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A comprehensive literature review on slip power recovery drives
Article in Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews · February 2017
DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2016.11.154
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 73 (2017) 922–934
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser
A comprehensive literature review on slip power recovery drives
MARK
⁎
Sita Ram , O.P. Rahi, Veena Sharma
Electrical Engineering Department National Institute of Technology, Hamirpur, Himachal Pradesh, India
A R T I C L E I N F O
A BS T RAC T
Keywords:
Control techniques
Harmonic analysis
Slip power recovery scheme
Wind power
Wound rotor induction motor
This paper presents a state of art literature review of slip power recovery scheme (SPRS) as an adjustable speed
alternating current (AC) drive with various control methodologies for performance enhancement of electric
drives. Starting from the brief history of components of control methodologies for SPRS to various control
techniques including inverter control, chopper control, field oriented control, vector control, matrix converter
control, microprocessor control, sliding mode control, digital signal processing control, neural network control,
fuzzy logic control, and optimal control have been reviewed in this paper. The literature related to harmonic
analysis of SPRS and use of SPRS in wind power generation has also been reviewed in this research paper. The
paper is focused on providing a comprehensive perspective on the state of art of SPRS to the researchers,
manufacturers, industries, and application engineers dealing with adjustable speed SPRS drives. The
contributions of various researchers in this area have been presented in a classified manner which will serve
the reader as a quick, useful, and ready reference. The issues related to control techniques with emphasis on
induction machine drive have been highlighted and rigorously examined in this paper.
1. Introduction
Slip power recovery scheme (SPRS) is a method of speed control of
wound rotor induction motor (WRIM) above and below the synchronous speed as shown in Fig. 1. In WRIM, the slip-rings allow easy
recovery of the slip power that can be electronically controlled to vary
the speed of the induction motor. The oldest and simplest technique to
invoke the slip power recovery induction motor speed control was to
mechanically vary the rotor resistance.
The resistance in the rotor circuit produces the rotor copper losses
and causes the heating of rotor winding. A doubly-fed induction
machine (DFIM) is formed when the converter is present in the rotor
circuit of WRIM and can be controlled by directing the power flow in to
and out of the machine. Therefore, the DFIM can be operated either as
a motor or as a generator both at sub and super synchronous speeds.
The basic concept of SPRS has been firstly presented by Lovi et al. [1]
in 1966 and analysis of the scheme using thyristors have been reported
by Sheppard et al. [2]; however the main limitation of this scheme has
been inferred as the poor power factor due to excessive reactive power
drawn out of the source both by the motor as well as the line
commutated inverter [2]. To overcome this drawback and enhance
the performance of the SPRS, various control techniques have been
reported in literature which has been discussed in the present work.
SPRS operated WRIM have found a wide spectrum of applications in
industries motion control systems, home electric power appliances,
power generation plants, electric vehicles robotics automation equipments, material handling, high voltage air conditioner (HVAC), ship
propulsion, rolling mills, wind turbines and improving functions and
performance of machine, i.e. high speed with fast response of operation, energy saving by adjustable speed operation, labor saving of
maintenance of motors [3]. This has been made possible by expansion
in power electronics or semiconductor technology and their applica-
Abbreviations: AC, alternating current; ANN, artificial neural network; ASD, adjustable speed drive; ANFIS, adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system; BDFIG, brushless doubly fed
induction generator; BJT, bipolar junction power transistor; CC-VSC, current control voltage source converter; CRPWMVSI, current regulated pulse width modulation voltage source
inverter; CSC, cascade speed control; CSI, current source inverter; DC, direct current; DEBRM, doubly excited brushless reluctance machine; DFIG, doubly-fed induction generator;
DFIM, doubly fed induction machine; DFSRIM, doubly fed slip ring induction machine; DFTSIM, doubly fed twin stator induction machine; DSP, digital signal processing; EMI,
electromagnetic interference; FL, fuzzy logic; FOC, field oriented control; GTO, gate turned off,; HVAC, heating ventilation and air-conditioning; IGBT, insulated gate bipolar transistor;
LMI, linear matrix inequality; LQR, linear quadratic regulator; MCT, MOS controlled thyristor; MOSFET, metal-oxide semiconductor field effect transistor; MPPT, maximum power
point tracking; MRAS, model reference adaptive scheme; MTA, motor torque per ampere; PID, proportional integral derivative; PI, proportional integral; PFC, power factor control;
PMSG, permanent magnet synchronous generator; PWM, pulse width modulation; RFO, rotor flux oriented; SCR, silicon controlled rectifier; SERD, slip energy recovery drive; SERS,
slip energy recovery system; SERIM, slip energy recovery induction motor; SLMC, sliding mode control; SPRD, slip power recovery drive; SPRS, slip power recovery scheme/system;
SVPWM, space vector pulse width modulation; THD, total harmonic distortion; T-S, takage-sugeno; VSD, variable speed drive; VSI, voltage source inverter; VVVF, variable voltage
variable frequency; WRIM, wound rotor induction machine/motor
⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: srbhrdj@gmail.co.in (S. Ram).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.11.154
Received 19 November 2015; Received in revised form 29 June 2016; Accepted 12 November 2016
1364-0321/ © 2016 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 73 (2017) 922–934
S. Ram et al.
applications [11]. Holtz has depicted the physical and mathematical
modeling of sensorless controlled AC drives those can achieve a base
speed range of 1:100 to 1:150 [12]. Thoegersen and Blaabjerg have
discussed the inclination within the multidisciplinary field of ASDs and
have concentrated on the market development for cost effective power
converters and collaboration of industry and academia. The demand
growth in adjustable speed drive has been found to ≈9% per year and
average efficiency of induction motor ≈90% [13].
The authors in above reviewed papers have explored the various
expects of the implementation of different control techniques used for
performance improvement of SPRS based ASD. The escalating progress
in the technology related to ASD has attracted many attentions to keep
pace with requirements towards performance improvement of SPRS
drives. The improvements have been mostly pipelined to reduce overall
cost, volume/weight ratio and to accept the challenges for the various
ASD applications. However, the implementation of SPRS drives in
doubly-fed induction generator (DFIG) for wind power generation has
become one of the extensive research works for some years and hence
broaden the applications of SPRS drives. Consequently, there is a need
to demonstrate the detailed performance and investigations of SPRS
drives. In this context, the authors of the present work have tried to
encompass all the control techniques used for SPRS operated WRIM.
Fig. 1. Block diagram of SPRS controlled WRIM comprising of Static Scherbius drive.
tions in adjustable speed (ASD) alternating current (AC) or SPRS
drives in the last five decades. The present work attempts to summarize
the research work on all types of control techniques for SPRS
incorporating various fields of applications and highlights that contributed for performance enhancement. This paper has been organized
in following extensive topics.
2. Different aspects of the SPRS drive
3. Various control techniques used to improve the
performance of SPRS
Various reviews have been done by researchers highlighting different features of AC drives and control techniques for the performance
improvements of SPRS suitable for adjustable speed drive applications.
Earlier direct current (DC) drives were the main adjustable speed
drives utilized in the industrial motion control system where the
mechanical commutator was the limiting factor. But the advancement
in the power electronic or semiconductor technology has developed the
ASD AC drives replacing DC drives. The DC and AC drives have been
reviewed by Leonhard with the main emphasis on the type of machines,
switching devices, and illustrated the industrial applications of drives
[3]. Turner et al. [4] underlined the economic aspect of the AC drive in
the oil and pipeline industry. Okoro et al. [5] highlighted the different
speed control methods of induction motor drive and industrial
application of WRIM. Sen [6] has discussed the induction, synchronous
and reluctance motor drives with main stress on field oriented control
(FOC), stator voltage and frequency control and sliding mode control
(SLMC) techniques. Bose [7] in a review paper has demonstrated
variable frequency drive technology, converter circuit topology, background of expansion of power semiconductor technology, impact of
artificial neural network (ANN), and fuzzy logic (FL) control on
variable speed drive (VSD) applications. An inclusive study based on
the wide-ranging energy generation scenario with their environmental
impacts and further projection for 21st century trends is available in
the literature [8]. The main focus of the study was to explore the energy
conservation offered by semiconductor technology.
Papathanassiou et al. [9] illustrated the applications of static power
converters for wind turbines and photovoltaic's. Li and Chain have
presented the summary of wind generator systems with their comparison based on turbine classification [10]. Stemmler has demonstrated
the progress in power electronic technology that developed the switching devices of high power rating suitable for high power industrial
This section discusses the control techniques used for the performance improvements of SPRS in ASDs based on the literature available
till date with their prominent contributions. In this review paper, the
different types of SPRS model and various control techniques with their
salient features have been outlined and presented in block diagram in
Fig. 2.
3.1. SPRS with various inverter control techniques
The advancement of converters, inverters and cyclo-converter
control topologies have paved the way for development of AC motors
drives which gradually replaced the DC motor drives for variable speed
applications. The researchers work in this area has been summarized in
the current sub-section.
In order to enhance the performance of SPRS, the various inverter
topologies have been reported in the literature. It was found that the
employment of through pass inverter improved the power factor of
WRIM by time ratio control of inverter and provides the smooth speed
control [14]. The analytical analysis of a capacitive compensation
approach applied to the stator [15] and rotor [16] has been presented
in the literature. The stator side compensation improved the efficiency;
power factor and regulated the speed 25% in case of open loop and 1–
3% for closed loop, while rotor side compensation offered the higher
ratio of torque and current [15]. The capacitance excitation of the
induction motor drive resulted in adjustable backing torque as a
function of firing angle of thyristor [16]. Bird and Mehta have obtained
the static regenerative braking of SPRS by separately excited system as
well as the self excited system brakes and achieved speed operation
Fig. 2. Block diagram of various control techniques of SPRS.
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S. Ram et al.
the machine [40].
Alwash et al. have investigated the closed-loop control of a double
rotor circuit SERD system using different controllers (i.e. PI controller
designed by root locus technique, FLC and feed forward controller) to
improve the performance and accuracy of the system [41]. Yalazan
et al. have analyzed the input current signal of SERD via discrete
wavelet transform and reduced the harmonics using active power filter
[42]. Heising et al. have presented a multivariable control scheme to
improve the dynamic performance and railway grid stability [43].
Malik et al. have described the operation of a SFIM with stator directly
connected to the grid and two back-back power converters in the rotor
[44]. Bondy et al. have highlighted the energy saving achieved by
employing SPRS based on semiconductor technology with pulse width
modulation (PWM) and WRIM drive system for electric traction
system [45,46].
It has been observed that the SPRS based approach has replaced the
conventional rotor resistance method of speed control, but falls short in
terms of power factor and total harmonic distortion (THD) of supply.
Inverter control techniques utilized by researchers to improve the
power factor are capacitive compensation and thyristor inverters with
different topologies, including inverter loss, source impedance and
commutation overlap, an approach supplying feedback power to the
stator by means of tapping on the stator winding and back to back
converters in the rotor circuit. However, tapping on the stator makes
the structure of machine complex, so rarely utilized. For high power
and large speed variation cyclo-converter AC to AC control of WRIM
was implemented.
The dynamic and steady state performances of SPRS were analyzed
using reference frame theory considering effects of switching filter time
constant load system inertia, on transient torque, speed and stability.
The accuracy and robustness of the system can be achieved by closed
loop control consisting of PI, proportional integral derivative (PID),
adaptive controller and analyzed by means of state space modeling and
q-d dynamic modeling. Wavelet transform producing reference signal
for active power filter, multivariable scheme controlling slip of traction
motor drive system was realized to improve the THD and railway grid
stability. Therefore, efforts have been made in this direction to enhance
the performances of the SPRS, and trend is towards the application of
PWM based semiconductor technology which reduces the size and cost
of the drive, with active filters and protection circuit for any fault
occurring during operation.
down to 0.05 p.u [17].Weiss et al. have discussed the performances of
rotor side cyclo-converter fed WRIM applicable to pump and compressor load [18]. Chattopadhyay has carried out the simulation of
cyclo-converter based drive system for speed variation of WRIM in sub
and super synchronous mode by rotor voltage control [19]. The author
also incorporated the rotor position detector to configure the thyristor
switch in sequence to provide the reversible power flow naturally [20].
Stability of drive system is an important feature which requires
consideration during transient operation of the drive i.e. starting,
braking and speed reversal. Mittle et al. have presented the starting
transients of a static slip energy recovery drive (SERD) and investigated the effects of switching operation on transient torque and speed.
The author's also have developed the dynamic model of SERD to
analyze the effect of firing angle, load, system inertia, and filter time
constant on the stability. It was obtained that the SERD has better
stability than variable frequency drives [21,22]. Subrahmanyam et al.
[23] analyzed the SERD based on small signal perturbation; Eigen
values methods and found that the drive has complete speed rage of
operation in spite of large variation in parameters that has been
inferred unstable point in previous work.
Rao et al. have shown improvement in power factor by employing
fully controlled inverter and have established criterion for selection of
filter inductance [24]. Lequesne and Miles have introduced the rootloci technique to generalize the results of static Scherbius drive
employed in wound rotor slip energy recovery system (SERS) [25].
The equation has been established by reference frame theory to
envisage the dynamic and steady state performance analysis of SPRS
[26]. Akpinar et al. [27] provided the detailed flowchart of computer
program and modeling of slip energy recovery induction motor
(SERIM) in rotor reference to predict the transient and steady state
performances of the drive. In another paper authors have developed
the model of SERIM without variable inductance matrix and thus
considerably reduced the compensation time [28]. Also a technique for
starting of a SERIM drive incorporating commutation and inverter
harmonic has been investigated [29,30]. Liao et al. have attempted to
recover the slip energy to the part of the stator winding avoiding use of
recovery transformer and tried to reduce the cost of the drive but the
system became complex and required the isolated neutral point [31].
Zahawi et al. have analyzed the performance characteristics of four
different inverter topologies employed in SERD including the effects of
inverter losses, source impedance, and commutation overlap within the
inverter [32]. Stephen et al. have explained the design aspects of
induction motor drive and selection issues of high speed motor for
compressor drives [33]. Ide et al. have proposed the simple adaptive
control for non-linear system to make the system robust [34]. Filho
et al. have presented the torque and speed control of WRIM by
converter cascade with proportional integral (PI) controller based on
rotor voltage with reference to current, whereas in another paper based
on voltage and current reference [35]. Papathanassiou et al. have
investigated the state-space model of the SERD based on simplified d-q
dynamic model and analyzed the static Scherbius drive with two
insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) sinusoidal current converters
in the rotor circuit. The authors have also explained the factor
determining the commutation angle variation by considering the
switching operation of the rotor converters [36,37]. Spittles et al. have
also made the analysis of slip power recovery drive (SPRD) based on
rotor reference frame for super synchronous mode of operation at unity
power factor [38]. Eskander et al. have investigated the steady state
characteristics of SERD utilizing two inverter topologies. The simulation result have shown that power factor of three single phase bridge
inverters operating in the fly wheeling mode has been higher than a
three phase bridge recovery inverter by 17.2% [39]. Lili.et al. have
investigated a double winding induction machine and its speed control
methods. Here one winding acted as motor and another as generator.
The speed of the machine has been regulated by controlling the voltage
across the generator winding, however it increased the physical size of
3.2. SPRS with chopper control techniques
A chopper is a high speed static device that converts fixed DC input
voltage into variable DC output voltage directly and is electronically
monitored by control module power switch. The power semiconductor
devices used for chopper circuit are bipolar junction transistor (BJT),
power metal-oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET),
IGBT, gate turned off (GTO) or other forced commutated thyristors.
The work done by the various researchers in the field of chopper
control techniques has been reported in this sub-section.
Fig. 3 shows the chopper controlled SPRS, where a chopper is
inserted in between the diode and inverter bridges schematic of SPRD
[133] to control the output of inverter by duty ratio control and fixing
the inverter firing angle to a value drawing minimum reactive from the
source. Microcontroller based three phase synchronized firing circuit
control the firing angle of inverter and the pulse generator control the
duty ratio of the chopper. The other strategies for firing or duty ratio
control are PWM, sinusoidal PWM, and space vector pulse width
modulation (SVPWM). The chopper control technique can be used to
improve the power factor of SPRS based WRIM as well as the quality of
power supply.
Dewan and Duff have introduced a commutation scheme with
recovery transformer and analytically analyzed the slip power recovery
drives (SPRD) for optimum energy storage [47]. Sen et al. have
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S. Ram et al.
Fig. 3. Block diagram of chopper controlled SPRS [133].
to 6.2% at a slip of 0.5 and to 3.6% at a slip of 0.2 respectively via
voltage controlled technique and that of 9.1% at slip 0.5 and 8.6 at slip
0.2, respectively via current controlled technique. The power factor at
inverter side has been attained 0.85 at slip 0.5 and 0.31 at slip 0.2,
respectively [66–69]. Mishra et al. have presented an approach in
which three-phase AC supply has been taken as input to the stator of
the WRIM and by further using a three-phase rectifier; AC supply has
been converted into DC. This rectified voltage has been stepped-up,
using a step-up chopper, to the level of the DC voltage of the rectifier
inverter set, and feeding the stator winding of the SRIM [70].
Jarocha has analyzed and matched the simulation and experimental
test results of the basic and modified sub synchronous cascade system
and found that modified system has higher power factor and lower
current THD [71]. Murthy and Rao have illustrated the simulation of a
rotor side chopper controller for wave energy system [72]. Cadirci et al.
have carried out the performance analysis of SERD, affected by
instantaneous power-supply failures in one or more phases of a few
cycles duration during and after the power failure and applied the
protective measure against such faults [73]. Yang et al. have introduced
a method to improve line power factor of CSC in WRIM drives,
applying PFC into CSC [74]. Jiang et al. have introduced, the auto
disturbance rejection control for chopper based SPRS [75] and also
employed double-closed-loop PID control system as a speed regulator
to improve the dynamic performance of the drive [76].
Sichani et al. have designed an optimal-robust speed tracking
controller utilizing 12 pulse converter and shunt chopper with parallel
distributed compensator scheme based on T-S fuzzy model for WRIM
drive system [77]. Azabi et al. have introduced a SPRD consisting of
static rectifier, a boost chopper, and a three level T-type converter to
improve power factor and output voltage THD of WRIM in the
industrial application [78]. Pardhi et al. have presented the study of
SPRS with a DC voltage intermediate circuit and three types of PWM
techniques. It has been observed that the THD of single PWM without
and with filter has been of the order of 31% and12.76%, THD of
sinusoidal PWM without and with filter 56.24% and 3.43%, and THD
of harmonic injection modulation without and with filter has been of
the order of 46.21% and 11.06%, respectively [79–82].
Chopper controlled SPRS offers a contactless or step-less control of
rotor resistance for the speed control of WRIM. The researchers have
analytically analyzed the dynamic performance of SCR based inverter
and chopper operated on TRC approach using DC and AC equivalent
circuit, state space model, q-d model taking into account effect of
machine parameter, recovery transformer, switching devices, with
closed loop controller. The chopper controlled SPRS provided the
decoupled control of motor torque and reactive power simultaneously.
The PWM chopper control plays a vital role to improve power factor of
discussed the static rotor resistance schemes via chopper operated in
time ratio control mode [48], while Chan et al. have implemented the
scheme for voltage and frequency control of SESRIG via closed loop
control scheme [49].
Ameen analyzed the dynamic and steady state performance of
chopper controlled rotor resistance WRIM using reference frame
theory [50], and Sandhya et al. implemented the same scheme for
active power control of optimum-slip induction generator [51]. Murthy
and Wani have investigated small signal dynamic model comprising of
thyristor controlled chopper and enhanced the closed loop performances of the drive using PI controller [52]. Oguchi and Suzuki have
examined a brushless static Kramer system consisting of self cascade
induction motor and brushless, commutator less motor using three
control methods and observed that the DC chopper method has a better
option for comparatively wide range of speed operation [53]. Jeans
et al. have demonstrated the optimized design for forced commutated
SCR circuit allowing auto adaptive commutation under transient
currents [54]. Taniguchi et al. have demonstrated the features of static
Scherbius drive using DC and AC equivalent circuit to enhance the
power factor and reduce the ripples in the direct current [55], whilst
Doradla et al. [56] found out the speed-torque characteristics and
power factor. Barun has investigated regenerative converter for PWM
AC drives, having SCR bridge to operate as a synchronous line
commutator, though a two transistor series/shunt chopper managed
the regenerative power flow, and presented an emergency braking
facility [57]. Borges et al. have presented adaptive fuzzy technique for
reactive power control of SPRD utilizing two GTOs in the converter
bridge which in turn improved the power factor of the drive [58]. Pilley
and Refoufi have proposed two versions of the equivalent circuit to
calculate the performance of a chopper-controlled SPRIM drive [59].
Marques has attempted to configure the SPRS using VSI with boost
chopper to provide the decoupled control of motor torque, reactive
power at the same time and analyzed using reference theory [60,61].
Maeques et al. have also investigated the performances of drive via CSI
and VSI with LC filter to decrease THD of supply [62,63].
Muthuramalingum et al. have implemented the DC link series resonant
converter based SPRS as a VSD for WRIM and VSCF DFIG to maintain
the rotor current sinusoidal with near unity power factor [64]. Panda
et al. have proposed a machine side converter consisting of thyristorbridge and a boost/buck-boost DC to DC interface to replace the one of
the IGBT converter to reduce the cost of the rotor side control of a
DFIM [65]. Srirut et al. have presented various chopper control
techniques using FL controller, DSP controller, voltage-controller,
and voltage-source PWM converter with current controller for speed
control of WRIM and improved the drive power factor, overall
efficiency. THD of the supply line current waveform has been reduced
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Fig. 4. Field orientation control implementation [94].
[88]. Cacciato et al. have presented the maximum torque per ampere
(MTA) algorithm to ensure the stable optimal slip and optimized the
efficiency using voltage/frequency ratio control [89]. Vedrana et al.
have proposed optimal configuration and commissioning of high
performance frequency converter for induction motor [90]. The
economics of microhydel power generation such as selection of
synchronous speed to optimize the slip power decreasing cost of
controller, analysis for restoration and up-rating of hydel power plants
have been investigated [91–93].
The optimal control of the SPRS maximizes the reliability, power
factor, efficiency and reduces the cost. The efficiency and power factor
have been improved utilizing generalized methods such as including
sequential cascade converter, VVVF and variable angle controllers, slip
angular frequency controller, MTA algorithm and high frequency
converters. Here, the generation cost can be reduced with greater
effectiveness and reliability by taking suitable gear ratio, size, and the
factors like selection of site and synchronous speed etc. The research
trend is now more towards the optimization of DFIG based wind power
plant and researchers are working on applying robust optimal control
techniques.
SPRS with reduced THD of the supply. The various configurations of
PWM chopper buck, boost, and buck-boost with PWM inverter using
GTO, MOSFET, IGBT semiconductor devices and ANN, FL, DSP
controller has been employed to enhance the power factor, efficiency,
and quality of power supply. The system becomes robust and adaptive
using closed loop control based ADRC for boost operated SPRS. The
abnormality produced in the SPRS during any fault conditions can be
mitigated using static switches.
At present the researchers are working on the high frequency IGBT
chopper controller and fuzzy adaptive regulator centered in three level
regulator assemblies. The chopper controller with multilevel inverter
can be used to improve the power factor and reduce the THD of the
supply. As the number of inverter level increases, the output voltage
produces more steps like staircase waveform, which has a reduced
harmonic distortion. However, a large number of levels increase the
control complexity. The increase in number of switching devices does
not increase the cost but increase in rating of devices do so and here it
is to mention that as number of series connected devices are increased,
the rating of the devices are decreased. So a compromise must be set
between the performance improvement offered and complexity involved.
3.4. SPRS with field oriented control techniques
3.3. SPRS with optimal control techniques
Field orientation is a technique that provides a method of decoupling the two components of stator current, one producing the air gap
flux and the other producing the torque. Hence, it offers independent
control of torque and flux similar to the separately excited DC machine.
FOC implemented by various researchers have been summarized in
this sub-section.
FOC represented by Fig. 4 can be used to control the active and
reactive power of the SPRS operated drive. The VSCF wind power
generating system using DFBRM with FOC have investigated to track
the torque speed characteristics of wind turbines and to realize flexible
reactive power control. The authors have also analyzed the stability of
doubly excited machine with open loop voltage, open loop current
control and modified model of high performance SPRS [94,95].
Chakrabarti et al. have argued a technique for correction of rotor time
constant of induction motor by computing stator flux signal via stator
voltage and stator currents [96]. Shi et al. have demonstrated two-stage
control scheme for WRIM using SPRS in which slip frequency
controller operates with current magnitude controller during steady
state and transient modes [97].
Optimization is the process of finding the conditions that gives the
maximum or minimum value of the function. The optimum seeking
techniques are known as mathematical programming techniques.
Optimal solution optimizes the objective function subject to certain
constraints. The work done by researchers using this technique has
been reported in this sub-section.
Mukhopadhyay has investigated a generalized method of optimizing the performance of sequentially controlled cascaded converters
with economic viability [83]. Ioannides, et al. have chosen optimal
control technique viz., programmable open loop controller, voltage
phasor controller at the rotor, variable voltage variable frequency
(VVVF) and variable angle controller to optimize the operation of
SPRD used in the DFIM [84–86]. Cadrici and Ermis have analyzed the
steady-state behavior of WRIG by controlling the magnitude and
direction of slip power at variable speed [87]. Choy et al. have talked
about efficiency optimization control of induction motor drive utilizing
on-line neural network based on frequency control; and scalar controlled induction motor drive based on a constant-optimal slip control
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Fig. 5. Voltage (or current) space vector control scheme for DTSIM [98].
induction motor drive with reduced rating of auto-transformer in place
of 6-pulse diode bridge rectifier [105]. Wang et al. have presented the
selective harmonic elimination of PWM control drive system based on
RFO vector control of induction motor with four different modulations
[106]. Smith et al. have introduced an encoder less scalar control or
approximate vector control method to overcome the practical difficulties of induction motor drives used in industrial field with improved
performance [107]. Stumper and Kennel have demonstrated a model to
reconstruct the unmeasured states of induction motor drive system.
Experimental results have established that proposed model offers good
dynamic characteristics, accuracy, and robustness [108].
Vector control method based SPRS can enhance the efficiency,
dynamic performance, reduce the mechanical stresses, provides the
MPPT control using voltage space vector and current space vector,
adaptive control, RFO control and encoder-less approximate scalar or
vector control of WRIM. In this method of speed control the quality of
power supply can be improved by employing two level inverter, current
control strategy based space vector modulation, and multi-phase ACDC converters. The detection of different tradeoffs, and on-line
parameters of machine is possible by means of RFO vector control,
active and reactive power controls by bidirectional PWM voltage source
inverter (VSI) connected back to back in the rotor circuit. The future
scope in this field seem to be of maximum power point tracking
(MPPT) control which is less exploited in the given literature, vector
control via modeling of machine in rotor reference frame that considers
the switching states of power electronic devices.
From the reported literature in Section 3.4, it has been seen that the
field oriented control methods has improved efficiency, flexibility,
stability, dynamic performance and robustness of the SPRS based
drive and also at the reduced cost. It has been observed that the
researchers have paid attentions toward the rotor field oriented control
of matrix converters and FL controller based converters.
3.5. SPRS with vector control techniques
Vector control technique of induction motor drive has progressed in
1980 and made the AC motor popular for adjustable speed applications. The vector control and FOC become the standard solution in
many low and high power drive system. The implementation of vector
control method by different researchers has been reported in this subsection.
Fig. 5 representing the voltage space vector control and current
space vector control techniques, employed for performance evaluation
of DFTSIM. The required torque in speed control loop has been
achieved by dynamically controlling the magnitude of voltage or
current space vector of the control winding and the operating mode
by adjusting its position. The results of study have shown that current
space vector control has healthier dynamic response with reduced
converter ratings [98]. Watanabe et al. have proposed an anti-slip
readhesion control method without speed sensor focusing on motor
current for railway vehicles by means of multiple induction motor drive
system [99]. Somasekhar et al. have presented a dual two-level inverter
fed open end winding induction motor drive generating voltage space
phase position analogous to a three level inverter [100]. Telford et al.
have proposed a method for on-line identification of induction machine
parameters essential to adjust a rotor flux oriented (RFO) vector
control scheme [101]. Jabr and Kar have demonstrated a vector
controller to enhance the dynamic performance of wind driven DFIG
by reducing; the requirement of mechanical controller and the mechanical stress on the gear box [102].
Yang et al. have described the test-bed comprising of DFIG, VVVF
inverter driven squirrel cage motor for wind turbine and simulated
with dual DSP based controllers, and PC based data acquisition and
control system. Active and reactive power between the system and grid
has been controlled by vector control [103]. Kholy et al. have
investigated the two schemes employed for induction motor drive
based on current control space vector modulation to obtain optimal
voltage vector and reduced THD [104]. Singh et al. have designed and
implemented a 15 pulse AC-DC converter feeding vector controlled
3.6. SPRS with sensor-less position control techniques
Speed estimation particularly for induction motor drives, where
rotor speed is generally different from the speed of revolving magnetic
field uses sensor-less position control technique. Sensor-less position
control techniques used in the operation of speed control of AC drives
involve the estimation of internal state variable of the machine and
eliminates the speed sensor at the machine shaft without deteriorating
the dynamic performance. The research work done by various researchers has been reported in this sub-section.
The sensorless control of the SRIM shown in Fig. 6 using DSP
method to extract the rotor emfs from the terminal voltage of the
machine can control the speed of machine in sub and super synchronous mode of operation [109]. Philip and Wong have demonstrated the
four quadrant sensor-less operation of static Scherbius current source
drive using adaptive filtering via analog realization. Four quadrant
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Fig. 6. Sensor-less Scherbius system [109].
Srirut has investigated the performances of a state feedback
controller employing linear control technique and d‐SPACE in conjunction with the MATLAB/SIMULINK tool to control the speed of
WRIM [120]. Wang et al. have developed the control strategy to
operate induction motor drive system in the event of multiple sensor
failures and diagnosing the fault and recoveries and selecting the
algorithm for best performance [121]. Kumar and Krishanan have
designed the state feedback speed controller via redesign concept using
linear quadratic regulator (LQR) approach for WRIM to improve the
response of speed control. The redesigned problem has been constructed as generalized Eigen value problem via matrix inequality
constraint [122]. Khalik et al. have proposed decoupled control of rotor
torque and rotor electric power in reluctance wound rotor BDFM using
closed loop control technique and eliminating the need for slip-rings
[123]. Yuan et al. have investigated an adjustable speed drive to start
and accelerate the DFIM by the converter without starting resistors or
auto- transformer and allowed to operate in the full speed range [124].
Pinto et al. have discussed the relevance of the linear quadratic
Gaussian/loop transfer recovery with integral action multivariable
robust controller to DFIG and controller using kalman filter is shown
in Fig. 7 [125].
The state feedback control using d‐SPACE model on simulink
reduces the steady error and speed variations with respect to load
and provide the optimal control with continuous time controller
designed based on linear quadratic regulator (LQR) technique. Delta
hysteresis regulator scheme with MARS provide fault tolerance and
closed loop control that makes the system stable. The system robustness is achieved by multivariable linear quadratic Gaussian controller,
whereas the static resistance starting by partially rated converter.
Current research is focusing on fractional order versions of conventional filters which enhances accuracy and robustness of the system.
operation of the drive have eliminated the starting problem of turbine
at low wind speed [110].
Nakano and Takahashi have presented a speed sensorless torque
control technique based on FOC estimating the slip frequency by
means of a current source inverter (CSI) [111]. Liao et al. have
investigated and implemented the position sensorless algorithm for
estimation and control of torque angle and speed of the drive in the
open loop mode of DFRM [112]. Cheng et al. have explained about the
principle of position sensorless control technique recognizing decoupled control of torque and reactive power used for the DFIM
system [113]. Akpinar et al. have presented the operating region and
output response of the current and speed controller of SPRS during the
starting and step change of the mechanical power [114]. Suji et al. have
demonstrated a sensorless vector control system using model reference
adaptive scheme (MRAS) for induction motor considering synchronously rotating reference frame [115]. The author also discussed the
control derived from flux observer method by considering the iron
losses [116]. Verma et al. have proposed a speed estimation technique
for a grid connected doubly fed slip ring induction machine (DFSRIM)
drive formulated by reactive power based MRAS [117]. Kumar and Rao
have presented the algorithm for direct flux and torque control of 3-φ
induction motor drive based on control of slip speed and decoupling
between amplitude and angle of reference stator flux [118,119].
In sensor-less control method, the stability, reliability, and robustness of the system can be achieved using adaptive four quadrant
operation of drive, MRAS, and position sensor-less control algorithm
estimating the torque angle of the machine. The reactive power control
is realized by torque angle control method whereas the efficiency is
thought of including accuracy of torque and speed, by iron loss and flux
observer method. The harmonic distortion of supply is reduced using
CSI fed drive with direct torque and flux controller. In this field the
current research is focusing on the idea of cascade control of SPRS
utilizing thyristor based WRIM with the slave rectified current control
loop having emf observer for grid and rotor converters synchronization.
3.7. SPRS with state-feedback/DSP control techniques
The digital signal processing (DSP) has provided high speed
computation and played an important role in embedded control system
implementation. Thus, the digital software provides a greater degree of
flexibility in system design and higher order of precision with digital
hardware and software as compared to analog circuits. The researchers
work in this area has been reported in this sub-section.
Fig. 7. LQG/LTRI Control structure [125].
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Fig. 8. Closed loop slip power recovery control scheme [126].
problem of SLMC, various chattering reduction techniques are being
used. Further meta-heuristic approaches are being used to optimally
tune the SLMC parameters.
3.8. SPRS with microcontroller/microprocessor based and sliding
mode control techniques
The microelectronics technologies by integration and digitalization
of control circuit and microprocessor applications has progressed in
1980 and the variable structure control using SLMC has been used in
the field of controlled electric drive system to compete with the self
tuning and the model referencing adaptive control techniques by
improving the performance and robustness. The various researchers’
contributions in this area have been summarized in this sub-section.
A microprocessor based SPRS using Intel 8085 microprocessor to
implement speed and current controller and generating firing pulses is
shown in the Fig. 8 [126]. Salamesh and Wang have designed and
implemented a firing scheme using the INTEL 8086 microprocessor to
control the inverter firing angle of the VSCF double output induction
generator with multi-task facility [127].
Ho et al. have illustrated the SLMC of speed drive system by means
of field oriented series connected WRIM implementing a microcontroller and replaced the conventional linear controller by a nonlinear
SLMC using two processor systems [128]. Abed et al. have designed the
SLMC induction motor drive [129]. Battista et al. have proposed the
SLMC strategy of the static converters that forced the system to track
the wind speed variations [130]. Manuel et al. have designed an ASD
for electric vehicles using hysteresis current controller derived from
linear model of rotor current [131]. Soltani et al. have developed a
nonlinear controller for DFIM drive based on combination of sliding
mode and back stepping designed control technique [132]. Kumar et al.
have reported the steady state analysis of SPRS using line commutated
inverter and microcontroller technique for producing firing pulses. The
simulation and experimental results have revealed that efficiency of
drive has been increased whereas overall power factor has decreased;
also the presence of inverter injected harmonics in the source side and
current harmonics in the stator and rotor has caused the heating of the
motor [133]. Evangelista et al. have presented a second order sliding
mode based multiple input multiple output power controller for a gridconnected variable-speed wind energy conversion system to control the
grid power factor and extracted power from the wind [134].
The stability of the system can be improved by means of microprocessor/microcontroller based current and speed controller, SLMC
based on FOC and torque angle control, slip regulated SLMC with
microprocessor, non-linear controller based on sliding mode and back
stepping control techniques. Microprocessor/embedded controllers
control the firing angle of inverter for motoring and generating mode
operation of SPRS operated WRIM. SLMC based static converter
enhance the efficiency, optimize speed, reduce torque ripples and
power fluctuations, whereas Lyapunov algorithm based SLMC control
the active power in the partial load zone and reactive power according
to grid requirement. Work is going on to bring improvements in the
optimal tuning of parameters of SLMC. Also to reduce the chattering
3.9. SPRS with matrix converter control techniques
A converter uses a matrix of power semiconductor switches to
convert electrical power at high efficiency. The converter configuration
as a matrix converter has come into existence with the availability of
(MOS controlled thyristor) MCT devices in 1992. The work done by
various researchers in the field of matrix converter has been reported in
this sub-section.
Dalal et al. have developed the simulation model of slip power
controller depicted in Fig. 9 and Altun et al. described using a matrix
converter for DFIM drive to improve the quality of power and the
conversion efficiency [135,136]. Sunter has reported rotor side control
by proposing a simulation model of WRIM in which energy from rotor
into mains has been transferred through matrix converter instead of
AC-DC-AC converter at higher efficiency [137]. Kara and Barra have
discussed the modeling and simulation of DFIG utilizing matrix
converter with different control techniques to improve the performance
of wind energy conversion system [138]. Basu and Mohan have
proposed a novel configuration producing adjustable frequency and
amplitude PWM 3-φ AC from a balanced 3-φ AC source. The
commutation current responsible for leakage inductance energy has
also been considered in the proposed work [139,140].
Consequently, matrix converters improve the power factor, quality
of power supply, whereas direct matrix converter based on PI
controller track the speed and torque oscillations and PWM AC-AC
single power converter suppress the common mode voltage with
bidirectional power flow. The researchers are recently working on the
matrix converter with rotor field oriented control of WRIM using space
vector modulation approach.
Fig. 9. The control block diagram of the drive system [135].
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Harmonics analysis of current and voltage contents of SPRD can be
carried out using hybrid d-q/abc model of induction motor taking in to
consideration the commutation overlap angle and DC link ripples
[151]. Akpinar et al. have given the details of the analytical techniques
to determine the overlap angle of rectifier output voltage and predicted
the harmonic contents of a chopper controlled SERIM drives using
hybrid d-q/abc model [152], while Jaiswal et al. ignored the effect of
harmonic due to rectifier and inverter [153]. Refoufi and Pillay have
compared the harmonic analysis of SPRS using inverter as well as
chopper control methods [154] whereas Refoufi et al. have compared
the results obtained from hybrid d-q model of induction generator
using rotor reference theory [155]. Faiz et al. have presented the
harmonic analysis using sinusoidal PWM technique to reduce the low
order harmonics [156]. Zakaria et al. have developed the simulation
model and carried out the harmonics analysis of the double rotor
circuit WRIM to enhance the performance of SPRD but the presence of
two rotor circuits and their interaction has increased the complexity of
the model [157,158]. Papathanassiou et al. have examined the
harmonic contents of the stator and rotor current, electromagnetic
torque of the SERD considering the harmonics produced by rectifier
and inverter [159]. Lee et al. have proposed a VSD power estimation
methodology to derive relationship between fundamental and higher
harmonics contents in current and analyzed with signature association
in harmonic content [160]. Hernandez and Madrigal have developed a
DFIM model for steady state harmonic analysis by taking in to account
the non sinusoidal voltage sources on the stator and rotor side of the
machine. From the results it has been established that current
harmonics exist on both side of the machine depending on the slip
and the fundamental frequency of both voltage sources [161,162].
The harmonic analysis of SPRS of hybrid model q-d/abc using
reference frame theory based inverter and chopper control techniques
for WRIM is carried out. The different performance SPRS schemes
using line commutated inverter and PWM inverter are analyzed and
established that the PWM inverter with chopper reduces the THD and
improves the power factor. Recently the researchers are giving thought
to the proportional resonant controllers for harmonic suppression in
grid tied wind turbine system.
3.10. SPRS with ANN and FL control techniques
The ANN and FL control introduced in 1990 and have shown lot of
precision for control and estimation of variable frequency drives. The
ANN and FL techniques implemented by various researchers have been
summarized in this sub-section.
FL controller used in MARS to wisely control SPRS based DFIM
Tang et al. [141]. The reactive power control becomes more flexible by
means of FOC implementing FL and DSP system for variable speed
induction motor drives Tang et al. [142]. Fuzzy logic principle has used
in efficiency optimization and performance improvement of variable
speed wind generation system [143]. ANN has been used to train input
variables for approximate numerator and denominator functions in the
speed expression of induction motor so as to accurately trace the speed
without filters for the feedback parameters [144]. Amin et al. [145]
proposed training algorithm for ANN based tracking controller for
adaptive control of SERD. Afonso et al. have investigated the FL
controller for 3-φ induction motor fed by a PWMVSI and observed that
FL approach is a viable option to conventional control for linear model
[146]. Srirut et al. have implemented the FL controller for self tuning of
SPRS by maintaining the speed constant and regulating the rotor
current and adaptive fuzzy-neuro controller based SPRS for speed
control of WRIM by keeping the speed constant with good transient
response [147,148]. Mona et al. have made comparison between the
response of PI controller and FL controller for saturated SPRD and
non-saturated SPRD and also starting transients of a CSI fed IM drive
system. From the simulation results, it has been found that the FL
controller has a better dynamic response for both saturated SPRD and
non-saturated SPRD and fuzzy controller reduced the overshoot value
of speed by 2–5% for fixed torque and peak value of dc current around
4% [149,150].
Direct FL control based on MRAS and FL using TECH software tool
80C196KC microcontroller improves the performance and robustness
of the system, whereas FOC FL using DSP provide the flexible reactive
power control. FL control with inner control loop and self tuning
system by adjusting the rotor current optimizes the efficiency and
enhance transient response and robustness. Adaptive FL controller and
FL PI controller provides good steady state and transient response with
reduced overshoot by 2–5% and DC link current by 4%. A technique
employing ANN achieves the high degree of accuracy by eliminating
filter inductor and neural network based tracking control, accurately
tracks the speed for unknown non-linear parameters of machine. The
latest trends in FL control technique are towards the adaptive neurofuzzy inference system (ANFIS). The ANFIS eliminates the problems
associated with neuro and fuzzy and enhance the overall performance
of the controller.
5. Implementation of SPRS in DFIG for wind power
generation
Wind power generation is more economical than other environmental clean and safe renewable sources like photo-voltaic and fuel cell
systems. Recently, the energy consumption is continuously increasing
and the nonrenewable sources of energy might not be able to keep the
pace with energy demands in the future due to their limited use, hence
needs renewable energy sources. The development in the power
electronics led to the acceptance of VSCF system where the energy
captured is larger with higher efficiency. The various techniques for
wind power generation have been reviewed and summarized in this
section.
Wen et al. have firstly analyzed the operation of DFIG and
permanent magnet synchronous generator (PMSG) to optimize the
stability and secondly the effect of variations of transient reactance,
negative sequence reactance and rotary inertia on critical clearing time
of power system transient stability. The block diagram of the system
4. Harmonics analysis of SPRS
Inverter comprising of switching devices produce high harmonic
current and reactive current into the load or source, which causes some
trouble to the users. Harmonics reduction in the motor and the AC
supply system is a usual requirement in the high power applications.
The research contributions of various researchers in the field of
harmonics analysis and harmonic reduction of SPRS have been
summarized in this section.
Fig. 10. Model of wind turbine with DFIG [163].
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reactive power, building-up of stator transient flux, and adaptive
reactive power to voltage method for voltage control of DFIG based
wind power plant.
with DFIG is shown in Fig. 10 [163].
Raina and Malik have demonstrated the control scheme to adjust
the output characteristics of double output induction generator to the
desired output characteristics of the driving turbine by static Scherbius
drive [164,165]. Nigim has developed the practical controller based on
SPRS principle for self excitation of the WRIM regulating the generated
voltage and frequency [166]. Tang et al. have presented a flexible active
and reactive power controller for DFIM by means of PWM inverter to
minimize copper losses and harmonics in the power network [167].
Abdin and Xu have demonstrated the modeling and designing of
controller for wind turbine induction generator system [168].
Lov et al. have tried to extend the capability of the existing wind
turbine design tool to simulate the dynamic behavior of the wind
turbine-grid interface [169]. Okafor et al. have investigated the
different configurations of DFIG using two voltage source inverters to
enhance the efficiency and control flexibility. The simulation results
have shown the 6% improvement in the efficiency [170]. Smith et al.
have employed an operating scheme for low wind speed to improve
overall energy extraction from the wind [171]. Iwanski and Koczara
have proposed the soft connection and disconnection of DFIG (based
on grid voltage and frequency) to the grid by way of controlled
transients and the sensorless direct voltage controller. The synchronization process has been illustrated via angle controller between
generated and grid voltage [172]. Fan et al. have developed the PWM
based slip control scheme with voltage/frequency ratio controller for
DFIG to enhance the performance. The authors have proposed three
control methodologies (slip control, flux magnitude and angle, vector
control) to extract maximum wind power and to maintain a satisfactory
voltage level at the stator of DFIG based wind turbines during
fluctuations as well [173,174]. Wong et al. have demonstrated the
methodology to synchronize DFIG with grid by controlling stator
terminal voltage by means of the rotor converter operating at constant
frequency [175]. Wu et al. have simulated directly connected fixed
speed induction generator using STATCOM and pitch controller to
analyze the transient stability [176]. Stiebler has presented DFSRIM
for low voltage ASDs with slip-ring motor and back to back converter
connected in the rotor circuit [177].
Malik and Sadarangani have simulated the mathematical model
and feedback controller of brushless doubly fed induction generator
(DFIG) by means of vector control techniques [178]. Okedu et al. have
analyzed the stabilization method of wind farm consisting of fixed and
variable speed wind turbines using current controlled-voltage source
converter (CC-VSC) scheme for DFIG [179]. Huang et al. have
developed a novel speed feedback control technique based on excitation current regulation to obtain the better static and dynamic
performance [180]. Estahbanati has presented an adaptive control
system using MPPT controller to control the output signal of DFIG. The
simulation results have shown that the MPPT controller tracks the
worse condition that may be taking place in the wind farm [181–185].
The effect of static rotor resistance on torque and stability of DFIG
can be analyzed and optimized with combined operation of DFIG,
PMSG and CC-VSC. PWM inverter with FOC optimized torque-speed
nature of DFIG and static reactive power compensator with PI control
improve the transient response. VSI connected back to back in the
rotor circuit using vector control enhances the efficiency and power
factor and MPPT controller, the operational capability whereas v/f
ratio control, direct voltage control from rotor side maintain the voltage
and frequency level of the DFIG. Dynamic performance can be
analyzed by steady state model of DFIG using Bode plot while wind
farm low voltage ride through capability can be enhanced via
STATCOM in conjunction with pitch angle control. Recently, the
researchers in this field are working on the sliding mode controller to
enhance dynamic performance, close loop control of converters including proportional controller taking the benefit of rotor inertial
power to improve the performance of the MPPT control. Dual loop
control including current and flux loop to control the active and
6. Conclusions
The comprehensive and critical review of published literature
available in the area of adjustable speed or SPRS drives with various
methodologies and control techniques have been presented in this
paper. More than 180 research publications on the state of art in this
area have been rigorously examined, classified, and listed for quick
reference. The journals of high repute, proceedings of international and
national conferences, contribution of various researchers, experts
related to control techniques of SPRS drives have been reviewed
critically. This research work will prove of immense help to the
beginners in the field of SPRS drives. A broad classification of
adjustable speed or SPRS drive with various methodologies and control
techniques into four categories is expected to provide an easy selection
of appropriate technique for a particular application. The brief history
of beginning of power semiconductor technology during last five
decades has been outlined, which has revolutionized the field of
industrial, commercial, domestic, transportation, utility environment,
and wind power generation. The semiconductor technology has developed statically controllable speed SPRS drives which are more powerful, compact in size, cost effective, more efficient, and possess superior
dynamic performance. This review has highlighted a number of areas
and current status of research in the SPRS drive and has also provided
valuable insight, methodological improvements as well as scope for the
future research work in this area.
Appendix A. Supporting information
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found in the
online version at doi:10.1016/j.rser.2016.11.154.
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