6/18/2020
YEAR
2020
AIRCRAFT: MATERIAL, MANUFACTURING AND
CERTIFICATION
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Table of Contents
Cover Page………………………………………………………...i
Table of Contents……………………………………………...ii-iii
1. Introduction
2
1.1 History Of Aircraft
2
2. Material Used For Aircraft in Past
3
3. Material Used for Aircraft Currently
3
4. Principle Structure of Aircraft
4
4.1 Monocoque
4.2 Semi- Monocoque
4.3 Wings
4.4 Tail Plane
4.5 Nacelles
5. Working Principle of Aircraft
5
6
7
8
9
9
6. Designing Constraint
10
6.1 Economical Factor
6.2 Environmental Aspect
6.3 Safety
6.4 Design Feature
7. Designing Process and Simulation
7.1 Conceptual Design
7.2 Preliminary Phase of Design
7.3 Detailed Phase of Design
8. Manufacturing of the Component
10
10
11
11
12
12
13
13
13
8.1 By Composite
13
8.2 By Casting
14
8.3 By Sheet Metal Forming
14
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9. Certification Requirement of All Aspect of Aircraft
15
9.1 Type Certification
15
9.2 Construction Aspect
16
9.3 General Flight Test Guide For Certification
17
9.4 Performance Flight Test Guide For Certification
18
10.Comparison of Aircraft
19
10.1 First Aircraft Specification And Design
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10.2 Current Era Aircraft Specification And Design
20
11.Required Infrastructure for Hybrid Electric Aircraft
21
11.1 Battery
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11.2 Plug in Charger
22
11.3 Battery Swapping Station
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12. Conclusion
22
Reference
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Aircraft
1. Introduction:Designing procedure of the aircraft basically define method of meeting and commanding
requirement of the customer. In order to make Aircraft lightweight able to carry and hold
the require also it must be economically and enough strong to bear most of the stress
which when are applied in the ground state condition also in flying conditions too. The
procedure of Designing aircraft is highly repetitive and combination of analysis and
testing, detailed procedure is being followed and to make very small or use part of
aircraft. the design procedure include National Airworthiness authorities regulations and
rule are needed to kept in mind while designing the different parts of aircraft
1.1 History of Aircraft :- the history of the aircraft enlarged for more than the
thousand years from the earliest form of aircraft for example kites, tower jumping and
many more. Many scientists earlier tried for that which could not get success because of
the unsystematic design some of them are Leonardo Di Vinci in the 15th century thought
about that but due to, the unsystematic design of the model he not tried to construct that
model. Some of the inventors tried in the same field and after the several attempts they
got positive result. The aircraft such as airplane is made by The Wright Brothers, hot air
balloon first blown by Mr. Rozier and Mr. Arlandes ; the positive attempt in case of the
helicopter was done by Mr.Sikorsky.
2
The contribution of India in the history of aircraft is very important. Mr. Shivkar Bapuji
Talpade in the year 1895 constructed unmanned airplane. Also the JRD TATA is known
for the valuable contribution in the India who in 1932 made possible the first Indian
commercial carrier to transport mail and passengers within India
(also became the
founder of Air India).
2. Material Used In Aircraft in Past:The wrights brother used spruce wood for the construction of airplane. So earlier aircraft
were made up of wood the reason behind using the wood is that it is light in weight. Later
on the various material were used, then after several experiment it was clear that light
weight of aircraft is not enough but also the strength is very important factor. Different
types of wood were used in aircraft namely Solid wood, Laminated wood, plywood.
Woods were preferred because which are it has lower energy consumption also the
emission of co2 is less, also having the ability to bend without fracture, wood are also
shock resistant. But although these all advantages were affected when moisture perforate
in it. Four wood which are mostly used are Sitka spruce, Birch, Ash and Douglas fir.
3. Material Used In Aircraft in Currently :-As there are many drawback of
using woods like as the time elapses wood begins to decay and decompose, also the
shrinkage take place due to of moisture. Presently most of the airplanes are made up of
aluminum, strong as well as light weight metal. Apart from aluminum, steel and titanium
were used. Steel is strong but heavier than other metal so it is not used much while
titanium is medium in weight and also strong enough as steel. Carbon fiber are also used
in the construction of the airplane. As the propeller faces the many vibration of the engine
as well as airplane body, although using the metal is not feasible , they wont able to
withstand the vibration so wood is used in the propeller as it is more effective to use than
metals. Different alloy and different composition is used for mfg of different parts of the
airplane
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Frame:- frame of the airplane is made of light weight material aluminum or composite
material(carbon reinforced plastic). The military planes are made up of titanium.
Engine:- Engine consist of the mixture of steel, titanium , aluminum alloy.
Fuselage:- Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastic
Turbine Blades:- are made up of nickel based super alloy(Co, Cr, Al, Fe, Ti, Mo, Nb, Ta,
W, Ru, Hf).
Landing Gear :- Largely steel, Aluminum and Titanium
Fan:- fan is made up of aluminum, titanium and stainless steel.
Wings – Carbon Fibre reinforced polymer
Wheels and Loading gears wheel:- are made of zinc, copper and magnesium
Following are the reason for using aluminum as prime metal in construction of airplane
 High boiling point upto 2500℃
 Low density and high strength (most important factor)
 Neither toxic nor inflammable.
 High corrosion resistance and also not react with acid too.
4. Principle structure of aircraft:Following are principle structure of aircraft
Wings:- to produce the lift
Fuselage:- important structural unit
Basically fuselage are designed to fit in with different compartments like crew ,
passangers, cargo, instruments, etc. Earlier fuselage built by wood truss structural
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arrangement to monocoque shell structure while currently semimonocoque shell
structures
Are used. Tubing of steel and aluminum is joined for producing the series of triangular
shapes for obtaining the strength and the rigidity . presently in modern aircraft stressed
skin structure monocoque or semimonocoque construction are used .
4.1. Monocoque :- to support all load present on aircraft, these type of construction uses
stressed skin as much as aluminum can support. Rigs, bulkheads of different sizes gives
different shape and strength to fuselage. Monocoque construction are very strong but is
not enough to bear deformation of surfaces. As it collapse easily while supporting the
load at the end which is slightly deformed. As the outer frame suffers the maximum
twisting and bending stresses, also to reduce weight internal bracing is not provided.
5
4.2. Semi-Monocoque Construction:- these type of structure are partial or one half
type, which uses substructure to which surface of airplane is attached. The bulkhead and
the former of various sizes strengthen the stressed skin by taking some of bending stress
from fuselage as these bulkhead and the former are part of the substructure those are
attached with stressed skin of airplane. In single engines airplane, the enigine is located
infront of fuselage. Also wing is attached at main section of fuselage. Partition is
provided between rear of engine and the flight cabin though the partition is fireproof so
as to protect the passengers from the accidental engine fire. The partition is made of heat
resistant material i.e. stainless steel, in some of airplane composite material firewall is
used.
4.3. Wings:- as the wings are attached to each side of main section of fuselage and are
the main component which are responsible for lifting the surface upward.
 If wings are attached at top portion of fuselage then it is called high wings.
 If wing are attached at middle portion of fuselage then it is called mid wing
 If the wings are attached at lower portion of the fuselage then it is called low
wing.
The number of wing vary in some of plane, the plane with a single set of wings are
called monoplanes the plane with two set of wing are called biplane.
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In most of the high wing airplane the external braces are provided so that they transmit
the landing loaf through the braces to main fuselage structure. If the wing braces are
attached halfway out of wing this type of structure of wing is called semi cantilever.
Some of high wing and almost of low wing having the full cantilever wing carries the
load without the external braces.
The spars , ribs, stringer are the part of the principal structure of the wings, which are
strengthen by the trusses, tubing, I beam or other devices.
Shape and the thickness of the wing is determined by the wing ribs. Modern planes he
fuel tank are integral part of fuel structure. Also the wings are of different shape and of
different thickness it all depends upon the type of operation which airplane will perform.
a) Rectangular:- for training aircraft the wing are in rectangular shape, as it is
provided in low speed aircraft.
b) Elliptical :- elliptical wings are although very efficient but difficult to spitfire.
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c) Tapered:- better than rectangular type and easier to produce spitfire.
d) Swept:- for high speed aircraft swept shape are used in the wings.
e) Delta:- delta shape wing having the good structural efficiency but also having the
frontal cover low.
Mostly swept shape of wing is preferred in order to reduce the drag and allowing for shift
of control of weight. Different variation in wings provide the control on the lifting the
surfaces that uses both i.e. shifting as well s billowing . as the centre of gravity change as
soon the control is being done . for attaching to rear the wing of two types of control
surface are preferred as ailerons and the flaps.
4.4. Tail plane :- the tail plane is also known as horizontal wing and the stabilizer too
.the
Minimum number of the tail plane present is zero and the maximum number of the tail
plane present is 3 . the zero tail plane plane called tail less plane whilw the maximum
number of the tail plane called roe triplane. Basically the tail plane are mounted, amount
of lift provided is control by the pilot using the tail plane, this causes noses up and down
during pitching moment of aircraft, which is used to control the pitch of the aircraft.
Basically tail provides stability in same way feathers of an arrow. The tail plane is also
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known as empenner which is the French word known as to feather an arrow.
4.5. Nacelles :- the nacelle is different from fuselage ( consider as the main part) as
the
nacelle is kind of housing which holds the engine and different parts of the aircraft. If
nacelles are used to provide housing of multi engine such type of engine are called
podded engine. Any primary design associated with nacelle is aerodynamic. Nacelles is
attached to underneath of the monoplane, these are placed on high pressure side of the
aircraft wings. It means that slower the airflow are result of obstruction to be less
sensitive. Nacelles are usually mounted on slender pylon.
5. Working Principle of Aircraft:- the principle on which aircraft is based is
Bernoulli’s law (principle of aerodynamic). According to which if the air is blown at high
pressure, the velocity of high pressure air is slow. While if the velocity of the air is
higher than the pressure is low., so the pressure above the wing is lesser than the pressure
below and due to this the plane is lifted in the upward direction. Usually it is observed
that the upper surface of wing in curved shape while the lower surface remain flat, this
form the cross sectional shape called an airfoil.
6. Designing constraint
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Procedure first of all the purpose of aircraft is being design for designing commercial
aircraft it is in such a way to carry passenger or cargo (goods) safely to the destination and
to bring it back. As it is required high fuel efficiency bearing load safely for long range.
While fighter jet is design in such a way to perform high-speed operation and to give
assist at the support to the ground Soldiers.
Some of the aircraft have to are oriented for a mission and also having the single unique
designing which permit them to operate in the land as well as water.The Fighter airplane
have a special ability to take off vertically and land two.
The demand of the particular kind of aircraft need to be specified to fill a distance in the
market which haven’t but there having the particular demand for the aircraft. The factor
effect aircraft design are the rule made by National Air Worthiness Authority many of
airport applied different limit on the aircraft construction type for example aircraft
maximum 80m wings span is allowed in order to prevent collision
6.1. Economical Factors
Economical limitation requirements of market and competition to restrict the processes of
designing which affect the aircraft design also with the environmental factor. Currently
many of the competitors are being competeting for the better efficiency. In the designing
of the aircraft (which won’t affect the performances) finding modern and new techniques
and Technology in order to make Aircraft of better efficiency.
6.2. Environmental Aspect
Day by day enhancement in number of aircraft is also leading to increase the carbon
emission. There are many kinds of pollution are related with aircraft mainly the emission
of the aircraft and undesirable sound ( noise). In previous time the aircraft engines were
responsible for the pollution and noise pollution. So it was necessary for them to brought
the constitutional law either environmental rules and policies for the air craft
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The direction of the air flow changes the undesirable sound means noise develop from the
air frame. To improve these designers are being creating Airframe as well as the engine
for reducing the emission of the aircraft. Different hazardous gases like CO2, SO2 also
different oxide of the nitrate and hydrocarbons for preventing from such harmful emission
the different amendment is done in the National Air Worthiness Authority. Currently fuel
are being used are such kind of Such kind having the eco-friendly nature and in the
manufacturing of aircraft the recycle material are used which have help a lot to reduce
Effect of ecological caused by aircraft the limitation of environmental had affected airfield
also the air force involved are built in such a way to suit the topography of that reason
different factor which affect the aircraft design limitation of space, new way and safe area
location of airport etc. are growing with the time the aircraft design had affected the
airfield design also for enlarge of aircraft worldwide airport reducing take place.
6.3. Safety
The most prior thing which is kept in mind while designing the aircraft. There are many
pose which are threat to air travel thunderstorm, hail, strike of the bird, different
calamities condition and human error which affect the condition of fuel tank or any other
disorder in aircraft. In order to set the standard for the aircraft which are find fit to fly. the
manufacturing of aircraft should meets when all aspects of design standard. Also define
the limitation of operating the air craft, also include the maintenance factor of life cycle of
aircraft is important factor for the passenger cargo aircraft air forces.
In the present day are the air craft should be built on crush worthiness as the greater
attention to the regulation of the National Air Authority sometimes lead to accident. So
that Crush worthiness is the evaluation to survive the aircraft in the condition of accident.
In order to protect passenger and goods damage while accidents take place as fuels age
provide stressed skin feature but when large ending movement through nose has impact on
fuselage which can cause crack in it as is responsible to break the fuselage in it the
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section. so that the designing of the passenger seat are done in such a way that if
unfortunately they meets to accident so the exit can be taken easily.
6.4. Designing features
The main feature of the designing aircraft are
1) Aerodynamic
2) Proportion
3) Control
4) Mass
5) Structure
The aircraft design should add all these feature to generate the required design.
wing design as the wing of the air craft provide the force which is necessary for the flying.
The geometry of the wing effect every feature of the aircraft by design it by the stalling
speed. Wings of the aircraft is detained and other detail feature may influence the design
of the wings depends upon many parameters such as
 Tapperd ration
 Section profile
 Swift Back angle
As the cross-sectional shape of the air craft wing is air profile the construction of the
wings start from the rip which is in airfoil, can be made from the wood,metal, plastic
composite and ceramic. The Wing must be with stand when maximum load applied in the
stable as well as in the dynamic condition.
7. Designing Processes and Simulations
Following are the design processes and simulation:-
7.1. Conceptual design
Designing of the air craft start from the sketching of the different longer configuration.
Designers put forth the design which meets with the requirements and satisfaction like the
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Aerodynamic, propulsion, flight performance though it is also known as design
optimization. The shape of the fuselage, wing having the configuration, as the final
product can be seen proper on either of computer screen.
7.2. Preliminary Phase of Design
In preliminary design phase the wind tunnel testing & CFD analysis is being done. The
structural analysis is also carried out in this phase. If the flaws are detected then it is been
corrected and the final design are drawn . after the finalizing the design is further
processed to manufacturer, whether they move ahead for production of the design or not.
Mass Optimization of Aircraft :- the mass of the aircraft as well as the size of the aircraft
are related with each other. Normally lightest weight aircraft are most effiecient also
having the development potential.
Cost Optimization of Aircraft:- it is difficult to accurate prediction of cost. Following are
the possible aspects




Initial cost
Manufacturing cost
Operating cost
Life cycle cost
7.3. Detailed Phase of Design
Extreme Extensive phase of whole process. In this phase work of fabrication is being
done, also these phase decide the number, design , location of different parts of aircraft.
All design aspects are covered in the preliminary phase i.e. mfg remains. Provides
solution required for performance, manufacturing cost and operations
8. Manufacturing of the Component:8.1. By composites:- composites are used for weight reduction of the aircraft
component. Many non rotating component i.e. fan stator vanes, duct, inlet plenums, nose
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components and rotating component such as propeller and turbo fan blade are mostly are
made up of the composite materials. Special consideration is taken in account in case of
the high critical component . use of liquid composite molding is done in the production of
the parts of the engines. In order to manufacture the airframe component composites are
used.
8.2. By Casting :- for providing homogeneous microstructure and for neglecting stray
grain nucleation. For prediction of structure and different physical and mechanical
property , the heat treatment is being done which is required for different component for
critical application. During the process of casting improve yield, accelerate time to
dispatch and to lower the chances of risk. To create complex geometry part casting is
used with relative of irrespective of the size of the parts. Casting is done in many
airframe component also for the interior component it is economical.
8.3. By Sheet Metal Forming:- the design of die is faster and also very economical if
it is done by the sheet metal forming. Different development method are used to produce
the number of dies. As the worst condition forms in the engine, so the component of the
engine should be made in the advance form of Ti(titanium). The available space is
limited in the engine compartment and so there is requirement of high precision. But it is
often to know that making those geometric shape is very complex. Increasing the
demand of the weight reduction meant that the component should be made up by the
minimum material so as to performed the given task . basically alternate way are found
for the manufacture of this complex parts. Super plastic forming, hot forming, rubber
pad forming are usually used to fulfill this requirement.
9. Certification requirement of All Aspect of Aircraft:9.1 Type certification:- DGCA according to rule no.49 of the aircraft rules 1937,
empower to issue the type certificate for aircraft. Also the engines/propeller should be
manufactured in the India. The type certificate issued to an aircraft foreign airworthiness
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authority should be revalidated. Following are the basic requirement in order to issue the
type certificate
 The design must be approved by DGCA
 The design should conform to approved airworthiness requirements of
the
foreign airworthiness authorities and should be accepted by DGCA.
 The inspection of the construction is being done and also it must be approved by
airworthiness Directorate of the DGCA as required in the series E of car.
Type Certificate of Aircraft Manufactured In India:- the requirement which include
the information are as follows: General arrangement of the aircraft and all drawing realated to aircraft
 Listing of drawing should be complete
 Following test report are require i.e . static strength , its fatigue test, vibration test
etc or any other test which is require for the other component
 Details of construction of the materials and the complete specification of the
process
 Copy of subsidiary type of record must be prepared with respect to aircraft and its
component
 Compliance certificate by the chief designer with airworthiness requirement with
respect of FAR/JAR, also substantiation should be done at same time.
9.2. Construction aspect
Materials used in the construction are according to specification approved for the type
Design, the test which are already approved, every batch of the materials should have the
such specification: Applicant inspection staff must examine every part and the detail of component.
And also follow the approved drawing.
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 During assembly work , the record must being prepared for every component and
should be maintained and the inspection record is certified.
 Keeping in mind the approved method the operation like heat treatment, corrosion
protection should be carried out
 Serial number must be provide to all the components and the items of the
equipment
 Other component or part obtained from the subcontractors or other firms have
inspected and approved according to accordance condition.
Following are the documentation required for the purpose type of certification
1) Engine
 Types of specification
 Reports of fatigue test
 Mode of failure and analysis of effect of the various system.
 Records of safety
 Endurance, vibration and operation test
 Bulletins of service
 Directives of Airworthiness
2) Airframe
 Reports of fatigue test
 Records of aerodynamic load , analysis of stress, test of strength, flight test,
reports of performance
 Mode of failure and analysis of effect of the various system.
 Bulletins of service
 Records of safety
9.3. General Flight Test Guide for Certification:- following are the
general flight test guide for the certification.
1. Determining Compliance:- The testing done in these are complex and accurate for
defining the limit of entire operating envelops.
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2. Flight tests:- as soon as the applicant submit, it the required data to agency showing
the compliance can be met. Now the agency will conduct the test or inspection of
flight either ground test which is require to cross check the result of applicant
3. Use of Ballast:- during the flight test the ballast is being kept, whenever there is
requirement for achieving the centre weight and the centre of gravity. Both the
location i.e. vertical as well horizontal is considered in the case where it might effect
the quality of flying of airplane.
4. Flight Test Tolerance:- at the lower weight the routine schedule is not intended, that
allows the critical condition low.
Load Distribution Limits :- following are the load distribution limit which are
taken in account when flight test for certification is done
1) C.G. Envelop :-The tolerance of test is maximum +7% and minimum -7% of the
total range of C.G.
2) Narrow Utility C.G. Envelope:-in this spin approval might have the narrow C.G.
range.
3) Gross Weight Effect:- the pilot has to determine the overall weight , including low
fuel state.
Weight Limits
1)
Maximum Weight Limit:- the maximum weight limit are as follow
a)
Selection of the applicant
b)
Requirement of the structural design
c)
Requirement of flight
2)
Maximum weight expectation:- maximum weight allowed in the structural design
are considered as the ideal condition , in general less than the maximum weight should
be allowed in the airplane
Empty Weight and Corresponding Centre Of Gravity
1)
Fixed Ballast:- consider as the fixed part of airplane and to control the centre of
gravity
2)
Equipment list:- basically the equipment list define the list of installed equipment
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9.4. Performance Flight Test Guide for Certification:- following are the
flight test guide for the certification
 Flight procedure:- the flight procedure should cover the maximum crosswind
while demonstrating
 Flight test Data:- for the engines calibrated, the power of test day would be the
calibrated test day power.
 Humidity Correction :- while during the test of the flight the humidity should also
be measure,
 Atmospheric standard::- standard should be set up for meeting the required
performance parameter. The blown air should be smooth and the mountain wave
are considered under the atmospheric standard.
 Installed power:- in these losses are taken in account of installation, also the
absorption of power taken place.
 Propeller cutoff:-by using most critical propeller diameter the flight performance
test is done.
10.Comparison of Aircraft:10.1. First Airplane Specification and Design:-
Orville and Wilbur Wright in the year 1903 named flyer I, built the aircraft using spruce
wood as their construction material. The gasoline engine is used in the flyer-I with 12
horsepower/ 9 kilowatt . hand made twin propeller which gives power to the engine by
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the sprocket chain drive (from bicycle). For making rotate the propeller in the other
direction one drive was crossed over other
Following are the basic characteristic of the Flyer-I
Crew:- one
Length:- 6.45m (21ft 1 in)
Span of Wings:- 12.30m(40 ft 4 in)
Height :- 2.75m
Empty Weight:- 275kg
Maximum Take off Weight:- 338kg.
Performance Characteristic of Flyer-I
Maximum speed :- 50km/hr
Service Ceiling:- 9.2m
Wind loading:- 6.5 kg/m2
Power/mass:- 15 W/kg
10.2. Current Era Airplane Design and Specification
The most common type of aircraft is Boeing-737, it is also known as narrow body aircraft
produced by Boeing Commercial Airplane. Semi- monocoque is the structure of the
fuselage, made up by aluminum alloy. The tailcone, centre and outboard flap track
farings are made up of Fiberglass. Elevators, spoilers, dorsal are made up of Graphite
either epoxy.
Depend on the different characteristic required the aluminum alloy are used For. fuselage
skin slides, flaps area where primary loaded tension there use of aluminum alloy 2024 in
which aluminum and copper are mixture to give fracture toughness etc. Qualities frames
floor being are made up of aluminum alloy 7075 in which aluminum is mixed with zinc
to provide the high Mechanical properties and improve stress corrosion resistance to
cracking.
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Bulkhead, window frame, landing gear beam are made up of aluminum alloy 7079
obtained by alloying aluminum with zinc so as to obtain temper to minimise schedule
heat treatment stresses. Wing upper skin is is made up of aluminum alloy 7055 mixed
with aluminum zinc magnesium and copper to obtain super stresses.
Following are the basic characteristic of the Boeing-737
Crew:- one
Length:- 28.7 m
Span of Wings:- 28.4 m
Fuselage Height :- 4 m
Track length:- 5.3 m
Wheelbase length:-10.64 m
Max. Takeoff Weight:- 97,516 lb
Max. Landing Weight:- 89,715 lb
Cabin width :- 3.5m
Performance Characteristic of Flyer-I
Maximum speed :- 350 km
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Ceiling:- 35000 ft
Range with Max Payload (nm):- 1800Nm
Fuel Capacity:- 17,865L
Maximum certified seating:- 124 seats.
11. Infrastructure Required to Support the Recharging of Battery of
Hybrid Aircraft
As every airport is developing in such a way to provide support of a Hybrid electric fleet
so for this the the required infrastructure are being changed in many of the airport total
attention is paid to word the battery charging related requirement is there are two ways or
we can say that two alternative strategies of charging which were identified and compare
number firstly plug in recharge and second is battery swapping this all will depends upon
the type of aircraft the type of battery and the mode of charging firstly this method was
used in Italy to check the requirement of infrastructure if incase the current fleet is
replaced by hybrid electric fleet or Hybrid electric aircraft.
Hybrid electric aircraft are design in such a way that we can use both conventional
thermal engine or fuel cell for propulsion either we can use electric motor also. As day
by day increasing demand of energy and reduction to the fuel or energy crisis is also
increasing. The electric propulsion to use so as to reduce the fuel consumption not only
fuel is saved by Hybrid electric propulsion also there will be huge reduction in noise and
emission of harmful gases which are causing severe environmental problem
11.1 Battery:- In ancient time the energy storage was done in different ways. so far as
to distinguish between the hydroelectric airplane and conventional airplane the energy
storage plays a vital role. Different types of technologies are present in market but
Lithium ion and Lithium polymer batteries are most commonly used because of their
high performance rate. Lithium ion batteries having the energy around 250 WH/kg. Also
it is predicted that in future the value may get rise. As the advantage of using batteries is
these are lighter in use. If we look after present scenario the electric aircraft are powered
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by Lithium ion batteries due to the low cost and the higher diffusion rate various battery
Technology are still developing the other form of battery like solid state battery, Lithium
air battery etc.
11.2 Plug in Charger
In present era charging of the battery is very wide spread for various application. Also it
has involve automotive application , since the task is not easy to the aviation sector
facing problem of dispatching the energy at higher rate for the automotive field Indian
standard of organisations 461 contain the newly specification of aircraft plugging charger
according to which different output voltage can be obtained by three connector of the
plug.
11.3 Battery Swapping Station
Another charging strategy battery is represented by battery swapping station without
plugging the aircraft the swapping allow how to replace the discharge battery with fully
recharge battery for this case or while doing battery swapping the aircraft must be present
on ground is this kind of strategy main work for the commercial aircraft.
12. Conclusion:Various operations are involved in the designing of aircraft which starts from the
requirements, feasible study of aircraft, detail specification, different phases of design,
synthesis process, analysis of design and testing and certification of the aircraft. As many
of sub step is also followed during following this sequence while designing the aircraft.
Apart from that testing of aircraft involves the ground testing as well as flight testing.
Basically operational age of aircraft is last 45+years for successful design.
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References
1. David Sziroczak, May 2020, Conceptual Design of Small Aircraft with HybridElectric Propulsion System , accessed on 20 June 2020
2. Fernando Afonso, November2019,Environmental Assessment of Hybrid Electric
Propulsion In Conceptual Aircraft Design, accessed on 20 June 2020
3. Marco Fioriti, February 2018, The Effect of Sub-system, accessed on 20 June
2020
4. Michael houseman, April 2018,Flexibility Within Flight Operation As An
Evaluation Criterion For Preliminary Aircraft Design, accessed on 20 June 2020
5. Xiao Chai, October 2017, Multipoint Optimization on Fuel Efficiency In
Conceptual Design Of Wide Body Aircraft, accessed 20 June 2020
6. Jun Liu, June2018, Design of Aircraft Structures Against Threat Of Birds,
accessed 20 June 2020
7. Elcin Aleixo, Selecting Composite Material Considering Cost And Environmental
Impact In Early Phases Of Aircraft Structure Design, accessed 20 June 2020
8. Benjamin Brelje, August 2018, Electric Hybrid And Turboelectric Fixed Wing
Aircraft, accessed 20 June 2020
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