Inquiries, Investigations
and Immersion
Quarter 3 – Module 8:
Understanding Ways to Collect Data
Title – Inquiries, Investigations, and Immersion
Alternative Delivery Mode
Quarter 3 – Module 8: Understanding Ways to Collect Data
First Edition, 2020
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Inquiries, Investigationsand
Immersion
Quarter 3 – Module 8:
Understanding Ways to Collect Data
Introductory Message
This Self-Learning Module (SLM) is prepared so that you, our dear learners,
can continue your studies and learn while at home. Activities, questions, directions,
exercises, and discussions are carefully stated for you to understand each lesson.
Each SLM is composed of different parts. Each part shall guide you step-bystep as you discover and understand the lesson prepared for you.
Pre-tests are provided to measure your prior knowledge on lessons in each
SLM. This will tell you if you need to proceed on completing this module or if you
need to ask your facilitator or your teacher’s assistance for better understanding of
the lesson. At the end of each module, you need to answer the post-test to self-check
your learning. Answer keys are provided for each activity and test. We trust that you
will be honest in using these.
In addition to the material in the main text, Notes to the Teacher are also
provided to our facilitators and parents for strategies and reminders on how they can
best help you on your home-based learning.
Please use this module with care. Do not put unnecessary marks on any part
of this SLM. Use a separate sheet of paper in answering the exercises and tests. And
read the instructions carefully before performing each task.
If you have any questions in using this SLM or any difficulty in answering the
tasks in this module, do not hesitate to consult your teacher or facilitator.
Thank you.
What I Need to Know
The purpose of research is to make description, explanation and/or predictions
about various phenomena. The efficacy of any research depends on the accuracy of
the data collected.
This module aims to introduce different methods used by researchers for collection
of data. This material outlines different methods available for data collection in
research.
The module is divided into two lessons:
•
•
Lesson 1 – Quantitative Data Collection
Lesson 2 – Qualitative Data Collection
After going through this module, you are expected to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
recognize types of data;
identify the methods for collecting data;
explain the procedure for data collection; and
conduct and record an interview.
1
What I Know
Read each statement carefully. Choose the letter of the best answer. Write
your answers on your notebook.
1. Observations used in research are examples of ____________________.
a. methodological approach
c. qualitative data collection
b. quantitative data collection
method
method
d. method of collecting data
2. What do we use when gathering primary data?
a. interviews
c. surveys
b. experiments
d. all of the above
3. This involves an intensive interaction between the researcher and the
subjects or participants.
a. simulation
c. naturalistic observation
b. nonparticipant
d. participant observation
observation
4. This type of interview is done to recall and reconstruct something that
happened in the past.
a. informal interview
c. semi-structured interview
b. structured interview
d. retrospective interview
5. This data collection strategy makes use of books, journals, magazine,
art works, songs, pictures, and others to obtain common themes or
construct for analysis.
a. documentary analysis
c. observation
b. interview
d. survey
2
Lesson
1
Quantitative Data Collection
In the previous module, we discussed about the population and sampling
techniques for quantitative and qualitative research. This part of the module
belongs to tools of data collection. The sampling frame is significant for
knowledge of nature of sample which is the source of data. It is necessary to
employ the appropriate tool and technique to draw out the information
relevant to research and its objectives. The tool and technique of data
collection varies according to purpose of research, nature of data, nature of
sample etc.
The tools may be enlisted as follows:
1. observation
2. interviews
3. questionnaires
4. rating scales
5. inventories & tests
What’s In
Read each statement carefully. Identify if the statement is a Nonprobability
Sampling or Probability Sampling. Write your answers on your notebook.
1. Sample selection based on the subjective judgment of the researcher.
2. Not everyone has an equal chance to participate.
3. The researcher does not consider sampling bias.
4. Useful when the population has similar traits.
5. The sample does not accurately represent the population.
6. Finding respondents is easy.
7. The sample is selected at a random.
8. Everyone in the population has an equal chance of getting selected.
9. Used when sampling bias must be reduced.
10. Useful when the population is diverse.
3
Notes to the Teacher
It is important to remind the student-researchers that the resulting
qualitative data will always consist ofdescriptive and narrative
accounts.
What’s New
Identify whether the following statements are primary data or secondary data.
On your notebooks, write SD or PD for your answers.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
An artifact, document, diary, manuscript, or other source of
information created at the time of study is a __________.
A training record is a __________.
A map produced in 2016 showing what land European countries
controlled in the world in the 18th century would be considered a
__________.
A professional journal discussing the impact of rust on metal would
be an example of a __________.
A source created about an event or time-period by someone who was
there is a __________.
What is It
Statistics is a branch of mathematics dealing with the collection, analysis,
presentation, interpretation, and conclusion of data, while biostatistics is a
branch of statistics, where statistical techniques are used on biomedical data
to reach a conclusion. Measurement scale (data type) is an important part of
data collection, analysis, and presentation.
In the data collection, the type of questionnaire and the data recording tool
differ according to the data types. Similarly, in the data analysis, statistical
tests or methods differ from one data type to another. Data presentation is an
important step to communicate our information and findings to the audience
and readers in an effective way. If done properly, they not only reduce word
4
count but also convey an important message in a meaningful way so that the
readers can grasp it easily. There are various tabulation and graphical
methods used to present the data, which are not possible without proper
knowledge of data types.
Data are a collection of facts such as values or measurements. It can be
numbers, words, measurements, observations, or even just descriptions of
things. Basically, data are two types: constant and variable. Constant is a
situation or value that does not change, while a characteristic, number, or
quantity that increases or decreases over time or takes different values in
different situations is called variable. Due to unchangeable property, constant
is not used and only variable is used for summary measures and analysis.
Within the context of a research investigation, concepts are generally referred
to as variables. A variable is, as the name applies, something that varies. Age,
sex, export, income and expenses, family size, country of birth, capital
expenditure, class grades, blood pressure readings, preoperative anxiety
levels, eye color, and vehicle type are all examples of variables because each
of these properties varies or differs from one individual to another. There are
five types of variable in terms of research methodology as follows:
The variable, value of which affects the value of another variable is known as
independent variable. Such variable is not affected by the change in the value
of another variable but affects the value of another variable.
The variable, value of which may change due to change in the value of another
variable is called dependent variable. In other words, such characteristic is
called dependent variable for which different values can be obtained in the
context of change in independent variable.
We know that independent variable affects the value of dependent variable
and there has been cause and effect relationship between these two. The
variable that affects the cause-and-effect relationship between these two
variables is called moderator variable. It means the effect of independent
variable independent variable may be different in the presence of moderator
variable.
Next, If the effect of such variables that can affect the cause-and-effect
relationship of dependent and independent variable, is eliminated, it is called
controlled variable. In other words, if the effect of moderator variable is
controlled, it is known as controlled variable.
Lastly, any such variable is called intervening variable, that may affect the
cause-and-effect relationship of dependent and independent variables but
either cannot be measured clearly or is to be ignored during research. It
means, intervening variables are neither controlled nor taken care of during
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research. In other words, any moderator variable, that cannot be measured
or observed clearly or ignored is called intervening variable. See Figure 1 for
better understanding.
Figure 1. The Relationship Among Variables
INDEPENDENT
VARIABLE(S)
INTERVENING VARIABLE(S)
DEPENDENT
VARIABLE(S)
MODERATOR
VARIABLE(S)
CONTROL
VARIABLE(S)
For quantitative research, there are four types of variables: nominal, ordinal,
discrete, and continuous. The first two are called qualitative data and the last
two are quantitative data. The first two (nominal and ordinal) are assessed in
terms of words or attributes called qualitative data, whereas discrete and
continuous variables are part of the quantitative data.
Figure 2. Quantitative Research Variables
number of
males
DISCRETE
family size
QUANTITATIVE
DATA
weight
CONTINUOUS
heart rate
Quantitative variable is the data that show some quantity through numerical
value. Quantitative data are the numeric variables (e.g., how many, how
much, or how often). Age, blood pressure, body temperature, hemoglobin
6
level, and serum creatinine level are some examples of quantitative data. It is
also called metric data. It has two types: discrete and continuous.
Discrete variable is the quantitative data, but its values cannot be expressed
or presented in the form of a decimal. For example, number of males, number
of females, number of patients, and family size are data that cannot be
expressed in decimal points.
Continuous data are measured in values and can be quantified and presented
in decimals. Age, height, weight, body mass index, serum creatinine, heart
rate, systolic blood pressure, and diastolic blood pressure are some examples.
Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on
variables of interest in an established systematic fashion that enables one to
answer stated research questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes.
The data collection component of research is common to all fields of study
including physical and social sciences, humanities, business, etc. While
methods vary by discipline, the emphasis on ensuring accurate and honest
collection remains the same. The goal for all data collection is to capture
quality evidence that then translates to rich data analysis and allows the
building of a convincing and credible answer to questions that have been
posed. Data collection is one of the most important stages in conducting a
research. You can have the best research design in the world but if you cannot
collect the required data you will not be able to complete your project. Data
collection is a very demanding job which needs thorough planning, hard work,
patience, perseverance and more to be able to complete the task successfully.
Data collection starts with determining what kind of data required followed
by the selection of a sample from a certain population. After that, you need to
use a certain instrument to collect the data from the selected sample. Let us
now take a closer look on quantitative data.
Data collection is the process of gathering information on variables of interest
from a sample of research participants. There are two types of data collection:
1. Primary data collection refers to data that is collected from research
participants directly by the investigators of a study and the data is used for
that study.
Below are some of the sources of primary data:
a. Experiments require an artificial or natural setting in which to perform
logical study to collect data. Experiments are more suitable for
medicine, psychological studies, nutrition, and for other scientific
studies. In experiments, the experimenter must keep control over the
influence of any extraneous variable on the results.
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b. Survey is the most commonly used method in social sciences,
management, marketing, and psychology to some extent. Surveys can
be conducted in different methods.
c. Questionnaire is the most commonly used method in survey.
Questionnaires are list of questions either open-ended or close-ended
for which the respondents give answers. Questionnaire can be
conducted via telephone, mail, live in a public area, or in an institute,
through electronic mail or through online platforms and other
methods.
d. Interview is a face-to-face conversation with the respondent. In
interview the main problem arises when the respondent deliberately
hides information otherwise it is an in-depth source of information.
The interviewer can not only record the statements the interviewee
speaks.
2. Secondary data collection refers to data that is collected by investigators
from research papers that are already published online. Secondary data is
used by these investigators in a secondary research study (e.g., review of
primary research).
The following are some examples of collecting secondary data:
•
•
•
•
•
Books
Records
Biographies
Newspapers
Published censuses or
other statistical data
• Data archives
• Internet articles
• Research articles by other
researchers (journals)
• Databases, etc.
Quantitative Data
It is numerical in nature and can be mathematically computed. Quantitative
data measure uses different scales, which can be classified as nominal scale,
ordinal scale, interval scale and ratio scale.
Often (not always), such data includes measurements of something.
Quantitative approaches address the ‘what’ of the study. They use a
systematic standardized approach and employ methods such as surveys and
ask questions. Quantitative approaches have the advantage that they are
cheaper to implement, are standardized so comparisons can be easily made,
and the size of the effect can usually be measured.
Quantitative approaches however are limited in their capacity for the
investigation and explanation of similarities and unexpected differences. It is
important to note that for peer-based programs quantitative data collection
8
approaches often prove to be difficult to implement for agencies as lack of
necessary resources to ensure rigorous implementation of surveys and
frequently experienced low participation and loss to follow up rates are
commonly experienced factors.
The quantitative data collection methods rely on random sampling and
structured data collection instruments that fit diverse experiences into
predetermined response categories. They produce results that are easy to
summarize, compare, and generalize. If the intent is to generalize from the
research participants to a larger population, the researcher will employ
probability sampling to select participants.
There are two main quantitative data collection methods:
1. Surveys: Traditionally, surveys were conducted using paper-based methods
and have gradually evolved into online mediums. Closed-ended questions
form a major part of these surveys as they are more effective in collecting
quantitative data. The survey makes include answer options which they think
are the most appropriate for a particular question. Surveys are integral in
collecting feedback from an audience which is larger than the conventional
size. A critical factor about surveys is that the responses collected should be
such that they can be generalized to the entire population without significant
discrepancies. On the basis of the time involved in completing surveys, they
are classified into the following –
a. Longitudinal Studies are types of observational research in which the
market researcher conducts surveys from a specific time period to
another (i.e., over a considerable course of time, is called longitudinal
survey). This survey is often implemented for trend analysis or studies
where the primary objective is to collect and analyze a pattern in data.
b. Cross-sectional Studies are types of observational research in which the
market research conducts surveys at a particular time period across
the target sample is known as cross-sectional survey. This survey type
implements a questionnaire to understand a specific subject from the
sample at a definite time period.
To administer a survey to collect quantitative data, the below principles are
to be followed.
a. Fundamental levels of measurement (nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio
scales). There are four measurement scales which are fundamental to
creating a multiple-choice question in a survey in collecting quantitative
data. They are, nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio measurement scales
without the fundamentals of which, no multiple-choice questions can be
created.
9
b. Use of different question types. To collect quantitative data, close-ended
questions have to be used in a survey. They can be a mix of multiple
question types including multiple-choice questions like semantic
differential scale questions, rating scale questions etc. that can help
collect data that can be analyzed and made sense of.
c. Survey distribution and survey data collection. In the above, we have
seen the process of building a survey along with the survey design to
collect quantitative data. Survey distribution to collect data is the other
important aspect of the survey process. There are different ways of survey
distribution. Some of the most commonly used methods are:
➢ e-mail
➢ sample size
➢ embedding a survey
➢ social distribution
2. One-on-one Interviews. This quantitative data collection method was also
traditionally conducted face-to-face but has shifted to telephonic and online
platforms. Interviews offer a marketer the opportunity to gather extensive data
from the participants. Quantitative interviews are immensely structured and
play a key role in collecting information. There are three major sections of
these online interviews:
a. face-to-face interviews
b. online or telephonic interviews
c. computer assisted personal interview
Data Collection Procedure
It is a systematic process of gathering observations or measurements.
Whether you are performing research for business, governmental, or
academic purposes, data collection allows you to gain first-hand knowledge
and original insights into your research problem.
While methods and aims may differ between fields, the overall process of data
collection remains largely the same. Before you begin collecting data, you need
to consider:
a. the
b. the
c. the
the
aim of the research;
type of data that you will collect; and
methods and procedures you will use to collect, store, and process
data.
To collect high-quality data that is relevant to your purposes, follow these four
steps.
10
Step 1: Define the aim of your research. Before you start the process of data
collection, you need to identify exactly what you want to achieve. You can
start by writing a problem statement: what is the practical or scientific issue
that you want to address and why does it matter?
Step 2: Develop operational definitions and procedures. What are we
measuring? How will it be measured? Who will measure it? Having clarity in
these questions is of utmost importance. Often, we will employ sampling in
which case we need to define a sampling plan.
Step 3: Choose more than one data collection technique. There is no “best”
tool. Do not let the tool drive your work but rather choose the right tool to
address the evaluation question.
Step 4: Begin to collect your data.
From these, you have already learned the basic quantitative data collection.
Let us try to answer the activities below.
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What’s More
Read each statement carefully. Choose the letter of the best answer. Write
your answers on your notebook.
1. Which one is a strength of using questionnaires in the data gathering?
a. cheap and easy way to
c. low response rate
collect data
d. unethical
b. interviewer effect
2. Which one is a weakness of questionnaires in the data gathering?
a. cheap
c. interviewer effect
b. demand characteristics
d. low response rate
3. Which one is a strength of observations in the data gathering?
a. cheap and easy way to
c. quick
collect data
d. representative
b. first hand data, which is
rich in validity
4. What is quantitative data?
a. A study of an individual
or group over a long
period of time
b. A small scale study done
prior to the actual study
c. Data collected the written
or descriptive form
d. Data collected in the
numeric form
5. Which of the following is a type of secondary data?
a. interview
c. observation
b. official statistics
d. questionnaire
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What I Have Learned
Answer the following by completing the sentences. Write your answers on your
notebook.
After reading the module, I have learned that…
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________.
The topic that I like the most is…
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________.
The topic I value the most is…
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________.
Your output will be graded using the following criteria.
Content
(5 points)
The presence of ideas
developed through
facts, examples,
details, opinions,
reasons, and/or
explanations.
Organization
(5 points)
The order developed and
sustained within and across
paragraph using transitional
devices and including
introduction and conclusion
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Conventions
(5 points)
Grammar,
mechanics,
spelling, usage
and
sentence
formation.
What I Can Do
Conduct a random interview to your classmates using the Likert scale or
summated rating scale. Ask them on how they feel about themselves through
Messenger chats then record and collect their possible answers. Refer to the
given survey form below for the questions to be asked. After getting all the
responses, copy the sample graph given and plot the results. Write your
answers on your notebook.
Please indicate how strongly you agree or disagree with each statement.
Likert Scale or Summated Rating
Scale
Strongly
Agree (4)
Statement
Agree
(3)
Disagree
(2)
Strongly
Disagree
(1)
1. Overall, I am satisfied with myself.
2. I take positive attitude toward
myself.
3. I feel that I have good qualities.
4. I am able to do things like the
most other people.
5. I feel that I do have much to be
proud of.
Total Response
Chart Title
Category
Category
Category
Category
Category
5
4
3
2
1
0
0.2
Strongly Agree
0.4
Agree
0.6
Disagree
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0.8
Strongly Disagree
1
1.2
Lesson
2
Qualitative Data Collection
Having explored the nature and purpose of qualitative research in the
previous modules, this lesson explores methods of data collection used in
qualitative research. There are a variety of methods of data collection in
qualitative research, including observations, textual or visual analysis (e.g.
from books or videos), and interviews (individual or group).However, the most
common methods used, particularly in social science research, are interviews
and focus groups.
What’s In
A. Classify each set of data as DISCRETE or CONTINUOUS. Write your
answers on your notebook.
1. The number of suitcases lost by an airline
2. The height of tomato plants
3. The number of ears of corn produced
4. The number of green M&M's in a bag
5. The time it takes for a car battery to die
6. The number of cats in a shelter at any given time
7. The weight of newborn babies
8. The types of book in the library
9. The length of time in someone’s life
10. The number of books in the library
B. Read each statement carefully. Choose the letter of the best answer.
Write your answers on your notebook.
1. What are the sources of qualitative data?
a. books and journal
c. primary sources and secondary
b. interview and observation
sources
d. questionnaires and survey
2. Which of the following is a characteristic of qualitative research?
a. deductive process
b. control over the context
c. fixed research design
d. inductive process
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3. Which of the following is a method that is commonly used in qualitative
research?
a. Self-completion
c. Ethnography
questionnaires
d. Structured observations
b. Surveys
4. Which of the following is not a criticism of qualitative research?
a. The studies are difficult
to replicate.
b. There is a lack of
transparency.
c. The approach is too
rigid and inflexible.
d. The accounts are too
subjective and
impressionistic.
5. Qualitative data generally can include __________.
a. only written material
c. text, pictures, videos,
that respondents
sound recordings.
provide in response to
d. survey and
open-ended items
questionnaire data
b. any sort of data that
can be summarized
with numbers.
What’s New
Look for at least ten (10) words related to data gathering from the word puzzle given
below. Write your answers on your notebook.
WORD SEARCH PUZZLE
S
D
O
B
S
E
R
V
A
T
I
O
N
F
A
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R
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U
P
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D
A
D
R
R
E
D
R
X
T
D
E
T
A
I
L
E
D
E
N
E
E
E
X
P
E
N
S
I
V
E
G
C
C
R
R
E
S
E
A
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C
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A
D
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I
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I
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W
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Q
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A
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A
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15
What is It
Qualitative data collection methods are exploratory in nature and are mainly
concerned with gaining insights and understanding on underlying reasons
and motivations. Qualitative data collection methods emerged after it has
become known that traditional quantitative data collection methods were
unable to express human feelings and emotions.
Monette et al (2010) credit qualitative methods with the acknowledgement of
abstraction and generalization. Polonsky and Waller (2011) categorize vision,
images, forms and structures in various media, as well as spoken and printed
word, and recorded sound into qualitative data collection methods.
It is noted that “qualitative methods are often regarded as providing rich data
about real life people and situations and being more able to make sense of
behavior and to understand behavior within its wider context. However,
qualitative research is often criticized for lacking generalizability, being too
reliant on the subjective interpretations of researchers and being incapable of
replication by subsequent researchers.”
Popular qualitative data collection methods used in business studies include
interviews, focus groups, observations and action research. Moreover,
grounded theory and document analysis can be also used as data collection
method in qualitative studies. The main sources and procedures associated
with the most popular qualitative methods are presented on the table below
as proposed by Yamagata-Lynch (2010).
Data collection approaches for qualitative research usually involves:
•
•
direct interaction with individuals on a one-to-one basis;
or direct interaction with individuals in a group setting.
Qualitative research data collection methods are time consuming. Therefore,
data is usually collected from a smaller sample than would be the case for
quantitative approaches. This makes qualitative research more expensive.
The benefits of the qualitative approach are that the information is richer and
has a deeper insight into the phenomenon under study.
Qualitative data collection methods are exploratory, and usually more focused
on gaining insights and understanding the underlying reasons by digging
deeper. Although quantitative data cannot be quantified, measuring it or
analyzing it might become an issue. Due to the lack of measurability,
qualitative data collection methods are primarily unstructured or structured
in rare cases in some extent.
15
Below are the most common methods used for qualitative data collection.
•
•
•
individual interviews
focus groups
observation
KINDS OF QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTION METHOD
Interview
DATA
Focus group
discussions
Observations
•
Structured
•
Semi - structured
•
Unstructured
•
Homogenous
•
Semi- structured
•
Natural setting
•
Detailed
Documentation
Data Collection Methods
1. Interviews can be:
a. Unstructured
• Can be referred to as 'depth' or 'in depth' interviews.
• They have very little structure at all.
• The interviewer may just go with the aim of discussing a limited
number of topics, sometimes as few as just one or two.
• The interviewer may frame the interview questions based on the
interviewee and his/her previous response.
• This allows the discussion to cover areas in great detail.
• They involve the researcher wanting to know or find out more about
a specific topic without there being a structure or a preconceived
plan or expectation as to how they will deal with the topic.
b. Semi structured
• Semi structured interviews are sometimes also called focused
interviews.
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•
•
•
•
•
•
A series of open-ended questions based on the topic areas the
researcher wants to cover.
A series of broad questions to ask and may have some prompts to
help the interviewee.
'The open-ended nature of the question defines the topic under
investigation but provides opportunities for both interviewer and
interviewee to discuss some topics in more detail.
Semi structured interviews allow the researcher to prompt or
encourage the interviewee if they are looking for more information or
find what they are saying interesting.
This method gives the researcher the freedom to probe the
interviewee to elaborate or to follow a new line of inquiry introduced
by what the interviewee is saying.
Work best when the interviewed has a number of areas he/she
wants to be sure to be addressing.
c. Structured
• The interviewer asks the respondent the same questions in the same
way.
• A tightly structured schedule is used.
• The questions may be phrased in order that a limited range of
responses may be given(i.e. Do you rate our services as very good,
good or poor?).
• A researcher needs to consider whether a questionnaire or
structured interview is more appropriate.
• If the interview schedule is too tightly structured this may not enable
the phenomena under investigation to be explored in terms of either
breadth or depth.
2. Focus groups. The use of focus groups is sometimes used when it is better
to obtain information from a group rather than individuals.
Group interviews can be used when:
a. Limited resources (time, manpower, finances)
b. The phenomena being researched requires a collective discussion in
order to understand the circumstances, behavior or opinions.
c. Greater insights may be developed of the group dynamic or cause and
consequence.
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Characteristics of a focus group:
❖ Recommended size of the sample group is 6 - 10 people as smaller
groups may limit the potential on the amount of information collected.
It may make it difficult for all participants to participate and interact
and for the interviewer to be able to make sense of the information
given.
❖ Several focus groups should be used in order to get a more objective
and macro view of the investigation(i.e. focusing on one group may
give you idiosyncratic results). The use of several groups will add to
the breadth and depth of information. A minimum of three focus
groups is recommended for best practice approaches.
❖ Members of the focus group should have something in common which
is important to the investigation.
❖ Groups can either be put together or existing groups. It is always
useful to be mindful of the group dynamics of both situations.
The aim of the focus group is to make use of participants' feelings,
perceptions and opinions. This method requires the researcher to use a
range of skills:
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
group skills
facilitating
moderating
listening/observing
analysis
3. Observation involves may take place in natural settings and involves the
researcher taking lengthy and descriptive notes of what is happening. It is
argued that there are limits to the situations that can be observed in their
'natural' settings and that the presence of the research may lead to
problems with validity.
Limitations with observation include:
a.
b.
c.
d.
Change in people's behavior when they know they are being observed.
A 'snapshot' view of a whole situation
Think big brother...
The researcher may miss something while they are watching and taking
notes.
e. The researcher may make judgements of make value statements or
misunderstand what has been observed.
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Strengths of observation:
a.
b.
c.
d.
Can
Can
Can
Can
offer a flavor for what is happening
give an insight into the bigger picture
demonstrate sub-groups.
be used to assist in the design of the rest of the research
Sometimes, the researcher becomes or needs to become a participant
observer, where they are taking part in the situation in order to be accepted
and further understand the workings of the social phenomenon.
Observation can sometimes obtain more reliable information about certain
things. For instance, on how people actually behave (although it may not find
out the reasons for why they behave in a particular way).
Observation can also serve as a technique for verifying of nullifying
information provided in face-to-face encounters. People or environment can
be observed. When environment is researched, it can provide valuable
background information that may inform other aspects of the research.
Techniques for collecting data through observation:
1. Written descriptions
a. The researcher makes written descriptions of the people,
situations or environment.
b. Limitations include:
➢ Researcher might miss out on an observation as they are taking
notes.
➢ The researcher may be focused on a particular event or
situation.
➢ There is room for subjective interpretation of what is
happening.
2. Video recording
a. Allows the researcher to also record notes.
b. Limitations may include people acting unnaturally towards the
camera or others avoiding the camera.
c. The camera may not always see everything.
3. Photographs and artefacts
a. Useful when there is a need to collect observable information or
phenomena such as buildings, neighborhoods, dress and
appearance.
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b. Artefacts include objects of significance like memorabilia,
instruments, tools,etc.
Documentation
5. Any and all kinds of documentation may be used to provide information
like a local paper, information on a notice board, administrative policies
and procedures, etc. previous research, even.
Data Collection Procedure
The process of data collection follows the identification of the sample. Data
collection can take the form of direct data or indirect data. Direct data include
recordable spoken or written words and observable body language, actions
and interactions. Here, the interactions may be human-to-human or human
responses to inanimate objects such as a hemodialysis machine.
Whatever can be observed or communicated are considered to be potential or
actual data. This will occur when considering the thoughts, feelings,
experiences, meaning of experience, responses, actions, interactions,
language, and processes of individuals and groups within their social and/or
cultural setting. It is this type of data that sets the context of qualitative
studies. Indirect data are generated, in the first instance, by someone or
something else, such as with documents or photographs reporting an event
or an artistic rendition of an event or experience (e.g. novels, songs, paintings,
poems, photographs).
There are skills required and involved in successful qualitative research
approaches which requires careful consideration and planning.
Take note that a good quality qualitative research involves:
❖
❖
❖
❖
thought
preparation
the development of the interview schedule
conducting and analyzing the interview data with care and
consideration
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What’s More
On your notebook, copy the given table and identify the data collection
method used in the different research questions below and state your reason.
(15points)
Forms of Research Questions
Data
Collection
Method
Reason
Interview
It helps to
explain, better
understand,
and explore
research
subjects'
opinions,
behavior,
experiences,
phenomenon,
etc.
Example:
What academic achievements do you hope to
accomplish by the time you graduate?
1. How did the school program prepare the students
for what they will do after they graduated from
high school?
2. What are the prepared programs of the school for
their students after they graduated from high
school?
3. How does restricting the use of mobile phones in
school affect the student’s social interaction?
4. How do students define online learning
engagement?
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What I Have Learned
Answer the following by completing the sentences. Write your answers on your
notebook.
After reading this module, I have learned that qualitative data is…
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
______________________________
What is my most challenging moment in this lesson and why?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________.
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What I Can Do
Prepare an interview schedule for investigating the experiences of senior high
students amidst pandemic. Give five (5) questions you might want to ask to
your participants?
Examples:
1. In your opinion, what are the most important characteristics of distance
education adopted during the pandemic?
2. What should be done to improve the efficiency of the distance education
system adopted during the pandemic?
QUESTION 1. _____________________________________________________________
QUESTION 2. _____________________________________________________________
QUESTION 3. ____________________________________________________________
QUESTION 4. ____________________________________________________________
QUESTION 5. _____________________________________________________________
Assessment
Read each statement carefully. Choose the letter of the best answer. Write
your answers on your notebook.
1. The most important consideration in selecting a sample is that the
sample should be ____________________.
a. representative of the population
b. made up of a large number of subjects
c. selected from a large number of individuals or elements
d. selected from the population by means of a table of random
numbers
23
2. The first step in selecting a sample should be to ____________________.
a. define the population
b. compile a list of the population
c. determine how to randomize
d. decide how to stratify the population
3. Questionnaire is a ____________________.
a. research method
b. measurement technique
c. tool for data collection
d. data analysis technique
4. Which one of the following in not a major method of data
collection____________________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
interviews
secondary data
questionnaires
all of the above are methods of data collection.
5. Another name for a Likert Scale is____________________.
a.
b.
c.
d.
interview protocol
event sampling
summated rating scale
ranking
24
Additional Activities
Based on your research topic, create a data collection plan. Read the
questions in the first column and answer the questions by writing under the
“notes” and put a check on the remarks if you are done doing it on your
research paper.
Notes
Remarks
What kinds of data have you collected?
What method have you used to collect data?
How have you analyzed the data in the context of
answering your research question?
25
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Assessment
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
A
A
C
D
C
What’s More (Quan)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
A
C
B
D
B
What’s New (Quan)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
What I Know
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
PD
PD
SD
SD
PD
What's In (Quan)
D
D
D
D
A
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
D
C
D
D
C
D
C
D
D
C
What’s In (Qual)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
B
D
C
C
A
Answer Key
References
Monette, D.R., Gullivan, T.J. & DeJong, C.R. (2010) “Applied Social Research: A Tool
for the Human Resources” Cengage Learning
Polonsky, M.J. & Waller, D.S. (2011) “Designing and Managing a Research Project: A
Business Student’s Guide” 2nd edition, SAGE
Vaus, D. (2002) “Surveys in Social Research” Taylor and Francis, p.5
Yamagata-Lynch, L.C. (2010) “Activity Systems Analysis Methods: Understanding
Complex Learning Environments” Springer Publications
Source: Albery, I. &Munafo, M. (2008) “Key Concepts in Health Psychology” SAGE
Publications
27
For inquiries or feedback, please write or call:
Department of Education – Region III,
Schools Division of Bataan- Curriculum Implementation Division
Learning Resources Management and Development Section (LRMDS)
Provincial Capitol Compound, Balanga City, Bataan
Telefax: (047) 237-2102
Email Address: bataan@deped.gov.ph