J Child Fam Stud (2018) 27:26–33
DOI 10.1007/s10826-017-0866-6
ORIGINAL PAPER
The Effects of Sociocultural Pressures and Exercise Frequency on
the Body Esteem of Adolescent Girls in Korea
Sukkyung You
1
●
Kyulee Shin2 Eui Kyung Kim3
●
Published online: 15 September 2017
© Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2017
Abstract Sociocultural pressures to be thin and exercise
frequency have been reportedly related to female adolescents’ body esteem in previous research. Using 490 female
middle school students in Korea, this study examined the
mediating role of thin-ideal internalization on the relationships of sociocultural pressure (i.e., parental, peer, and
media) and exercise frequency to body esteem. The results
indicated that parental pressure only had a direct relationship with body esteem, but no indirect relationship. Media
pressure, peer pressure, and exercise frequency were indirectly, but not directly, related to body esteem through thinideal internalization. The implications and future directions
of research are discussed.
Keywords Thin body idealization Sociocultural factors
Body esteem Exercise Adolescents
●
●
●
●
* Kyulee Shin
kyuleeshin@anyang.ac.kr
Sukkyung You
skyou@hufs.ac.kr
Eui Kyung Kim
ekim7@ncsu.edu
1
College of Education, Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, 270
Imun-dong, Dongdaemun-Gu, Seoul 130-791, Korea
2
Anyang University, College of Liberal Arts, 22, Samdeok-ro
37beon-gil, Manan-gu, Anyang-si, Gyeonggi-do 430-714, Korea
3
Department of Psychology, North Carolina State University,
Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
Introduction
Adolescence is a transitional period from childhood to
adulthood and thus induces diverse developmental as well
as adaptive difficulties (Zimmermann and Iwanski 2014).
Psychologically, adolescents struggle to establish their
identity (Luyckx et al. 2013) and tend to develop an irrational fear of being criticized or negatively evaluated by
others (Beesdo et al. 2007). Studies frequently report that
female adolescents are especially vulnerable to their
sociocultural surroundings with respect to their body esteem
(e.g., Shroff and Thompson 2006).
According to the sociocultural framework, poor body
esteem is a result of the increasing sociocultural pressure on
women to have a thin body (Cafriet al. 2005; Jung and
Forbes 2006). This sociocultural pressure concerning the
thin-ideal is communicated to women by messengers such
as media channels (e.g., TV and magazines) and significant
others (e.g., family and peers; Anschutzet al. 2008). Specifically, when women, especially adolescents who are still
vulnerable to others’ evaluation of them, are exposed to the
sociocultural pressure to be thin, they take the unrealistic
body shape as an ideal and feel dissatisfied with their own
body. Thus, the sociocultural framework suggests that
exposure to and awareness of sociocultural pressure, as well
as the internalization of this thin-ideal, are related to disturbances in body image (Fitzsimmons-Craft et al. 2012).
Body esteem is a term widely used to refer to an individual’s emotions toward his or her own body (Franzoi and
Shields 1984). Adolescent girls have been socialized to
believe that appearance is a critical factor for evaluation by
self and others (Slater and Tiggemann 2015). However, the
onset of puberty involves bodily changes and often moves
female adolescents further from societal standards of ideal
female body shape (McCabe and Ricciardelli 2001), and
J Child Fam Stud (2018) 27:26–33
thus, low body esteem has become an expected part of
puberty (Kateret al. 2002).
Similar to Western female adolescents, Korean female
adolescents reportedly have negative attitudes and feelings
toward their bodies (Jung and Forbes 2006; Junget al.
2009). A previous study comparing US and Korean middle
school students found that Korean girls reported greater
body dissatisfaction than US girls (Jung et al. 2009).
Additionally, Korean youths with a low level of body dissatisfaction were likely to exhibit a low level of self-esteem
and high level of depressive symptoms (You et al. 2016).
In order to understand the paths to healthy body esteem,
previous body image studies examined and identified
media-, parental-, and peer-pressure as primary sociocultural factors influencing the development of body esteem
among female adolescents and undergraduates (Hardit and
Hannum 2012; Keery et al. 2004b; Shroff and Thompson
2006). The relationship between media pressure and body
esteem has been well supported in previous research
(Lawler and Nixon 2011). For example, when Korean elementary, high school, and college students watched TV
shows emphasizing the thin ideal, they reported higher
levels of awareness of the gap between the ideal body and
their own bodies and lower levels of body esteem than those
who did not watch the shows (Jang and Kim 2006). However, few studies have examined how various sociocultural
factors including media, parental, and peer pressures are
associated with the body image of Korean female adolescents. A recent study by Shin, You and Kim (2016)
investigated the differential effects among Korean college
females and found that parent and media pressures, but not
peer pressure, had direct relationships with body dissatisfaction; media pressure had stronger relationships with
body dissatisfaction than parental pressure.
Although exposure to the sociocultural pressure to be
thin is harmful to an individual’s body esteem, the degree to
which people internalize these pressures as their own
beliefs, values, and ideals can be more harmful (Dittmar
2005). Based on this idea, recent studies suggested the
mediating effects of the internalization of the thin-ideal on
the relationship between sociocultural pressures and body
esteem. Korean female high school students tend to internalize the social standard of ideal beauty presented by the
mass media (Goh and Jang 2003; Kim and Park 2008).
When Korean adolescent girls internalize the media pressure to be thin, they are more likely to display higher levels
of body dissatisfaction (Lee and Park 2008; Park et al.
2016). Some researchers have argued that society’s thin
ideal portrayed by the media might become more problematic if it were reinforced by more immediate social contacts such as parents and peers (Dunkley et al. 2001; Lawler
and Nixon 2011).
27
In addition to identifying the risk factors for body dissatisfaction, such as sociocultural pressures, there have been
efforts to identify potential protective factors that may be
positively associated with body esteem among adolescents.
Piran (2002) suggested one way that female adolescents
might learn to appreciate their bodies is to participate in
physical activities connecting the mind and body. Physical
activity may help girls and women focus more on what a
body can do rather than its appearance, which can in turn
help them resist the internalization of the society’s ideal
body image (Fredrickson and Roberts 1997). Sports and
physical activity may also act as an empowering tool that
encourages females to challenge themselves, learn their
physical abilities, and improve their body image (Krane
et al. 2001). Following these arguments, Slater and Tiggemann (2006) examined and found that physical activity was
a strong predictor of the thin-ideal internalization and body
esteem. Ha et al. (2011), using a Korean high school student
sample, also found that students who participated in exercise more frequently showed higher levels of satisfaction
with their bodies.
Using a Korean female adolescent sample, the current
study examined the mediating effects of the internalization
of the thin-ideal on the relationship between sociocultural
pressures and body esteem. Based on the idea that sociocultural pressures are likely to have detrimental effects on
body esteem when female adolescents internalize the thinideal communicated by sociocultural pressures, we hypothesized that the internalization of the thin-ideal would
mediate the relationship between sociocultural pressures
and body esteem. Following the findings which suggest that
media pressure is a stronger predictor of lower body esteem
(Shin et al. 2016), we expected that media pressure would
have the strongest association with the internalization of the
thin-ideal and body esteem, followed by parent pressure and
peer pressure.
Method
Participants
Female middle school students (Grades 7–9 in the US),
whose parents provided consent for them to participate in
the study, were asked to fill out the survey. Among the total
of 514 enrolled students, there were 24 students who
declined to participate in the survey; their incomplete surveys were excluded from the data. Of the surveys distributed, those from 490 students (95.33%) were completed
and used for this study. The age range was from 12 to 15
years (M = 13.86, SD = 0.98).
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J Child Fam Stud (2018) 27:26–33
Procedure
Exercise frequency
The students completed the paper-and-pencil questionnaire
in the homeroom classroom under homeroom teacher
supervision. The teacher read aloud the instructions provided by the researchers and was available to clarify or
answer questions. The students were told not to write their
names on the questionnaire for the sake of anonymity. The
questionnaire took approximately 20–30 min to complete.
The students were asked to answer how many times a week
they engaged in any exercise causing an increase in their
heart rate during their leisure time based on a scale ranging
from 1 to 3: 1 = Not at all (0–2 times a week), 2 = Sometimes (3–5 times a week), and 3 = Frequently (6–7 times a
week).
Data Analyses
Measures
Body esteem
The Korean Overall Body Esteem Scale (KOBES; Gim and
Cha 2006) was used to measure body esteem. The KOBES’s
reliability and validity with Korean female undergraduate
samples were found to be in the acceptable range in previous studies (e.g., Cronbach’s α > 0.70; Lee and Choo
2015). The scale consisted of 9 items (e.g., I like what I see
when I look in the mirror) that the respondents rated based
on a scale ranging from “never true for me” (1) to “always
true for me” (5). For the student sample, the internal consistency of the scale was acceptable (Cronbach’s α = 0.85).
Internalization
The Sociocultural Attitudes Toward Appearance Scale-3
(Thompson et al. 2004) was translated into Korean and used
to assess internalization. The SATAQ-3 was found to have
high convergent validity and internal consistency among
female adolescent samples across countries including the
US, Australia, and India (i.e., Cronbach’s α range
= .83–.92; Keery et al. 2004a). Seven items were used to
represent the incorporation of media images and messages
of attractiveness into one’s own self-identity (e.g., Reading
magazines makes me want to change my appearance). For
the sample, the internal consistency of the scale was
acceptable (Cronbach’s α = 0.75).
Sociocultural influence
To measure sociocultural influence, 43 items (i.e., 13 for
peer, 20 for parental, and 10 for media influence) of the
Tripartite Influence Scale-Revised (Keery et al.
2004a, 2004b) were used. This scale was translated into
Korean. This scale has been reported to have good reliability with Korean adolescent samples (Cronbach’s α range
= 0.85~0.90; Song and Lee 2009; Wee 2015; Kim et al.
2015). For the sample, the internal consistency of the scale
was acceptable (Cronbach’s α = 0.89, 0.79, and 0.77 for
peer, parent, and media pressure, respectively).
Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to assess the
hypothesized structural relationships between the latent
variables. SEM was selected because it has the flexibility to
test relationships among latent variables of interest (Kline
1998). This is one of the advantages of using SEM over
traditional methods such as ANOVA and regression analysis, in that it allows researchers to quantify measurement
errors in a separate term, thus isolating the “true” effects
(McDonald and Ho 2002). In stage one, a confirmatory
factor analysis was conducted to test the measurement
model for the latent variables. In the second stage, a
structural model (see Fig. 1) tested the hypotheses in the
present study. For SEM analysis, we used the questionnaire
items as measured variables to represent the latent variables
in the model shown in Fig. 1. Two mediational models were
tested to compare and derive the best model. The model fit
was assessed based on several criteria: the non-normed fit
index (NNFI; Bentler and Bonett 1980), the comparative fit
index (CFI; Bentler 1990), and the root mean square error of
approximation (RMSEA; Steiger and Lind 1980). Values
less than 0.08 for the RMSEA and values close to 0.95 for
the NNFI and CFI were used to determine a good-fitting
model (Hu and Bentler 1999). All analyses were conducted
using AMOS 18 (Arbuckle 2003).
To test the significance of the mediating effects, we used
maximum likelihood bootstrapping with a 95% confidence
interval (Shrout and Bolger 2002). This method utilizes
repeated sampling from the data set and estimates the
indirect effect in each re-sampled data set. Table 1 shows
the correlations, means, and standard deviations for the
variables.
Results
To assess the plausibility of the hypothesis about the relationship between social pressure and body esteem being
mediated by students’ thin-ideal internalization, two mediational models were tested. The initial structural model
reflecting partial mediation was specified with both direct
paths from social pressure to body esteem and indirect paths
through a mediator (i.e., internalization). The second
J Child Fam Stud (2018) 27:26–33
29
Fig. 1 Final model estimation
with standardized coefficients.
Note. ***p < 0.000, **p <
0.001, *p < 0.05; significant
path coefficients are shown in
bold line
Table 1 Correlations and
descriptive statistics for study
variables
1
1. Peer influence
2
3
4
5
6
1
2. Parent influence
0.151**
1
3. Media influence
0.238***
0.187**
4. Exercise frequency
0.049
0.113*
0.186**
1
5. Internalization
0.322**
0.206**
0.583**
0.017
1
6. Body esteem
−0.149**
−0.240**
−0.260**
0.047
−0.388**
1
Mean
3.518
1.917
2.456
1.69
2.744
3.269
SD
1.014
0.956
0.930
0.652
0.931
0.717
Skewness
−0.539
1.146
0.196
0.410
−0.029
0.009
Kurtosis
−0.078
0.813
−0.560
−0.727
−0.430
−0.023
1
***p < 0.000; **p < 0.001; *p < 0.05
structural model represented the full mediational model
without direct effects of social pressure on body esteem.
The results for the initial structural model indicate that
both models provided a good fit to the data: the partial
mediational model (χ2(91) = 254.6; CFI = 0.966; NNFI =
0.960; RMSEA = 0.060) and the full mediational model
(χ2(95) = 265.595; CFI = 0.944; NNFI = 0.920; RMSEA
= 0.061). A chi-square difference test was conducted to
determine the better-fitting model. The χ2 difference and the
difference in the degree of freedom between the full mediation model and the partial mediation model were
employed in this model selection. The chi-square difference
test provided support for the partial meditational model and,
therefore, it was selected as the final theoretical model. The
fit of the final model was deemed acceptable in terms of the
three fit indices. Figure 1 shows the standardized parameter
estimates for this model.
Preacher and Hayes’s (2008) nonparametric bootstrapping analyses were conducted to estimate the standard
errors for the resulting sampling distribution. These standard errors were used to compute 95% CIs for each of
the path parameters. According to the bootstrap results
(Table 2), two dimensions of social pressure (peer and
media) had significant indirect relationships with body
esteem through the mediating variable (i.e., thin-ideal
internalization), but no direct relationship. Specifically,
higher levels of peer and media pressure were positively
associated with the internalization of the thin-ideal and, in
turn, the internalization of the thin-ideal was negatively
associated with body esteem. Contrarily, parental pressure
and body esteem only had a negative direct relationship, but
no indirect relationship. These findings partially supported
our hypothesis that the internalization of the thin-ideal
would mediate the relationship between sociocultural
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J Child Fam Stud (2018) 27:26–33
Table 2 Results for indirect effect in final model
Indirect effect
Unstandardized coefficient
Standard error
Standardized coefficient
95% C.I. (bootstrap with bias correction)
PEI → IN → BE
−0.031**
0.021
0.091
(0.009, 0.095)
PAI → IN → BE
−0.011
0.011
0.031
(−0.001, 0.056)
MI → IN → BE
−0.104**
0.060
0.321
(0.032, 0.265)
EF → IN → BE
0.020*
0.016
−0.042
(−0.076, −0.002)
PEI peer influence, PAI parents influence, MI media influence, IN Internalization, EF exercise frequency, BE body esteem
*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01
pressures and body esteem. It was also hypothesized that
media pressure would have the strongest indirect relationship with body esteem through the internalization of the
thin-ideal, followed by parental pressure and peer pressure.
However, this hypothesis was also partially supported, as
our study found that media pressure had the strongest
indirect relationship, followed by peer pressure, but not
parental pressure. Furthermore, the internalization of the
thin-ideal was also found to mediate the relationship
between exercise frequency and body esteem. A higher
exercise frequency was significantly associated with lower
thin-ideal internalization and, in turn, was associated with
higher body esteem. These findings were consistent with
our hypothesis that the internalization of the thin-ideal
would mediate the relationship between exercise frequency
and body esteem.
Discussion
This study examined the mediating effects of the internalization of a skinny body ideal on the relationship of
sociocultural pressures (i.e., peer, parental, and media
pressure) and exercise frequency with body esteem.
According to the results, peer pressure and media pressure
only had significant indirect relationships with body esteem
through internalization. That is, female students who felt
pressure from peers and media outlets on their body image
tended to show higher levels of internalization of the
society’s thin ideal and, in turn, were more likely to develop
negative attitudes and feelings toward their physical
appearance. These findings are partially consistent with
previous research; Shin et al. (2016) reported that parent
and media pressures, but not peer pressure, were significantly associated with body esteem among Korean
female undergraduates. These inconsistent findings suggest
that peer pressure is more highly associated with adolescents’ evaluation of their bodies, as adolescent girls tend to
place great emphasis on the appearance-related judgments
of their peers (Helfert and Warschburger 2013; Shroff and
Thompson 2006), but that it becomes less important among
female undergraduates.
Among the significant effects, media pressure had the
strongest indirect relationship with body esteem through
internalization, followed by peer pressure and exercise
frequency. These results support the findings of previous
body esteem studies which reported that the internalization
of the thin-ideal mediated the relationship between media
influences and body dissatisfaction (Keery et al.
2004a, 2004b; Rodgers et al. 2015). Finally, exercise frequency also only had an indirect relationship with body
esteem through thin-ideal internalization. Exercise frequency was negatively associated with the internalization of
the thin-ideal and, in turn, was positively associated with
body esteem. It is possible that when adolescent girls
exercise frequently, they may realize how unrealistic and
unattainable society’s thin ideal is, and evaluate their body
more positively using more realistic standards of beauty.
These findings may provide meaningful information on the
development of body esteem programs. For example, providing female adolescents with psychological education and
training about the unrealistic thin-ideal portrayed by the
current society and ways to develop a healthy and realistic
body image and esteem, instead of trying to decrease their
exposure to media and peer pressures.
Contrarily, the internalization of the thin-ideal did not
have any mediating effects on the relationship between
parental pressure and body esteem; parental pressure only
had a direct relationship with body esteem. Specifically, the
perceived level of parental pressure to fit the society’s
standard was not significantly associated with the internalization of the thin-ideal, but was significantly associated
with negative evaluation of their bodies. This result was
inconsistent with the findings of Keery et al. (2004a, 2004b)
that suggested the internalization of the thin-ideal mediated
the relationship between parental influence and body dissatisfaction. These results suggest that Korean female adolescents are less likely to internalize the unrealistic thin ideal
communicated by their parents than their US counterparts.
However, although parental pressure was not significantly
associated with the internalization of the thin-ideal, it was
directly associated with body esteem. Specifically, Korean
adolescent girls who experienced parental pressure to be
thin tended to have low body esteem, regardless of their
J Child Fam Stud (2018) 27:26–33
level of thin-ideal internalization, providing support for the
findings of Salafia and Gondoli (2011)’s study that parents
play an important role in the development of body dissatisfaction among adolescent girls in the UK. These results
suggest that an adolescent girl’s low body esteem may lead
her parents to encourage her to lose weight, or that parental
pressure to be thin may cause their adolescent girl not to
like her body. Thus, in addition to providing female adolescents with programs for developing positive body
esteem, it might be critical for future research to evaluate
and better understand the close relationship between parental pressure to be thin and adolescent girls’ body esteem.
Strengths, Limitations, and Directions for Future
Research
Findings of this study can contribute to the current literature
by providing a more comprehensive understanding of the
roles parents, peers, and media have on the body image
formation specifically among Korean female adolescents.
Another novel contribution of this study is that in contrast to
most previous studies that identified exercise frequency as
an outcome of body esteem and thin-ideal internalization
(e.g., Vartanian and Novak 2011), the current study tested a
conceptual model hypothesizing participation in physical
activity would be related to decreased internalization of the
thin-ideal, and in turn would be related to increased body
esteem. Findings of the current study, thus, will specifically
provide empirical evidence to identify and foster not only
sociocultural, but also physical factors that may provide an
opportunity for female youths to develop and enhance
positive body esteem. Particularly, a better understanding of
the relationship of exercise behaviors to thin-ideal internalization and body esteem may provide meaningful
information for the development of effective body esteem
programs. For example, the current study’s results may
suggest the inclusion of physical activities in the intervention programs to reduce the internalization of unrealistic
body ideal posed by the society and foster positive body
esteem by focusing more on body actions than on body
appearance.
Despite its meaningful implications for future research,
this study has some limitations. First, this cross-sectional
study predicts relationships between relevant variables, but
does not suggest causal relationships. Future research
should take a longitudinal approach to address causality
between the variables. Second, previous studies have
reported that females are more prone to responding in a
socially desirable way (e.g., Chung and Monroe 2003;
Krumpal 2013), suggesting that our female adolescent
participants might not always have been honest when
answering the survey questions. In order to address this
limitation, future research should make use of multiple
31
sources of information instead of only relying on a selfreport survey. Finally, the current study did not take into
account the different sources of peer (same sex vs. opposite
sex) and parental pressure (paternal vs. maternal). These
sources of peer and parent pressure may have differential
effects on body esteem among female adolescents and,
therefore, future research should consider differentiating
between these sources in order to better understand the
effects of sociocultural pressure on the internalization of the
thin-ideal and body esteem.
Acknowledgements This work was partially supported by the
Hankuk University of Foreign Studies Research Fund.
Author Contributions SY: designed and executed the study, analyzed the data, and wrote the paper. KS: collaborated with the design
and wrote the paper. EK: collaborated with the design and writing/
editing of the paper.
Compliance with Ethical Standards
Conflict of Interest
ing interests.
The authors declare that they have no compet-
Ethical Approval All procedures performed in studies involving
human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of
the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964
Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical
standards.
Informed Consent Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
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