GCSE
9-1
geography
OCR B
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Answer guidance
Series editor
John Widdowson
Andy Crampton
Catherine Owen
Component 1 Our Natural World
GCSE
9-1
geography
OCR B
1
Global Hazards
1.1
Global circulation system
You should choose three case studies, e.g. Typhoon Haiyan in the Philippines, Nepal, Thames
Basin in the UK, Rainforest in Costa Rica, the Arctic.
You should consider whether these areas experience high or low pressure, how this relates
to the global circulation systems and how this affects the climate. For example, Costa Rica is near
the Equator, where the two Hadley cells meet, so has low pressure and a hot and wet climate.
1.2
Extreme temperatures
You should recognise that the temperature along the west coast of South America is 10 °C which
is cooler than other areas at the same latitude. Figure 2 shows that there is a cool ocean current
(Peruvian Current) which will cool this coastline. You may use your own knowledge to comment
on the altitude of the Andes and how the location on the Tropic of Cancer will mean that there isn’t
much cloud cover.
1.3
Extreme winds
In the Hadley cell, warm air rises at the Equator and cool air descends at the tropics. This creates
a band of low pressure at the Equator and high pressure at the tropics. Air moves across the
surface from the high pressure belt to the low pressure belt, creating trade winds.
1.4
Extreme precipitation
Average annual precipitation in the UK is between 500 and 1000 mm. This is similar to places
with the same latitude in Europe, but wetter than places at the same latitude in much of Asia. This
could be due to the UK being to the east of the Pacific Ocean and the drier areas in Asia being
far from the ocean.
1.5
Tropical storms and drought
You could use TEA to answer this question – Trend, Examples, Anomalies.
The general trend is that there has been above average drought since 1940. The drought severity
index has changed from −1.8 in 1900 to 1.5 in 2010. However, there were periods with low
drought severity index around 1950 and in the mid 1970s.
1.6
Tropical storms and extreme weather
Tropical storms get their energy from:
•
evaporation of warm ocean water
•
moist air cooling and condensing, which releases energy.
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OCR B
1.7
Drought, El Niño and La Niña
Impacts on people could include loss of life, homes and businesses.
Impacts on the environment could include vegetation dying, bush fires and loss of habitats.
1.8
Typhoon Haiyan – a tropical storm
The Philippines is an EDC and regularly experiences tropical storms such as Typhoon Haiyan. It
is difficult to prepare for these storms as the Philippines has 7107 islands and half the population
lives in rural areas, making it difficult to warn and evacuate people from areas at risk. The GNI of
just under $3500 means that the government can’t afford to build expensive defences to protect
people. Many people in the Philippines live in simple wooden houses which cannot withstand the
strong winds of tropical storms, so evacuation may be the only option to keep people safe.
1.9
Typhoon Haiyan’s path of destruction
You should decide which consequences are most significant, but should support your answer
with evidence. For example:
•Social consequences of Typhoon Haiyan were particularly significant because over half a
million families were made homeless, and over 6300 deaths left families devastated.
•$2.86 billion of damage was caused by Typhoon Haiyan, showing the great significance
of economic consequences of this storm. 77% of farmers lost their main source of income,
which meant that their families struggled to have enough money to meet their needs.
•Environmental impacts of Typhoon Haiyan were important in themselves, with crops and trees
being destroyed and a leak of 85 000 litres of oil into the sea. However, these impacts also
led to economic impacts as farmers were left without crops to sell.
1.10
Drought in the UK
Costs – river levels are reduced and habitats disturbed, causing damage to plants and animals.
Benefits – water supplies to homes and businesses can be maintained. People will still be able to
flush their toilets, wash their clothes and shower.
1.11
Hazards fieldwork
Closed questions are quick and easy to answer, give facts and are easy to graph. Open questions
allow respondents to explain themselves, so are good to draw out opinions, reasons and feelings.
1.12
Plate tectonics – shaping our world
This encourages you to use TEA – trends, examples, anomalies.
For example, most volcanoes are found in narrow belts along plate boundaries, such as around the
edges of the Philippine Plate. However, there are some volcanoes in the middle of the Pacific Plate.
1.13
Destructive and collision plate boundaries
There is no subduction at collision plate boundaries, so neither plate melts. Therefore, there are
no volcanoes.
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Component 1 Our Natural World
GCSE
9-1
geography
OCR B
1.14
Constructive and conservative plate boundaries
Diagrams should include:
•Plates move alongside each other, sometimes in the same direction but at different speeds.
•
The plates move in jerks.
•
They may be locked for many years, before suddenly breaking free.
•
Stored energy is released, causing earthquakes.
1.15
How earthquakes happen
An ocean plate subducts under a continental plate at a destructive plate boundary. The plates will
sometimes stick, pressure builds up and then they jolt free, causing an earthquake.
If the plates stick within 70 km of the surface, the focus of the earthquake will be shallow. If the
plates stick below 70 km the focus of the earthquake will be deep.
1.16
Why volcanoes erupt
Shield volcanoes form at constructive plate boundaries. The plates move apart, meaning
semi-melted magma rises to the surface. The eruptions are gentle because the lava is runny and
doesn’t contain gases. The lava flows quickly and cools to form a gently sloping volcano.
1.17
Earthquake disaster in Nepal – 1
Pressure which had been building up at a collision plate boundary was suddenly released,
causing an earthquake measuring 7.8 on the Richter scale.
1.18
Earthquake disaster in Nepal – 2
People responding to the 2015 earthquake faced challenges such as:
•
getting aid into the country, as the airport was closed for a time
•
transporting aid to remote places, as many roads were damaged or blocked by landslides
•international aid workers were worried about the corrupt government not using money in the
right way
•the NGO ‘Save the Children’ were worried that homeless children could be taken by
traffickers.
1.19
Saving lives in earthquake zones
Simple changes to building design can make houses ‘life safe’ in LIDCs.
•A light roofing material won’t harm people if it falls on them and materials such as thatch are
cheap to replace.
•A bamboo frame is light and will bend slightly when the earthquake hits, making it less likely
to break.
•
A firm foundation makes a house much less likely to collapse.
As more people in LIDCs get mobile phones it is also easier to send warnings to them. Smart
phones also warn of the ground shaking.
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Component 1 Our Natural World
GCSE
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geography
OCR B
2
Changing Climate
2.1
Earth’s changing climate
From AD500 to 2000, Earth’s temperature has increased from 0.2 °C below the average
temperature to 0.4 °C above. The temperature has fluctuated, rising to about 0.18 °C above
average at the start of the medieval warm period in AD900 and going as low as −0.7 °C below
average at the end of the Little Ice Age. The steepest increase in temperatures has been from
approximately 1880 to the present day.
2.2
Evidence of climate change – 1
Different gases trapped in ice cores provide evidence of climate change. If an ice core layer
contains large amounts of carbon dioxide then this provides evidence that Earth’s temperature
was warmer in that year.
2.3
Earth’s changing climate – 2
Global temperature data
Advantages:
•
The data goes back over 100 years.
•
Data today is collected on very reliable equipment.
•
It is easy to monitor annual changes in temperature.
Disadvantages:
•
Older data was collected on unreliable equipment.
•
Data is collected from a limited number of weather stations.
•
The positioning of equipment can affect the reliability of data.
Paintings and diaries
Advantages:
•
They give evidence of climate before temperature records began.
Disadvantages:
•
They are one person’s interpretation and were not written to provide scientific evidence.
•
They refer to weather conditions rather than climate.
2.4
Natural causes of climate change
Milankovitch cycles change the distance between the Sun and Earth which increases or
decreases the energy Earth receives. This makes the climate warmer or colder.
2.5
Human causes of climate change – 1
You should be able to accurately recreate Figure 2.
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GCSE
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geography
OCR B
2.6
Human causes of climate change – 2
People in advanced countries:
•
eat diets high in meat. Lots of energy is used to produce meat.
•
burn lots of fossil fuels in heating and cooling their homes.
•
have high car usage, which use oil.
•
own and use lots of electrical products. Most electricity is generated from fossil fuels.
•own lots of products in general. These all require energy to be manufactured and are often
transported from abroad, which also burns fossil fuels.
2.7
Global impacts of climate change – 1
•Rising sea levels causing coastal flooding is an environmental effect of climate change in
the Maldives.
•This will lead to economic effects where people will have their houses destroyed and have to
pay for more coastal defences.
•In the long term, this leads to social effects where people are forced to move and find
somewhere else to live.
2.8
Global impacts of climate change – 2
Statistics on this page include:
•
Crop yields in sub-Saharan Africa will be 22% lower by 2050.
•
Rice shortages in Vietnam affect 1 million people.
•
Rice shortages in Vietnam cost $17 billion.
•
1 billion people will suffer from water shortages by 2050.
•
30 million people are affected by Lake Chad shrinking in size.
2.9
Global impacts of climate change – 3
Arctic: Warmer temperatures/melting ice/polar bear extinction.
Europe: Warmer temperatures/more mosquitoes/more disease.
Ethiopia: Warmer temperatures/more coffee berry borer beetles/coffee crops destroyed/
700 000 people lose their income.
2.10
Impacts of climate change for the UK – 1
Sketches should be labelled to show:
•
England and Wales much drier in summer.
•
Eastern England much wetter in winter.
•Everywhere warmer; the south and south-east will see the largest increase in temperature of
between 2 °C and 2.5 °C.
2.11
Impacts of climate change for the UK – 2
Use the information on this page to talk for a minute about the problems (e.g. more deaths,
illnesses, hosepipe bans) and benefits (e.g. increased tourism, improved food and wine industry)
of warmer temperatures in the UK.
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GCSE
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geography
OCR B
2.12
Climate change fieldwork
Use the Environment Agency’s flood risk map to identify an area at risk of flooding. You could then
take a photo to illustrate an economic impact and a social impact.
3
Distinctive Landscapes
3.1
Landscapes of the UK
In The Hay Wain painting by Constable, the following landscape elements are found:
•
physical – the flat flood plain in the river valley
•
water – the River Stour
•
living – trees grow along the river bank and grass on the flood plain
•
transitory – it is a sunny summer’s day with clouds in the sky
•
human – the cottage on the river bank and the horse and cart (hay wain) in the river.
Natural and human features interact in different ways. People graze sheep and cattle on
grassland on the flood plain. The flat land is suitable for growing grass but not for building
because the land might flood. The water level in the river is quite low and the farmer is using it for
the horse to drink. At other times the water level may be high and the river would flood.
3.2
Upland and lowland landscapes
An outline map of the UK should have two lines: one dividing upland and lowland areas; and the
other showing the maximum limit of glaciation. This creates three areas on the map (glaciated
uplands, glaciated lowlands and unglaciated areas on Figure 2). Annotation as follows:
•Upland areas were glaciated, forming mountain peaks and ridges and carving deep
U-shaped valleys.
•Some lowlands areas were also once covered by ice, but without peaks, ridges and deep
valleys.
•Most lowland areas were not covered by ice but the ground was frozen, creating river valleys
and leaving dry valleys when the ice melted.
3.3
Geology and landscape
Rough sketches of the landscapes in Figures 1 and 2 should be annotated as follows:
Figure 1
•
Rugged, steep mountain landscape formed from hard granite.
•
Lakes formed on impermeable granite in valleys.
•
No trees and little vegetation grows in infertile soil formed by granite.
Figure 2
•
Smooth, rounded lowland landscape formed from soft chalk.
•
No lakes or rivers on permeable chalk.
•
Trees and grassland grow on fertile soil formed by chalk.
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OCR B
3.4
Climate and landscape
North-west – some chemical weathering likely due to high rainfall.
North-east – some mechanical weathering likely due to low winter temperature.
South-west – some chemical weathering likely due to high rainfall.
South-east – some mechanical weathering likely due to low winter temperature.
Overall, the UK has a moderate climate in which weathering happens slowly.
3.5
Human activity and landscape
Land use
Deciduous woodland
Coniferous woodland
Arable farmland
Improved grassland
Semi-natural grassland
Mountain, heath, bog
Urban
Water
England
7%
2%
41%
26%
7%
5%
10%
2%
Scotland
3%
15%
7%
15%
18%
37%
2%
3%
3.6
Shaping landscapes
Erosion – wearing away the land
Transport – carrying away eroded material
Deposition – dropping transported material to form new land
Weathering – breaking up of rock, often due to weather
Mass movement – landslides or land slumps on steep land
Hydraulic action – erosion due to water forced into cracks, splitting rock
Abrasion – erosion due to pebbles smashing into rock, wearing it away
Attrition – erosion of pebbles into smaller, rounder particles
Solution – erosion or transport due to rocks dissolving in water
Traction – transport of boulders or large stones, by dragging along the river or seabed
Saltation – transport of pebbles or small stones, by picking up and dropping elsewhere
Suspension – transport of tiny particles of sand or silt, by carrying in water
3.7
Coastal landforms
Two sketches of Figures 1 and 2 should include annotation as follows:
Figure 1
•
Cave formed where waves erode base of the cliff.
•
Arch formed where a cave wears all the way through a headland.
•
Stack formed where an arch collapses leaving a pillar of rock in the sea.
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Figure 2
•
Beach formed where material is deposited along the coast by waves.
•Spit formed where the beach extends across a bay or river mouth. An arrow should show the
direction of longshore drift, along the coast towards spit.
3.8
River landforms
River
Valley
Landforms
Processes
3.9
Upper course
Narrow, shallow,
slow-flowing
Narrow, steep
Waterfall, gorge,
V-shaped valley
Vertical erosion
Middle course
Wider, deeper, faster
Lower course
Wide, deep, fast-flowing
Wider, gentle slope
Meander, ox-bow lake
Wide, flat
Flood plain, levee
Lateral erosion,
deposition
Flooding, deposition
The Jurassic Coast
Four distinctive landforms on the Jurassic Coast:
•Sidmouth cliffs – formed from sandstone, deposited during the Triassic Period in desert
conditions. They are now being eroded.
•Chesil Beach – formed from material transported along the coast by longshore drift and
deposited.
•Lulworth Cove – formed from layers of sedimentary rock, deposited during the Jurassic
Period on the seabed. Limestone and clay has been eroded, exposing the chalk.
•Old Harry Rocks – formed from chalk deposited during the Cretacaous Period on the
seabed. They are now being eroded.
3.10
Battered coastline
One storm to affect the UK since 2014 was Storm Brian, which hit the UK and Ireland in October
2017. The impacts of the storm were greatest on the west coast of the UK in Wales and Cornwall.
Gale force winds and high seas pounded the coast. There was coastal flooding, with rail and ferry
services cancelled in Wales. Flood protection barriers were used to protect coastal villages in
Cornwall.
You might have chosen another storm. Major storms in the UK since 2014 have been given
names, alternating boys’ and girls’ names in alphabetical order.
3.11
Coastline management
One town on the Jurassic Coast with a shoreline management plan is Sidmouth. It is a seaside
town. The most suitable SMP is to hold the line, to protect people and property in the town. This
could be done with a sea wall along the sea front to protect the town and groynes on the beach to
prevent longshore drift from moving the sand. Beach nourishment could also be used to replace
any sand that is lost from the beach.
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OCR B
3.12
Landscape fieldwork – 1
a
One question you could investigate at the coast is ‘Is longshore drift happening along
the coast?’
bYou could do a wave survey to measure the movement of material along the beach.
c
You could use paint and a paint brush to paint pebbles on the beach, then ranging poles and
a tape measure to see if the pebbles move in any direction along the beach. Alternatively,
you could use corks floating in the sea to see if longshore drift is happening.
d
Before doing any coastal fieldwork, you should know the times of high and low tides to be
sure it is safe to work on the beach. Don’t go too close to the base of a cliff, in case of falling
rock. Don’t go close to breaking waves, especially on steeply sloping beaches, in case you
get washed off your feet and dragged into the sea.
3.13
Landscape fieldwork – 2
aOne question you could investigate on a river is ‘How does the rate at which a river flows
change along its course?’
bYou could do a flow survey to measure the velocity of the water flowing at different points
along the river.
cYou could throw an orange into the river and measure the time it takes to move a given
distance along the river, using a tape measure or stop watch. Alternatively, you could put a
flow meter into the water to measure the velocity.
dCheck the depth and flow of the river before getting into the water. Some rivers are too deep
or fast-flowing to get into. If in doubt, don’t get in! Don’t stand too close to the edge of the
river in case you trip or lose your balance.
3.14
The Thames Basin
A sketch map of the River Thames should show the following labelled features:
a
River source in the Cotswolds; River mouth at the North Sea
b Cotswolds, Berkshire Downs, Chilterns, North Downs
c
Oxford, Reading, London
dRiver Leach, River Cherwell, River Ock, River Kennet, River Wey, River Lea, River Roding,
River Medway
3.15
Landforms along the Thames
A sketch of the river in Figure 1 but with wider meanders and annotation:
•
Lateral erosion creates wider meanders as the river flows across its valley.
•
On the outside bend, fast-flowing water erodes the bank to form a river cliff.
•
On the inside of the bend, slow-flowing water deposits its load to form a slip-off slope.
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Two more sketches of river terraces would be similar to below.
Sea level falls again
New terrace
River erodes
downwards
Sea level rises again
Old terrace
Floodplain today
River Thames
3.16
Flooding on the Thames
03.15c GCSE Geog OCR B
Causes
Barking Dog Art
•
Over twice the normal winter rain in 2013/14.
•
The ground was saturated.
•
Buildings and roads increase overland flow in urban areas.
•
A new artificial channel on the River Thames speeds the flow of water.
Impacts
•
Over 5000 homes and businesses flooded.
•
People could not return home for many months.
•
The cost of cleaning up was over £500 million.
•
No lives were lost.
Responses
•
Fourteen Environment Agency flood alerts along the Thames.
•
People evacuated by emergency services.
•
Plans for a new flood relief channel on the Thames.
3.17
Flood threat to London
Sketches of the Barking Riverside photo in Figure 2 should be annotated as follows:
•
Water is allowed to spread naturally over the floodplain on the site.
•
Water is a feature of the development.
•
Trees and plants slow the rate that water filters into the ground.
•
Building homes on raised land protects them from flooding.
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OCR B
4
Sustaining Ecosystems
4.1
Ecosystems
Arrows should be annotated as follows:
•
Animals breathe in oxygen from the atmosphere and breathe out carbon dioxide.
•
Plants absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and give out oxygen.
•
Heat in the atmosphere warms the soil and rainfall keeps it moist.
•
Many animals eat plants and plants depend on some animals for pollination.
•
Most plants grow in the soil and, when they die, decompose into the soil.
•
Animals add nutrients to soil as dung and some animals live in soil or rock.
4.2
Global ecosystems
•
Tropical rainforest is found on land close to the Equator, mainly between the tropics of Cancer
and Capricorn.
•
Tropical grassland is found on land further north or south from the Equator but still between
the tropics.
•
Hot desert is found on land close to the tropics of Cancer or Capricorn, in the middle or to the
west of continents.
•
Temperate forest is found on land in mid-latitudes between the tropics and Arctic and
Antarctic Circles.
•
Polar regions are found on land close to the poles, north of the Arctic Circle and south of the
Antarctic Circle.
•
Coral reefs are found near to coast in warm oceans, mainly between the tropics of Cancer
and Capricorn.
4.3
More about biomes
Copy of table in Figure 1.
4.4
Tropical rainforests
•
Trees grow tall because the hot and wet conditions are ideal for plant growth.
•
Lianas and vines climb tall trees to reach sunlight as it is dark on the forest floor.
•
Trees are evergreen because it is hot all year round.
•
Trees have leaves with drip tips which allow heavy rain to run off.
•
There are few shrubs on the forest floor because little light penetrates there.
•
The soil is deep because underlying rock weathers quickly in hot, wet conditions.
•
There is a thin litter layer because leaves decompose quickly in hot, wet conditions.
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4.5
The value of rainforests
Rainforest goods
Local
Worldwide
Food
Timber for boats and building
Natural medicines from plants
Materials for clothes, fuel etc
Foods grown in or harvested from
rainforest
Medicines made from plants
Materials like timber and rubber
Rainforest services
Clean, filtered water
Flood and drought prevention
Carbon sink to remove CO2 and
reduce global warming
4.6
Human impacts on rainforests
a
Benefits of deforestation include:
•
logging
•
mineral extraction
•
agriculture
•
tourism
b
Costs of deforestation include:
•
loss of biodiversity
•
indigenous people lose their homes and can no longer live sustainably
•
floods and droughts happen more frequently
•
loss of a carbon sink to remove and store CO2
c
Both lists are the same length but, arguably, the costs of deforestation are more important
than the benefits. Government action to prevent deforestation might help to explain why the
rate has slowed down.
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4.7
Costa Rica – sustainable rainforest management
Key facts and figures about rainforests in Costa Rica:
•
Costa Rica contains 6% of the world’s biodiversity.
•
Costa Rica attracts 2 million tourists a year.
•
Until 1980, Costa Rica had one of the world’s highest deforestation rates.
•
There are now 28 national parks and nature reserves in Costa Rica.
•
24% of Costa Rica’s land area is now protected.
Strategies for sustainable management of forests in Costa Rica:
•
Agroforestry – trees and crops are grown together.
•
Afforestation – trees are planted to replace the original forest lost.
•
Selective logging – trees are felled only when they reach a certain height.
•
Monitoring – satellite images are used to ensure no illegal logging happens.
4.8
Ecotourism in Costa Rica
Questions about sustainable holidays, answered for Samasati Nature Retreat
Where will the money for my holiday go?
•Samasati only employs local people
What impact will my holiday have on the environment?
•No mature trees were destroyed or heavy machinery used. Buildings blend with the
landscape and are built on stilts to allow drainage
How will the number of tourists affect the resort?
•The resort is on a small scale so the number of tourists will be limited
What resources does my holiday use?
•Sustainable timber is used for building, spring water is used for drinking, recycled rainwater
for bathrooms and minimal energy use
How does my holiday affect natural ecosystems and wildlife?
•The resort has minimal impact on the rainforest and therefore on wildlife too. They are part of
the attraction for tourists so every effort will be made to conserve them.
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4.9
Polar regions
Snow falls on the land and
accumulates to form layers of ice.
Snow
Thick ice forms an ice sheet that
slowly moves over the land.
Ice sheets
Ice flows to the sea to form an
ice shelf where the ice extends
beyond the edge of the land.
Ice shelves
Ice shelves slowly melt in the
ocean, breaking into icebergs.
Icebergs
Icebergs continue to melt, adding
to water in the ocean.
Ocean
When the temperature falls below
0 °C, water in the ocean freezes
to form sea ice.
Sea ice
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Component 1 Our Natural World
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4.10
Life in the Arctic
aPolar bears can only survive by eating other animals which, in turn, feed on other species.
Although polar bears live on ice or land, they depend on other species in the marine
ecosystem.
bPeople who live in the Arctic build their homes on stilts because the ground is continually
freezing and thawing, making it unstable for building. Homes built on frozen ground could
melt the permafrost, which would cause the building to collapse.
4.11
Human impacts in the Arctic
•Fishing is a threat because it reduces biodiversity in the marine ecosystem. Fish are also
food for seabirds, seals and polar bears.
•Oil and gas drilling can disturb fish and animal species in the marine ecosystem and there is
a danger of oil spills, which are harder to clear up in icy water at low temperatures.
•Other types of mineral exploitation can also disturb natural ecosystems, either on land or in
the ocean.
•Tourism is another way in which natural ecosystems can be disturbed, either directly by
people or the transport they use.
•Sea routes are used by ships, which disturb marine ecosystems and can also cause
pollution.
4.12
Sustainable management of whaling
The argument for commercial whaling is that whales can be used in the production of margarine,
chemicals, cosmetics and animal feed – all products on which we depend.
The argument against commercial whaling is that whale populations declined due to the large
scale by which they were harvested. Ultimately this could lead to their extinction.
Sustainable management of whaling is the best option because it allows communities who
depend on catching whales to continue their sustainable lifestyle, while ensuring that whale
populations don’t decline. There are probably alternative sources we can use for margarine and
other products.
4.13
Sustainable management of the Arctic
A sketch map of the Arctic Ocean based on Figure 1 should include eight of USA, Russia,
Finland, Sweden, Norway, Iceland, Greenland (Denmark), Canada, Alaska (USA) and also the
area of the proposed Arctic Sanctuary.
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4.14
Towards an Arctic Treaty
There is no correct answer to this question.
Proposals for an Arctic Treaty, based on the Antarctic Treaty (but you may have other ideas)
•Bans military bases and weapons testing (some countries may have to stop).
•
Allows scientific research.
•
Bans nuclear explosions and nuclear waste.
•
All activities must be assessed for environmental impact.
Differences from the Antarctic Treaty, but your answer depends what you included in your treaty.
•
Countries would still own territory because they are part of the Arctic.
•
People would continue to live there. Indigenous people have always lived there.
•Mining, fishing and other activities could continue, providing the environmental impact is
acceptable.
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5
Urban Futures
5.1
An urban world
A very simple representation of the world, comprising six areas, roughly in proportion to the
position and size of continents (not including Antarctica) and labelled.
•
North and South America coloured red (>80% urban).
•
Europe and Oceania coloured orange (50–80% urban).
•
Asia and Africa coloured yellow (<50% urban).
•Large arrows in Asia and Africa to indicate rapid urbanisation and small arrows in other
continents to indicate slow urbanisation.
•
Key to show % urban population and rate of urbanisation.
5.2
Super-sized cities
City over 30 million: Tokyo
Cities 25–30 million: Delhi, Shanghai, Seoul
Cities 20–25 million: Mexico City, New York, Sao Paulo, Karachi, Mumbai, Dhaka, Beijing, Jakarta
Cities 15–20 million: Los Angeles, Buenos Aires, Lagos, Istanbul, Kolkata
Cities 10–15 million: Rio de Janeiro, Paris, Moscow, Cairo, Manila, Shenzhen, Osaka
5.3
How cities began and grew
•The River Thames was important for transport and trade in the past. Now it is used by tourist
and commuter boats.
•London Bridge is a road crossing point on the river. London has always been a transport hub
and is now also a hub for rail and air transport.
•The Shard is London’s tallest building and includes a hotel, shops and homes, reflecting
London’s tourist, market and residential functions.
•St Paul’s Cathedral was once London’s tallest building and reflected the city’s function as a
religious centre.
•The City of London is a financial hub and provides employment for many people. It is a
centre for international financial markets.
•
The Tower of London once provided defence for the city but is now a tourist attraction.
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5.4
The urban explosion
Push factors
Few job opportunities
Poor access to services
Low or declining incomes
Rural overpopulation
Poor transport
Civil war
Natural disasters
Climate change
Food shortage
Pull factors
Many job opportunities
Good access to services
High or rising incomes
Less dependence on land for farming
Good transport
Better civil protection, e.g. policing
More protection from natural disasters
Less impact from climate change
Food availability
5.5
Slumming it
•Landslides – squatter settlements are often built on steep land, which has not been used for
building permanent homes. Steep land is more prone to landslides.
•Fire – fire spreads more easily through settlements built of wood and other scrap material,
particularly when the buildings are crowded together.
•
Earthquakes – poor quality buildings are more easily destroyed by earthquakes.
•Air and water pollution – uncollected waste is likely to produce air pollution when burnt or
water pollution when it leaks into streams and rivers.
•Disease – disease spreads more rapidly when there is no sanitation and sewage overflows
into rivers. It also spreads more easily when people are crowded together.
5.6
Urban trends in the UK
Suburbanisation
Counter-urbanisation
Re-urbanisation
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Causes
People move out of the city centre
to the suburbs to escape from
congestion or pollution and to find
a better quality of life.
People move out of the city
altogether to the countryside,
small towns and the seaside.
People move back into cities as
regeneration brings urban areas
back to life.
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Consequences
Urban sprawl where large areas
of green land are built on. So, the
green belt was introduced.
Urban population falls and urban
areas are neglected and begin to
deteriorate.
Urban population rises again
especially when the economy is
strong and there are more jobs.
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5.7
The future of cities
•Most countries in Europe will be over 75% urban. The largest urban population will be in
the UK with 65 million people.
•Most countries in Asia will be between 50–75% urban. The largest urban population
will be in China with 1038 million people.
•Most countries in North America will be over 75% urban. The largest urban population
will be in the USA with 365 million people.
•Most countries in South America will be over 75% urban. The largest urban population
will be in Brazil with 204 million people.
•Most countries in Africa will be between 50–75% urban. The largest urban population
will be in Nigeria with 218 million people.
•The countries in Oceania will be over 75% urban. The largest urban population will be in
Australia.
5.8
Birmingham on the map
On a sketch map of the world, the following connections and labels should be shown:
Birmingham
Ireland
Eastern
Europe
Pakistan
India
West Indies
Ghana
Bangladesh
Somalia
5.9
Come to Birmingham
Graphs and labels should be similar to the period between 1700 and 1950 of Figure 1 on page 89
of the Revision Guide. Birmingham’s population in 1700 was 10 000 and in 1950 was 1.1 million.
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5.10
Explore Birmingham
•The new Bullring has helped to improve shopping by including 160 shops and two
department stores, which are both under cover and on pedestrianised streets.
•It has improved access to the city centre by removing the old ring road that cut off the city
centre and by providing trains and buses that make access easy.
•It has improved peoples’ quality of life by providing improved public transport and new luxury
city centre flats where people live.
•It has improved safety by removing the old ring road with many cars and by having busy,
pedestrianised streets, making it feel safer at night.
5.11
Unequal Birmingham
Spider diagram with ‘Deprivation’ at the centre, and the following ‘legs’:
•Unemployment – people who are unemployed have lower incomes, making them more
deprived.
•Educational achievement – low educational achievement means people are less likely to find
employment or a well-paid job, making them more deprived.
•Child poverty – children from poor homes are more likely to have low educational
achievement, making them more likely to repeat the cycle of deprivation.
•
Household income – low income is a form of deprivation
•Housing quality – poor housing quality is usually associated with people on low income
because they cannot afford higher rents or house prices.
•Access to services – poor access to public services like healthcare, or private services like
banks, are both a reason for, and a symptom of, deprivation.
•Crime rates – higher crime rates are found in more deprived areas where people may have to
resort to crime to make money, while other people lack security.
•Environmental quality – poor environmental quality is found in more deprived areas where
people can’t afford to maintain their property or don’t actually own it.
5.12
Sustainable Birmingham
Sustainable theme
Economic
Energy
Green economy, e.g.
making solar panels
Resources
Fewer resources are
used and reduces
costs
Transport
Efficient transport is
cheaper and more
reliable
Biodiversity
More green space
brings tourists
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Social
Low energy costs
reduce fuel poverty
More efficient
buildings, cheaper to
live in
Walking and cycling is
healthier
Environmental
Lower carbon
emissions
Better recycling
Lower carbon
emissions
Improved environment Maintains natural
to live in
ecosystems
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5.13
Urban fieldwork – 1
aA suitable question could be, ‘Which groups of people benefit from a regeneration project? ’
You could choose another suitable question.
bAn environmental quality survey could help to answer the question because environmental
quality usually improves as a result of regeneration, but some areas may improve more than
others, suggesting that some groups of people benefit more than others.
cYou could also carry out an urban role play to look at an area through the eyes of different
groups of people or carry out a questionnaire to ask people about their experience of
regeneration.
5.14
Urban fieldwork – 2
aYou could choose the question, ‘How is the population of the urban area changing? ’
You could choose another question or hypothesis.
bYou could carry out a population survey to count the number of people from different ethnic
groups on the street. You could also do a shop survey to classify any specialist shops and
which ethnic groups they are serving. Or you could suggest other fieldwork methods.
cYou could use secondary data from a previous census to find out what the population was
then. You could find the data online or by going to your local library.
5.15
Istanbul on the map
Sketch map showing the location of Istanbul, based on Figure 1 on page 95 of the Revision
Guide. Label Asia, Europe, Black Sea, Bosphorus Strait, Sea of Marmara and Istanbul.
5.16
Expanding Istanbul
Istanbul is divided by the Bosphorus Strait into two parts in Europe and Asia. The city follows the
coastline of the Bosphorus Strait and Sea of Marmara, but does not go far inland. The distance
from east to west is about 100 km.
Istanbul grew around the Bosphorus Strait because it was in a good position for trade, linking the
Black Sea and the Mediterranean. The city expanded along the coast where the flat land is. It did
not grow inland, as the land is steep and forested.
5.17
Explore Istanbul
Spider diagram with ‘Historic core of Istanbul’ in the centre and six ‘legs’ as follows:
•
Markets – the original market in Istanbul was located here and tourists still visit.
•
Mosques – the city’s main mosques were located here during the Ottoman Empire.
•
Fishing – Istanbul is on the coast, surrounded by water where people fish.
•
Ferries – link different parts of the city separated by the Bosphorus and Golden Horn.
•
Tourists – they visit mosques and other historic sites, some coming by cruise ships.
•
Trams – new trams help to ease city centre congestion.
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5.18
At home in Istanbul
District
Location in
the city
Beyoglu
Inner suburb,
close to city
centre
Esenler
Outer suburb,
once at the edge
of the city
What was
housing like?
Old housing that
had fallen into
disrepair
Squatter
settlement
Who lived there? How was it
improved?
Poor people,
Old buildings
but now young
have been
professionals
renovated
Migrants from
It has been
other parts of
demolished and
Turkey
redeveloped
5.19
Congested Istanbul
a
Congestion is a problem in Istanbul because:
•
the Bosphorus is an obstacle to east/west traffic
•
there are only three bridges over the Bosphorus
•
25% of passenger journeys are by car.
bThe Marmaray Rail Project could reduce congestion by providing a new east/west link,
increasing the number of rail passengers and integrating with other transport.
6
Dynamic Development
6.1
Defining development
Examples of additions to the Venn diagram could include:
Economic – industry
Economic/Social – equality
Social – literacy
Social/Environmental – health
Environmental – biodiversity
Environmental/Economic – energy
Environmental/Economic/Social – democracy
6.2
The global development divide
a
ACs – USA, UK, Saudi Arabia, or other examples
EDCs – Mexico, Nigeria, China, or other examples
LICDs – Ethiopia, Zambia, Afghanistan, or other examples
b
ACs are found mainly in North America, Europe, East Asia and Oceania
EDCs are found mainly in South America, Asia, northern and southern Africa
LIDCs are found mainly in Africa and a few in Asia
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6.3
Measuring development
•
GNI/capita at PPP is the average wealth per person, taking the cost of living in the country
into account.
•
Human Development Index is a measure of development based on indicators of health,
wealth and education.
•
Life expectancy is the average age to which people can expect to live.
•
Adult literacy rate is the percentage of adults able to read.
6.4
Development changes lives
aThere is quite a close relationship between GNI/capita at PPP and life expectancy, based on
the best fit line. As GNI/capita increases, so does life expectancy. There are a few anomalies.
Qatar has a lower life expectancy than might be expected from its wealth, and the UK has a
higher life expectancy than might be expected.
Life expectancy increases with wealth as countries have more money to spend on healthcare
and people can afford a better diet.
bYour scatter graph will show the relationship between GNI/capita and adult literacy, based on
rank data in Figure 1 on p104.
It will again show quite a close relationship between GNI/capita at PPP and adult literacy. As
GNI/capita increases, so does the adult literacy rate. There are also a few anomalies. Qatar
and Nigeria have lower literacy rates than might be expected from their wealth, while Zambia
has a higher literacy rate than might be expected.
Literacy increases with wealth as countries have more money to spend on education, and a
country’s development depends on people being able to read.
6.5
How uneven development happened
Historically, the development gap we see between countries today did not exist. Countries once
traded with each other as equal partners. From the 15th century, people in Europe began to
explore Asia, Africa and America. They went in search of gold and other valuable resources.
Europeans traded with people in other countries. But, if negotiation didn’t work, they conquered
the land and made people into slaves to do the work.
Over the next few centuries, Europeans colonised much of Asia, Africa and America. The colonies
grew crops like sugar that were sent back to Europe. Colonies supplied Europe with natural
commodities and became a market for our manufactured goods. But, by the 20th century, the
colonies wanted to be independent. Post-independence, the previous pattern of trade continued.
Manufactured goods grew more expensive than commodities, so some countries got into debt.
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6.6
Uneven development and climate change
•Climate change could increase hunger because the climate becomes less reliable to grow
crops in some countries.
•Climate change could lead to migration as people try to leave countries where the climate
makes it difficult or impossible to live.
•Climate change could lead to more conflict as people fight over land and resources,
particularly where people have migrated into new areas.
•Climate change could lead to worse poverty if people can no longer grow their own crops
and have to buy them, or food becomes more expensive.
6.7
Obstacles to development – trade and debt
aTrade is a way for a country to obtain the things it needs and a way to earn money. LIDCs
rely on the export of natural commodities and the price of these goes up and down. They
rely on buying manufactured goods and services and the price of these mainly goes up.
So, on balance, LIDCs become worse off through trade and it can be an obstacle to their
development.
b
Borrowing money is a way for countries to buy things they need or to repay previous debt.
Loans can be used by LIDCs to invest in the development of the country. However, debt has
to be repaid and that will mean that, later, the country will have less money to spend. This
can be a particular problem for LIDCs because they have less money to start with and may
not have enough to spend on basic needs, like health and education.
6.8
Obstacles to development – political unrest
Most of the countries where there is political unrest are EDCs or LIDCs. There are no ACs on the
map which experience political unrest.
This could be because most ACs have democratic governments, where people can vote to
change their government, whereas many EDCs and LIDCs don’t. Many EDCs and LIDCs also
have greater social inequality, poor government and corruption, high taxes or lack of government
spending, rising food prices and conflict over resource ownership. All these things are likely to
encourage people to protest against their government and this could lead to political unrest.
6.9
Zambia – a low-income developing country
Match the features and facts from Figure 3 on page 109.
6.10
Zambia’s zigzag path to development
Factors that have helped Zambia to develop
Zambia gains independence.
The Kariba Dam start to generate power.
The global price of copper starts to rise.
The IMF cancel’s Zambia’s debt.
Zambia begins to develop industries like tourism.
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Factors that have hindered Zambia’s development
Most power and wealth is still in European hands.
The global price of copper falls.
Life expectancy in Zambia falls due to HIV/AIDS.
Zambia’s debt is very high.
6.11
Zambia’s development goals
MDG
Halve extreme poverty
Primary education for all
Promote gender equality
Reduce child mortality
Improve maternal health
Combat HIV/AIDS
Environmental sustainability
Global partnership for
development
6.12
a What Zambia achieved
Poverty fell from about 60%
to 40%
Children in primary education
rose to 90%
Equal primary school entry for
boys and girls
Child mortality fell from about
190 to 140 per 1000
Women dying in pregnancy fell
from 600 to 400 per 10 000
Number of people dying from
HIV/AIDS fell slightly
People without access to safe
water fell to 30%
Zambia obtained international
debt relief
b What has still to be
achieved
Reduce poverty to 30%
To reach 100%
Equal entry to secondary
schools and universities
It still needs to fall much
further
It still needs to fall much
further
It still needs to fall further
More people still need access
to safe water
Needs more foreign
investment and more trade
Invest in Zambia
Spider diagram with ‘Deprivation’ at the centre, and the following ‘legs’:
•
Stable political system – companies are more likely to invest if the country is stable.
•
Positive economic environment – this will encourage companies to invest more.
•
Attractive investment incentives – companies have to pay less tax.
•
Good banking, legal and insurance services – companies need these services.
•
Abundant natural resources – companies can invest in extracting these resources.
•
Access to other markets – companies can also sell their products outside Zambia.
•
Thriving private sector – companies can invest in government services.
•Good place to work and live – companies will be able to attract their workforce from
other countries.
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6.13
Zambia’s reliance on copper
aWhen the global price of copper goes up it becomes more profitable to produce.
So, companies increase their production.
bWhen the global price of copper goes down it becomes less profitable to produce.
So, companies reduce their production.
6.14
Trans-national companies in Zambia
Benefits of ABF in Zambia
•
The company employs people to produce sugar.
•
The company has invested money in Zambia.
•
Workers earn money and pay tax to the government.
•
Mazabuka is one of the most prosperous towns in Zambia.
Problems of ABF in Zambia
•
The company pays almost no tax in Zambia.
•
Profits are transferred to other countries.
Zambia is in a difficult situation because it wants to attract investment from TNCs to create jobs
but, in order to do so, it has to offer low tax rates so it receives less money than it should.
6.15
Aid and debt in Zambia
•
International aid – help that is given to a country.
•Tied aid – aid that is given on condition that the country receiving it uses the money to buy
goods from the country that gives the aid.
•
Official development assistance – is given by governments and paid for by taxes.
•
Voluntary aid – is given by non-governmental organisations or charities, like Oxfam.
•
Multi-lateral aid – is given by countries through international bodies like the IMF.
•
Bi-lateral aid – is given by one country to another.
•
Short-term emergency relief – is to cope with immediate problems caused by disaster.
•
Long-term development assistance – helps countries to develop.
•Highly indebted poor country – one of the 39 poorer countries that qualified for debt relief
in 2006.
6.16
Top-down development in Zambia
Sketch maps of Zambia should include the following annotations:
Zambezi River, Lake Kariba, Lusaka, Mozambique, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Kariba Dam
•
The Kariba Dam was built to generate hydro-electric power for Zambia and Zimbabwe.
•It was built on the Zambezi River on the border between the two countries, forming
Lake Kariba.
•
New industries, like tourism and fishing have developed around Lake Kariba.
•
Farmers were moved and resettled on less fertile land to create the lake.
•
Natural flooding no longer occurs, leading to loss of farmland and ecosystems.
•
Communities on either side of the lane are cut off from each other.
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6.17
Bottom-up development in Zambia
aLiteracy is important for health and development because being able to read and write
helps people to understand how they can improve their own health and living standards.
It is also essential for people who work in healthcare and other services on which a country’s
development depends.
bLiteracy is important for democratic participation and active citizenship because people
need to be able to read and write to be able to understand political arguments in order to
vote and to be involved in taking decisions in their community or country.
7
UK in the 21st Century
7.1
Human geography of the UK
You could argue the UK is a crowded country – 65 million people live in the UK, it is a small island
with a high population density and there is a housing shortage, especially in south-east England.
You could argue that it is not a crowded country – only 12% of the land is urban area and half of
that is actually green space and, although there is space for housing, the land is either protected
or landowners won’t sell it.
7.2
Physical geography of the UK
The cross-section should be a simple line, labelled ‘West’ and ‘East’, with ocean to the west, high
land in the west and lowland in the east, annotated as follows:
•
The prevailing wind in the UK blows from the south-west.
•
Most of the mountains and high land are to the west.
•
Air rises as the wind blows over high land to the west, bringing high rainfall.
•
Air sinks as the wind reaches lowland to the east, bringing low rainfall.
7.3
The UK’s changing population
•Natural increase has increased in the 21st century. This means that the UK population is
growing faster.
•Net migration has increased in the 21st century, though it has fallen recently. This means that
the UK population is growing, but the rate has slowed down.
•
The birth rate is fairly low in the UK. This means that natural increase is not so high.
•The death rate is low in the UK. This means that there is some natural increase because the
birth rate is higher.
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7.4
Our ageing population
•
Life expectancy – the average age to which people can expect to live.
•
Healthy life expectancy – the average age up to which people remain fit and active.
•Dependent population – the number of people under the age of 16 and over 65 in a population.
•
Dependency ratio – the proportion of the dependent population to the working population.
•
Ageing population – an increase of the average age of a population.
7.5
Retirement dreams
a
It is located on the south coast of England in East Sussex.
b There is a high proportion of older people, with an average age over 52.
cThis is the highest proportion of older people in the UK. Most areas have a lower proportion
and in large urban areas the average age is less than 40.
dThe challenge for an older population is that peoples’ housing needs change, increasing
levels of care are needed and people need help with mobility. The opportunities are that
older people have an income from their pensions and savings. They may spend some of this
income on meeting their own needs, creating jobs for other people.
7.6
London’s booming population
London reached these populations at the following dates;
1 million – 1801
2 million – 1831
4 million – 1881
8 million – 1931 and again about 2009
8.6 million – 1939 and again in 2015
Draw your own line graph showing changes in London’s population 1801–2015.
7.7
The UK’s changing economy
•In 1800, 70% worked in primary jobs, 20% in secondary jobs and 10% in tertiary jobs.
Employment in the UK was mainly agricultural.
•In 1900, over 40% worked in secondary jobs, almost 30% in primary jobs and the same % in
tertiary jobs. Employment in the UK was mainly manufacturing.
•In 2015, almost 60% worked in tertiary jobs, about 25% in secondary jobs, 5% in primary
jobs and 10% in quaternary. Employment in the UK was mainly services.
7.8
Post-industrial UK
aThere is a slight drop in the percentage of male employment and a slight rise in the
percentage of female employment between 2000 and 2020. Both male and female
unemployment fluctuates, rising up to 2015 and then falling. Male unemployment is higher
than female unemployment. Self-employment has risen from about 12% to 16% between
2000 and 2020. Employment in managerial, professional, technical and care/leisure
employment has increased, while employment in administrative, skilled manual and factory
employment has fallen.
bYou could choose any of the graphs as the most important change, so long as you think of
a good reason for your choice.
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7.9
Economic hubs in the UK
London–Cambridge is a growth corridor because both London and Cambridge are economic
hubs. London has both high growth and high dynamic growth, with a large number of businesses
and jobs, a young, educated workforce and millions of homes and offices. Cambridge has high
dynamic growth because it has more knowledge-intensive business, a highly skilled workforce
and new business formation. There are good connections between London and Cambridge on
the M11 motorway.
7.10
London’s place in the UK economy
Google would be attracted to London rather than another UK region because:
•
more young people with qualifications are attracted to London
•
many new start-up companies in hi-tech industries are based in London
•
similar companies support each other and staff move between companies
•
public transport in London is excellent.
Rank your reasons in any order of importance, making sure you can justify your decisions.
7.11
Cambridge – an economic hub
Cambridge’s location
•
There are good transport links, including the M11 to London and Stansted Airport.
•
Land is cheaper in Cambridge because there are fewer traditional industries.
•
The climate in south-east England is milder and drier.
Cambridge’s characteristics
•
The city has been home to one of the world’s top universities for 800 years.
•
Graduates from the university provide a highly educated workforce.
•
The city offers a good quality of life with open spaces and high-quality shops.
•
There are good links between the university and industry, helping to develop new ideas.
7.12
Economic fieldwork – 1
aA suitable question could be, ‘How are economic activities in this area changing?’ You could
choose a different question that is suitable.
bA questionnaire would help to carry out the enquiry if you ask people what jobs they do
now and what they used to do. People who have lived in the area for a long time may also
remember economic activities that have gone.
cYou could map the places where people are working now and classify the types of work
people do. You could compare your map with old maps and photos showing what jobs
people did in the past.
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7.13
Economic fieldwork – 2
aThree important factors to consider when choosing a suitable location for a new café in
Cambridge could be; suitable buildings, the cost of rent and who will use the café.
You could choose other factors, so long as you can justify why they are important.
bYou could investigate suitable buildings at each site by doing a building survey to find out the
current use of buildings or whether any of them are vacant.
You could investigate the cost of rent at each site by asking the current users of the buildings
how much rent they pay or by doing an online survey of rents.
You could do a pedestrian survey at each site to find out how many people are walking past
and carry out a questionnaire to find out how many people might use a new café.
7.14
The UK’s global role
Ten of the largest countries in the British Empire were Canada, Australia, India, Sudan, Egypt,
Pakistan, South Africa, Tanzania, Nigeria, Iraq. You could choose any ten countries. Of these ten
countries, Canada, Australia, India, Pakistan, South Africa, Tanzania and Nigeria are now part of
the Commonwealth.
7.15
The UK in the Middle East
aOil/gas fields could influence UK policy in the Middle East because the UK needs oil and gas
and will want to maintain friendly relations with the countries that produce them.
bStrategic sea routes could influence UK policy in the Middle East because trade depends
on keeping sea routes open, so there is a need to avoid or resolve conflicts that could
close them.
cMajor conflicts could influence UK policy in the Middle East because it could damage trade
and close sea routes. It might also lead to people being displaced and becoming refugees
or it might lead to Islamic terrorism spreading back to the UK. The UK wants to avoid those
things happening.
7.16
The influence of UK media
1.7 million – the number of jobs in the creative industries in the UK.
15% – the UK film industry’s share of the world market for film.
£5.3 billion – the amount earned by the UK film industry in 2012.
£100 million – the amount earned by the film Skyfall at the UK box office.
£70 billion – the amount that creative industries are worth to the UK economy each year.
7.17
The great British takeaway
Four reasons we eat more takeaway meals in the UK these days are:
•
Average incomes have increased more than the cost of takeaway meals.
•
We lead busier lives and have less time to cook.
•
We travel more and experience a greater variety of food from around the world.
•More people from other parts of the world live in the UK and some of them open takeaway
restaurants.
You could put the reasons in any order of importance, so long as you can justify your order.
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8
Resource Reliance
8.1
More resources please
You will use ‘RESOURCES’ to write an acrostic poem, e.g.
Rapid population growth means
Endless mouths to feed
So many people all
Order more meat and western lifestyles
Until the finite
Resources
Can no longer be
Expected to
Supply everyone with what they need.
8.2
Farming and fishing for food
Over-fishing modifies the ecosystem because one species of fish is reduced. Sometimes fish
species become extinct because of this. Other fish and animals that might feed on these fish have
less food, which might also threaten their survival.
Bottom trawling modifies ecosystems because the nets that are dragged along the sea bed
destroy all fish, plant, and animal species in their path. They are very destructive and disturb the
delicate balance of ocean ecosystems.
Dynamite fishing modifies ecosystems because all fish, plant and animal species within the
vicinity of the explosion are killed. Many species are lost in this way and the biodiversity of ocean
ecosystems is lost.
8.3
Using fossil fuels for energy
ARGOS:
Air
River
Ground
Ocean
Soil
8.4
Providing enough water
You should learn two upstream impacts and two downstream impacts from:
Upstream Impacts
•
Flooding the land destroys existing ecosystems.
•
Floodwater might cover towns and industry, which will pollute the water.
•Deep water behind the dam can become a ‘dead zone’ with not enough oxygen for species
to survive.
•
The dam blocks fish migration routes.
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Downstream impacts
•
The dam releases oxygen-starved water, killing fish downstream.
•
Diversity of fish and other river species is reduced.
•The dam traps sediment so less sediment is deposited when the river floods. This changes
floodplain ecosystems.
8.5
Food Security
Draw cartoons or diagrams for each factor, for example, a thermometer for temperature.
8.6
Measuring food security
You need to learn and memorise that the Global Hunger Index is a composite measure based on
four indicators:
•
undernourishment
•
child wasting
•
child stunting
•
child mortality.
8.7
Two visions of the future
Arguments in favour of Malthus
•
World population has mostly grown geometrically.
•
There are numerous examples of famine and starvation (Positive checks).
Boserup might respond
•Food supply has always kept up with population growth through technological developments.
•Even during famines, there has always been enough food in the world. The problem has
been its distribution.
Malthus might respond
•Technology cannot solve food supply problems indefinitely. At some point in the future
Malthus will be proved right.
Boserup might respond
•Malthus published his theory over 200 years ago. He hasn’t been proved right yet – humans
have always invented ways of increasing food supply when needed.
8.8
Food security in Tanzania
Tanzania’s hunger ranking: (89th out of 116); rating (Serious)
GHI score: 2015 (28.7); 1990 (42.2)
Undernourishment (%): 2015 (32.1), 1990 (24.2)
Under 5 mortality (%): 2015 (34.7), 1990 (49.7)
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8.9
Goat Aid in Babati, Tanzania
There are various statistics:
•
90% of people in Babati rely on agriculture.
•
The project ran between 1999 and 2006.
•Farm Africa spent £200 000 giving Toggenburg goats to the region to help improve food
security.
•Toggenburg goats produce three litres of milk a day.
•
Farmers with goats earn three times more money than those without.
There are various benefits:
•
People have more milk improving their diet.
•
Goats produce manure increasing crop production.
•
Farmers can sell extra milk and crops increasing their income.
•
Extra income can be invested in farm machinery further improving crop production.
There are various criticisms:
•
Goats use lots of water.
•
Farmers might have to pay expensive vet bills.
•
Small-scale projects only help a small number of people.
8.10
Tanzania’s bid to grow all its own wheat
Example exam questions might be.
For a country you have studied [Tanzania] describe the main features of a past attempt to achieve
food security at a national scale (6 marks).
Possible answer:
Between 1968 and 1993, Tanzania attempted to achieve food security through a huge wheatgrowing programme. A key feature was $95 m of aid from Canada that helped turn the Hanang
Plains into wheat farms. Aid included seeds, fertiliser, expertise and farm equipment, which meant
that wheat could be grown using mechanised agriculture. This increased wheat production with
the farms providing up to 60% of Tanzania’s wheat.
For a country you have studied [Tanzania] assess the effectiveness of a past attempt to achieve
food security at a national scale (8 marks).
Possible answer:
The Tanzania–Canada wheat programme ran from 1968 to 1993. It was an attempt to achieve
food security at a national scale. $95m of aid from Canada, in the form of seeds, fertiliser,
expertise and farm equipment helped Tanzania produce huge quantities of wheat on the Hanang
Plains. The project had some successes because it brought modern farming methods to Tanzania
helping to provide 400 jobs and training for 121 people. Wheat production was increased,
peaking at 50 000 tonnes of wheat in 1988 and helped provide food security in the 1992 drought.
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However, the farming equipment fell into disrepair when farmers could not afford spare parts and
most Tanzanians could not afford the bread produced from the wheat. Many believe that spending
money to improve maize production would have been more beneficial.
8.11
Tanzania’s current bid for food security
You should accurately sketch the hub and out-grower model along with annotations.
8.12
Attempts to achieve food security – 1 (through ethical consumption)
Use the identified social, economic, and environmental benefits of Fairtrade, along with the
evaluation of its sustainability to teach their family about Fairtrade.
8.13
Attempts to achieve food security – 2 (through intensive and organic farming)
Arguments in favour of intensive farming should emphasise the quantity of food produced, and
the fact that food is cheaper. This allows more people to have a healthy, balanced diet.
Arguments in favour of organic farming should emphasise the way it protects biodiversity and
does not damage the environment. This is important because sustainable food production
must be a method of producing food that does not prevent future generations from meeting
their needs.
8.14
Attempts to achieve food security – 3 (through technology)
Advantages
1
Drought and frost resistant crops can be produced.
2
DNA harmful to pests and insects can be inserted into crops.
3
Crops can be made resistant to herbicides.
4
Food with additional health benefits like extra vitamins can be grown.
Disadvantages
1
Pollen from GM crops might contaminate non GM crops.
2
Farmers will only grow GM crops reducing biodiversity.
3
GM crops are made by a small number of farmers.
4
GM crops might be unsafe to eat.
Example answer:
I have put being able to create drought and frost resistant crops as the most significant advantage
because I think being able to grow crops in parts of the world that are currently too hot or cold
will help food security. This is because more food will be able to be grown to meet the needs of
the growing population. This might be particularly important with climate change bringing more
extreme temperatures. I thought adding extra vitamins to food was the least significant advantage
because it is more beneficial to have a balanced diet rather than obtain all the nutrients and
vitamins from one food type.
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I put the risk of cross contamination as the biggest disadvantage because once it happens it
can never be reversed. The dangers of GM crops are unknown so we should be very careful that
nature is not permanently damaged. I put GM crops being unsafe to eat as the least significant
disadvantage because I think that most food is tested and that the tests that are conducted will
probably protect us from eating unsafe food.
8.15
Small-scale approaches to food security
Example answer.
Where I live most people have back gardens, which could be used to grow food. However, people
may not have the time to do this and most people prefer to buy food cheaply in the supermarket.
This suggests that urban gardens might be of limited use in advanced countries unless there are
lifestyle changes, which allow people more time to spend in the garden. They are a good idea but
at the moment I think they will have limited impact on food supply.
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9
Decision-making Exercises
9.1
Hazards in the USA
Frequency
Storms
Floods
Wildfires
Extreme temperatures
Earthquakes
Other
9.2
Deaths
Storms
Extreme temperatures
Floods
Other
Economic costs
Storms
Floods
Drought
Earthquakes
Wildfires
Other
From hazard to disaster
aThe death toll was high in Haiti because, as an LIDC, it is less prepared for dealing with
natural disasters. Although the actual death toll in the USA was higher, it has a much larger
population than Haiti so the death toll was proportionately lower.
bThe economic cost was high in the USA because the value of individual properties and the
infrastructure is much higher than it would be in an LIDC.
cThe USA is probably better prepared for natural disasters because, although the economic
costs are high, it has reduced the risk to human life from disasters.
9.3
Drought – a hidden disaster
The 2012–2015 drought was the most costly disaster in US history because it caused so much
damage to farming and it lasted for a long time. The US government provided financial help for
farmers to conserve water, feed animals, provide drinking water and support families in hardship.
No one died because there was support for those in hardship. It was also not a sudden disaster,
but one that happened slowly, making it easier to deal with.
9.4
Waiting for the ‘Big One’
Sketch maps could be based on Figure 2, showing the San Andreas Fault and major cities in
California. The following dates of earthquakes should be added:
•
San Francisco – 1906
•
1857 (no specific city)
•
Northridge – 1994
•
Near San Diego – 1680
Los Angeles lies close to the southern section of the San Andreas Fault. There has not been a
major earthquake on this section for 150 years and one is predicted to happen within the next
30 years.
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9.5
Be prepared!
Preparation for wildfires would involve:
•
Prediction – identify where fires have happened in the past and where they are most likely to
happen in future. Areas with lots of trees and hot, dry, windy conditions are most likely.
•
Protection – good ecosystem management by clearing strips in forests as natural firebreaks,
prevent shrub grow, clear low-growing vegetation, clear space around homes and don’t build
with flammable materials.
•
Planning – have an evacuation plan with escape routes for residents, identify safety zones
and have fire-fighting equipment ready to use.
10
Decision-making Exercises
10.1
A wind farm controversy
Three reasons why Scout Moor is a good site for a wind farm are:
•
It is on high moor land, which is more exposed to the wind.
•
It is fairly close to Rochdale where the energy generated by the wind farm could be used.
•There are no buildings or trees close to the site, or settlements within 1 km where noise could
disturb the residents.
One reason that it might not be a good site is that the moorland is not flat. There are lots of
contour lines on the map, which indicate that some of the land is quite steep.
10.2
Wind power in the UK
Advantages
Onshore wind
Land around the turbine can still be
used for farming.
Offshore wind
Does not use any land at all.
Disadvantages
Wind turbines create noise.
There are a limited number of sites
with high, steady wind speeds.
It is more difficult and expensive to
erect turbines on the seabed.
You could choose either onshore or offshore wind for the future, so long as you can give reasons
for your choice.
10.3
UK energy sources
Five of the most negative impacts of energy sources in the UK are as follows:
•
Coal – burning coal emits more CO2 than other fossil fuels.
•
Coal – burning coal produces acid rain, which affects trees and plants.
•
Gas – burning gas also emits CO2, though less than coal or oil.
•
Nuclear – accidents are rare but very serious. Waste is also dangerous.
•
Renewable – wind farms are visible from far away.
You may have chosen more impacts than this, but you should have included these ones among
the most negative impacts.
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10.4
Shale gas – a non-renewable option
Fracking is the short name for hydraulic fracturing. A vertical hole is drilled through layers of rock
down to oil-bearing shale. The hole is extended horizontally into the shale. It is encased by a steel
pipe to ensure gas and chemicals do not escape. Water, sand and chemicals are pumped into
the hole under high pressure to crack the shale. This allows gas trapped in the shale to reach the
pipe and come to the surface.
10.5
Tidal power – a renewable option
Pros
Tidal power –
• Predictable – high and low tide
renewable
happen every day.
• The UK has a long coastline.
• The impact on natural ecosystems
is minimal.
Shale gas –
• Shale underlies large areas of
non-renewable
the UK.
• It makes the UK less dependent
on imported gas.
Cons
• It is expensive initially.
• It would require government
money to start.
• It could have a negative impact
on local business.
• Fracking is a difficult process.
• It can cause earth tremors and
contaminate water.
• Local people protest they don’t
want it near them.
You decide which type of energy the government should support. There is no correct answer.
11
Decision-making Exercises
11.1
London’s ecological footprint
Your sketch should include the following labels:
•
Food needs farmland, and fish come from the ocean.
•Energy needs fossil fuels that have to be mined on land or under the ocean, or renewable
sources that use land or sea, e.g. wind farms.
•
Water from rivers or groundwater, or stored in reservoirs on land.
•
Goods made in factories need raw materials that are grown or mined, e.g. timber or oil.
•
Waste is dumped in landfill sites.
•
Sewage is treated at a sewage works before water returns to the river.
11.2
More sustainable cities
The following are examples. You may come up with your own ideas.
•
CO2 – use more renewable sources of energy that don’t produce CO2
•
Energy – a combined heat and power system that is more efficient.
•
Buildings – properly insulated so that less energy is wasted.
•
Transport – better public transport system so fewer people use cars.
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•
•
•
•
11.3
Water – better management so less water is wasted.
Waste/land use – more waste recycled so less has to be sent to landfill sites.
Air quality – reduced car use so that there is less air pollution from emissions.
Environmental governance – try to change peoples’ behaviour, e.g. recycling more.
Improving London’s transport
Crossrail
Increase the number of
rail passengers in London
More people switch from
using cars to train
Fewer cars on the road
Reduces carbon
emissions in London
11.4
Using London’s green spaces
There is no correct answer to which is the best way for you to learn the information.
You may choose the concentric ring diagram in Figure 1 or a different method of representing
the data, e.g. a pie chart using the percentages and converting them to degrees.
11.5
Sustainable urban living
Draw a kite diagram based on the scores you give for East Village. For example:
CO2 9; Energy 9; Buildings 10; Transport 9; Water 9; Waste/land use 8; Air quality 8; Environmental
governance 9
It is likely you will have given different scores. The scores are subjective (based on opinion) but
they should be better scores than London as a whole (Figure 2 in 11.2). The scores you give for
your place will depend on where you choose.
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12
Decision-making Exercises
12.1
China’s economic development
GDP – gross domestic product is the total value of what a country produces.
PPP – purchasing power parity takes the cost of living in a country into account.
LIDC – low-income developing country is a poorer country with a narrow range of jobs and
services.
EDC – emerging and developing country is a country in transition from being a LIDC to an AC
(advanced country).
12.2
China’s carbon emissions
Reasons China is to blame for global carbon emissions
•
China consumes more energy than any other country.
•
China’s greenhouse gas emissions trebled 1990–2011.
•
66% of China’s energy comes from coal, the most polluting fossil fuel.
•
China produces 50% of the world’s steel, using coal in the process.
Reasons China is not to blame for global carbon emissions
•
China is trying to develop as advanced countries did in the past.
•
We developed manufacturing industries in the past, as China is doing now.
•
Many of the goods we buy are now manufactured in China.
•
The total emissions over the past 250 years are less for China than the USA or Europe.
12.3
Environmental problems in China
•
Ecosystem loss in China is due to all four causes. Cities, industry and farming all take
land where natural ecosystems were found. Climate change is leading to a change in the
conditions that specific ecosystems need to grow.
•
Air pollution is due mainly to cities and industry. More people in cities now drive cars and use
more energy in their homes, meaning more electricity has to be generated. Industry, like the
steel industry, directly pollutes the air by burning coal.
•
Water pollution is due to cities and industry. Untreated sewage may flow into rivers and
industry puts its waste directly into rivers.
•
Desertification is due mainly to climate change. Drought happens more frequently so that
land is no longer suitable for farming or habitation.
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12.4
China’s water crisis
Your sketch map of China should include the Yangtze and Yellow rivers and SNWTP labelled on
map, annotated as follows:
aThe project was necessary because half of China’s rivers have disappeared. The problem is
most severe in the dry North China Plain.
bThe project works by transferring water from the Yangtze River basin in southern China to the
Yellow River basin in northern China.
cWater evaporated from the canals and this is wasteful. Changing climate might mean that the
south has less water to share.
12.5
Sustainable development
There is no correct answer to this question. You could argue that either of the two options is best
for economic growth, energy, water and transport. You have to be able to justify your choice to
your partner.
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