, citing the work of Quick & Tetrick, 2003 put forward the view that work is
a central part of human life and a primary contributor to the overall well-being of
individuals. The role of work in different cultures, races, sexes, and social classes, can
vary significantly, ranging from the promotion of wellbeing to causing harm and
distress. The authors break down the Function of Work in Human Experience
according to the needs that it fulfils: survival, power, social connection, and
self-determination.
Survival
Through work, and more specifically the remuneration that people attain from work,
they are able to meet their most basic survival needs as outlined by Maslow’s (1968)
for food, water, clothing, security, warmth and shelter. Only after these basic needs
are met can individuals endeavour to fulfil “higher” needs by finding work through
which they can express and develop their personal interests and self-concepts.
Identity
Through work people can create and express their identity. And even though a very
useful concept, the notion of a “grand career narrative” is an endeavour which remains
beyond the grasp of many of the marginalised.
Power
Work, by granting access to material and social resources is instrumental for satisfying
the human need for psychological, economic, and social power (Blustein, 2006).
Unfortunately, many people due to structural barriers have limited access to
opportunities such as quality education and training, that lead to work with access to
resources (Blustein, 2006).
Social Connection
Work, by providing a venue for connecting to other human beings, gives people the
means to satisfy their need for social connection and attachment to others. Supportive
relationships can be pivotal in helping people negotiate some of the challenges of
working such as finding work in the first place, learning new skills and dealing with job
stressors.
Contribution
Through their offer to the wider society by means of their work, people may be able to
address their need for contribution and connection to the broader social context.
Self-determination
Work provides people the opportunity for self-determination (Blustein, 2006). Selfdetermination is “the privilege of selecting work that corresponds with their personal
interests and attributes or that is a viable forum for the expression of their self-concept”
(Blustein 2008, p 298). Unfortunately, the reality for many people is that they are not
in a position to choose work that matches their interests or gives them a channel
through which to express their self-concept. Rather, they perform jobs that can be
painful, monotonous, and even condescending.
The authors present the self-determination theory SDT of Deci and Ryan 2000 as a
psychological perspective that can help improve the experience of working for people
who perform tasks that are not interesting to them (intrinsically un-motivating).
According to Ryan and Deci (2000) if people have (1) prospects for autonomy, (2)
relatedness, and (3) competence, work that is extrinsically (money) but not intrinsically
(interesting) motivating can become more gratifying and meaningful. The authors also
add another two factors suggested by Blustein (2006) (4) value congruence and (5)
access to the opportunity structure. Value congruence exists when the personal values
of the employee coincide with those of their employer. Access to the opportunity
structure refers to the capacity of the employees to utilize resources and supports so
that they could more easily adapt to their work environment and their tasks while also
making their work experiences more rewarding.
Implications for Practice
In this section of the article the authors describe the implications for practice that the
psychology-of-working perspective brings to the field of career counselling. They
endeavour to accomplish this by introducing the concept of Inclusive Psychological
Practice along with two recommendations and four overarching objectives.
Through the concept of Inclusive Psychological Practice, the authors assert that
working, due to it being such a major aspect of the human experience, should be a
focal point in counselling practice (Richardson, 1993).
As such the authors recommend that firstly, issues related to work are given proper
attention in the counselling process and secondly, the client should actively participate
in deciding how much space will be given to work related issues during the counselling
sessions and how to address these issues.
The four overarching objectives for inclusive psychological practice are presented to
provide guidance and support to counsellors to deal with 21st-century workforce
struggles and dilemmas by creating individualized goals fashioned to meet a client’s
specific needs (Blustein, 2006).
Fostering empowerment
In the context of psychology of working, empowerment is defined as “the development
of goal-directed behaviours that also lead to mastery within relevant domains”
(Bluestein 2006, p. 278).
In counselling practice, we aim to empower our clients by helping them become
assertive in their life and to support them to develop their talents, skills, abilities and
emotional resources including confidence so that they can identify their objectives and
plan effectively to achieve their goals (Blustein 2006, Richardson, 2000). In terms of
the skills most significant these are basic math and writing skills and interpersonal
skills.
In terms of emotional resources, the capacity to tolerate change and uncertainty as
well as to be flexible and committed to continues development is becoming a necessity
in the current global economy (Friedman, 1999).
Fostering critical consciousness
The authors of the article propose that both clients and counsellors would benefit from
developing critical consciousness. This is the ability to observe and understand the
structural aspects of the world including economic and socio-political factors and act
on these insights (Bluestein 2006). Counsellors need to be aware about how these
barriers affect their clients so that they can intervene accordingly and not blame the
clients for being socially oppressed (Blustein, 2006). In order for the counsellor to be
able to foster critical consciousness she needs to be willing to understand her own
privilege and bring that understanding to her work with the client (Prilleltensky, 1997).
Promoting clients’ skill-building for the changing workforce
The authors of the article assert that in order to help clients find meaningful
employment counsellors need to help them assess their transferable skills, detect the
skills they will need to become employable and help them access resources to gain
these skills. Expanding their scope of practice, counsellors take on a case
management role as they help clients gain access to services and training programs.
Providing scaffolding in support of volition and the role of advocacy
The authors suggest that counsellors cannot maintain a traditional counselling role if
they are to enable their clients overcome the systemic and structural obstacles that
they will face. The psychology-of-working framework proposes that mental health
practitioners, must challenge the status quo by incorporating advocacy and social
justice initiatives into their practice to support clients overcome these obstacles and
succeed.
Case Study
Leonard’s case is presented as a way for the authors to illustrate the application of the
psychology-of-working perspective.
In brief…
Leonard is a 45-year-old Haitian-American with symptoms of PTSD and depression.
Due to an injury he is suffering from chronic pain and reduced mobility. Leonard is able
to function relatively well in preforming everyday tasks. Leonard served in the U.S.
military and then earned a degree in business. He worked for 18 years at a local
company that he has been recently laid-off from. He currently lives alone but pays
alimony and child support for his ex-wife and two children. He has been looking for
work consistently, and feels that he has been discriminated against based on his age
and/or his race.
The authors propose that the career counsellor in this case would have to assume
multiple roles such as counsellor, coach, case manager, and advocate to support
Lenard in different ways:











Understand the way he is feeling due to his employment situation.
Understand how his symptoms of PTSD may be triggered by his employment
situation.
Explore the pressures of his gender role as it relates to his family situation and
the obligations that arise from them.
Explore issues of change and flexibility. By using a strengths based approach,
bring out ways in which Leonard has shown flexibility such as his experience
as an immigrant, to develop his confidence in dealing with ambiguity.
Use an interest assessment tool to help Leonard discover other possibilities.
Use Savickas’s (2002) career construction model to help him make sense of
his personal narrative in relation to his current job search.
Assess his transferable skills, to create a clearer picture of how his experience
and qualities fit with the needs of the labour market.
Help him see his qualities (excellent work history, loyalty and dependability) and
develop and internalize a narrative that is empowering.
Decide on needs for skills training and help him accesses resources and
services to realise this.
Validate Leonard’s preoccupations about racism and discrimination and help
him process this experience.
Bring authenticity to the therapeutic relationship by the counsellor being open
about her own privilege.
Implications for Public Policy
Introduction
The authors present the theses that mental health professionals should aim to promote
broad social change as part of their practice and that there is a need for counsellors
to consider how their work should inform public policy and larger systems. The present
the proposals under 3 headings Education and School-to-Work Policy, Training and
Development, Unemployment and Underemployment Policy.
Education and School-to-Work Policy
The authors advocate for the promotion of psychoeducational interventions in school
and at work as well as promoting work-based learning experiences like internships
and apprenticeships to improve skill development and assist the move from school to
meaningful and satisfying jobs.
Training and Development
The authors promote the involvement of counsellors in creating and delivering training
and development programs of the current and future workforce, programs that are
created based on the frame of reference of the clients. Training and development
programs should be structured to:
 provide labour-market-ready skills.
 develop basic academic skills.
 enhance interpersonal skills and tolerance for uncertainty.
Training and development policies should be constantly refined to match the
constantly changing circumstances within the labour market.
Unemployment and Underemployment Policy
Many of the unemployed are people who cannot afford career counselling services
and are thus left outside the conversations and research of the career counselling
field. These underserved and disenfranchised groups need to be brought into the
conversation and increase the awareness and understanding of their circumstances
and experiences. Changes in public policy, education and training programs are
needed to create appropriate interventions “so that access to work becomes a right
that all citizens enjoy”. (p. 305)
Conclusion
Through the psychology-of-working perspective, the authors offer a critique both of the
status quo and of the field of career counselling by pointing out that certain parts of
the population remain unaddressed in both public policy and clinical practice. At the
same time, the authors present a set of ideas that aim to expand the conversation
within the field of career counselling as well as develop a more inclusive, socially just
and meaningful counselling practice. The authors also propose adjustments in public
policy that could reduce inequity by distributing resources in places where they are
needed most.
Critical Analysis
Introduction
Even though there is ample scope for evaluation and analysis of this article, I took the
opportunity of it being very relevant to my current employment (in an NGO hosting
unaccompanied minors who are seeking asylum) to base my analysis on my current
work using a case study (biographical information have been altered to cover the true
identity of the individual). Using my experience has provided me with a frame of
reference upon which to evaluate the applicability of the recommendations by the
authors on an actual situation while having the opportunity to reflect on my own
practice. I begin the critical review with a section about transparency.
Transparency
The authors of the article propose that the counsellor needs to practice in a transparent
way especially in relation to their own privilege in order to truly meet their client:
“Like Prilleltensky (1997), we believe that psychological practice is value laden and,
consequently, that practitioners need to be transparent…However, in this
transparency… client concerns, needs, and perspectives are still honoured…
Fostering critical consciousness in the counseling process requires the counselor to
be willing to explore his or her own privilege, access to opportunities, and prejudices
as these economic, cultural, and sociopolitical systemic factors are discussed and
explored with the client (Prilleltensky, 1997; Sue, 2004).”
I find the practice of transparency that the authors propose in this article to be very
relevant and appropriate to career counselling with marginalised people. As Carl
Rorgers (1956) indicated, it is a necessary condition for therapeutic practice that the
therapist applies himself in a genuine, integrated way in the relationship without
presenting a professional or a personality facade (Mearns and Thorne 2007). In line
with person centred practice, the authors here propose that the counsellor performs
the intentional act of exploring one’s own privilege and then bringing it to the therapy
room to serve the therapeutic work. This is a kind of self-knowledge that the counsellor
can put into action to benefit the client (Rennie 2004). This does not imply that the
counsellor communicates all that he feels and thinks in the relationship but rather what
is helpful to the client (Rogers 1956).
In terms of my own social status, I consider myself as one of the privileged ones that
the authors of this article refer to. I was raised in a middle class family with access to
resources including educational and vocational opportunities and have been able, to
a significant extent, to exercise choice and agency in my working life. I have been
following a lifestyle that has allowed me to express myself and my identity and this has
meant that during big parts of my life I choose not to work, or volunteered instead. Part
of my privileged lifestyle also included having a passport that allowed me to travel to
many countries, stay in some of them for extended periods of time and to even work
legally in some of them. Even when the work I did was not legal, my privilege gave me
a degree of choice in terms of the kind of work I did and the employer I had. My values
and interests as well as the expression of my own identity have always played a
significant role in choosing the kind of work I did and I recognize that this is a sign of
privilege.
Case study
Lamar, is an 18-year-old boy from Congo. His father died a few years back and the
traditions of his tribe dictated his mother to marry his father’s older brother. She
refused to marry him thus rejecting their tribal tradition which made her a social
outcast, isolated, with no social support. Lamar met a European man who visited his
village and became friends. The European man offered to pay for Lamar to come to
Europe and so he did. His journey brought him to Cyprus. Lamar’s goal is to be able
to work so he can support his mum who he is very fond of, worried about and feels
responsible for.
Even though Lamar’s main goal is to find work, I agree with the authors of the article
that an inclusive psychological practice is needed. As such we allowed for the
expression of the deep sadness and haunting worry that Lamar was experiencing:
sadness for having left his loved ones and being so far away, in a foreign place, alone,
terribly worried for his mum and sister who are facing a very hard situation whereby
meeting their basic survival needs is a constant struggle and who have no social
support.
As the authors indicate, in our sessions, Lamar also felt the need to expressed his
feelings of being discriminated against by public policy that restricts him to a limited
amount of jobs because he is an asylum-seeker. Discrimination became obvious in
other ways as well: Three months before closing 18, Lamar was instructed to go for
age-assessment test, where according to the medical tests performed he was
declared an adult and asked to acknowledge (through signing a legal document) that
he was born on a different date to his actual one, 3 months earlier, even though the
tests are unreliable (Child Rights International Network 2020). Being forced to sign a
legal document indicating a birth-date that was not his real one, made him feel
humiliated.
Noticing his capacity to express himself and his interest of school and education, I
suggested that he writes something about his experiences as an asylum-seeker. In
the following session Lamar brought and read to me a poem about what it is like to be
an asylum seeker. This was again a way to narrate, express and make sense of a
lived experience in the context of what it means to be an asylum-seeker.
The article under-review considers the relevance of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs to
the marginalised. The authors of the article refer to the theory of Maslow to propose
that people through work, seek to satisfy their basic needs before moving on the
achieve higher goals:
“Through work, people are able to meet their most basic human subsistence needs
for food, water, clothing, safety, and shelter. Consistent with Maslow’s (1968) theory
of human motivation, only after these survival needs are met can individuals hope to
achieve loftier goals like self-actualization.” (Bluestein et al 2008 p.297)
Soon after Lamar left the shelter he was placed in a “hostel” where he was staying
with another 29 strangers in the same house where they all shared the same facilities.
Lamar was barely satisfying his basic needs for survival and safety: During his stay
there, one of the men living in the house was beaten up to the extent that he needed
hospitalization. Getting a spot to cook in the only kitchen of the house was difficult and
monthly allowance was not enough to buy ready-made food from outside. Constant
noise meant not being able to sleep. The only way for Lamar to leave the “hostel” was
to save enough money to be able to rent. However, he was not able to save any money
since whatever he was able to spare he sent to his mum (which said was the highlight
of his week).
A lesser known aspect of Maslow’s writings can help make sense of Lamar’s
motivational state: “..the greatest attainment of identity, autonomy, or selfhood is itself
simultaneously a transcending of itself, a going beyond and above selfhood. The
person can then become relatively egoless. (Maslow, 1961/1999, p. 117)” “At the level
of self-transcendence, the individual’s own needs are put aside, to a great extent, in
favor of service to others…” (Koltko-Rivera 2006 p. 306).
Perhaps Lamar, even though barely satisfying his basic needs, he was tapping into
this sense of self-transcendence that Maslow talks about, thus putting aside his own
needs in the service of others? Or is he just conforming to the condition of worth
(Rogers 1956) that taking care of his mum is what he should do to be a worthy human
being? I don’t have the answer and most probably none of the two conceptualizations
fully grasp the ineffability of Lamar’s experience.
Even though I was concerned for Lamar and really wanted him to collect enough
money to even begin having a hope of finding another place to stay, I could also
understand the way he acted and admired this young man. I allowed myself to be
humbled in his presence. I reflected back to him my acknowledgement of how
important it is for him to take care of his mum and the sense of joy he got out of it. At
another stage of our conversation we did explore the possibility of renting a house and
how this could be done.
While writing this case study, I thought many times about the suggestion of the authors
of the article that mental health professionals should become advocates for change.
Many times during my discussions with him I felt so powerless in face of the systemic
barriers this young man is facing and so detached from the realities of Lamar’s life.
Being part of an interdisciplinary team, I approached my colleagues about possible
solutions to one of the issues he was facing: He mentioned that in school, the computer
teacher was taking them to the computer room and leaving them in front of the
computers to do whatever they wanted without teaching them anything. I soon found
out that this was the complain of more than one of our boys. I encouraged him to take
the issue with the school which he did. At the same time, our shelter coordinator also
visited the school to address the issue. Soon the situation improved. In our next
session, I celebrated with Lamar his success of being able to intervene and change
an unfavourable situation. This is a case where change was created through advocacy
while also empowering the young person to exercise his agency.
Conclusion
Through the psychology-working-perspective the field of career counselling has the
potential to benefit more people by promoting a more inclusive and socially just
counselling practice. This can be done by dedicating more resources for research and
practice aimed at those who have not been receiving their fair share while also
advocating for public policies that aim to reduce inequity through distribution of
resources to communities and schools. The 2008 article by Bluestein et al provides
career counsellors with a critical framework to think about the field and their own
practice and can be especially useful for practitioners already working with
marginalized groups.
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