22-08-2020
HS485
Psychology at
Workplace
(3-0-0-6-3)
Course Instructor
Dr. Parwinder Singh
Lecture 1
Introduction to the
course
Why work is important to you
• Pay cheque????
• Not only economical security, but give us emotional
security, self-esteem and contentment, sense of
identity, status, learning opportunities, positive social
experiences, opportunities for forming new
relationships………………etc*.
*conditions apply
 Only if you choose it wisely
 Maintain it positively
Otherwise it may be tedious, monotonous, hazardous,
stressful and boring……
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What research Says
• Selection of work is the most significant decision
of your life.
• Work-related dissatisfaction is negatively
associated with physical and emotional health
• In other words, and more straightly, Satisfaction
with one’s work is the most reliable single
predictor of one’s quality and quantity of life
Course Objectives
• To equip students with the knowledge
about
the
psychological
principles
governing human behaviour at work place.
….Knowledge acquisition
• To train prospective workers to apply
gained knowledge about human behaviour
in
order
to
adjust
well
at
workplace…..capacity building
To help students in utilizing their potential to
the maximum to enhance their productivity
and efficiency
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22-08-2020
Course Outline: Modules
Introduction to Organizational Psychology
(4 lectures)
1. Applied Psychology
2. I/O Psychology (Division 1, APA)
1. Organizational Psychology
2. Personnel Psychology
Understanding Job Performance(6 lectures)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Models of job performance
performance appraisal,
Determinants of performance appraisal
Adaptive performance areas,
the ‘Great eight’ competencies of adaptive
performance,
6. counterproductive work behaviours
Course Outline: Modules
Work Motivation and job satisfaction(11 lectures)
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Meaning and importance of motivation at workplace,
Job characteristic model,
cognitive bases of motivation,
motivational interventions
Antecedents and consequences of Job
satisfaction/dissatisfaction
increasing job satisfaction
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22-08-2020
Course Outline: Modules
Leadership(07 lectures)
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Meaning and approaches to leadership,
theories of leadership,
styles of leadership,
characteristics of successful leadership,
problems of leadership
Stress in the workplace(08 lectures)
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Meaning and theories of stress,
sources of worker’s stress,
consequences of stress,
primary and secondary prevention strategies,
specific techniques to reduce stress
Course Outline: Modules
Engineering Psychology(06 lectures)
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Introduction to engineering Psychology
person-machine system
workplace designs and displays
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Assessment: Plan-I
Particulars
Major/End Sem examination(if possible)
Weightage(%)
40
Quizes-2 (15 and 10 marks)
25
Review/Survey Assignment
20
Active Participation Assisnment-2(Self promotional
activity and one page write up:7.5 marks each)
15
Assessment: Plan-II(Tentative*)
*one possibility in case in-person end-sem exam is not feasible)
Particulars
Weightage(%)
Quizes-2 (30 and 20 marks)
50
Review Assignment/Survey assignment
30
Active Participation Assisnments-2(Self promotional
activity and one page write up:10 marks each)
20
Institute policy regarding assignments of the grades would be followed strictly. The
minimum pass marks for this course will be 35%.
Classes
• Mandatory Plan
▫ Minimum online sessions:14
▫ Recorded Lectures: 28
• Options
▫ 21 online and 21 recorded
▫ 28 online and 14 recorded
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BLOOM’S REVISED TAXONOMY
Creating
Generating new ideas, products, or ways of viewing things
Designing, constructing, planning, producing, inventing.
Evaluating
Justifying a decision or course of action
Checking, hypothesising, critiquing, experimenting, judging
Analysing
Breaking information into parts to explore understandings and relationships
Comparing, organising, deconstructing, interrogating, finding
Applying
Using information in another familiar situation
Implementing, carrying out, using, executing
Understanding
Explaining ideas or concepts
Interpreting, summarising, paraphrasing, classifying, explaining
Remembering
Recalling information
Recognising, listing, describing, retrieving, naming, finding
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22-08-2020
HS485
Psychology at
Workplace
Module:1
Introduction to
Organizational
Psychology
Lecture 2:
Introduction to
Psychology
Objective
• After this class you will come to know
▫ What is Psychology
▫ What is behaviour
▫ How do we study behaviour…..Methods of Psychology
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Popular Psychology Knowledge…
Truth or Fiction?
•
•
•
•
•
“Psychology is face reading”
“Psychology is common sense”
“The polygraph test accurately detects lies”
“It is better to express anger than to hold it in”
“Most people use only 10% of their potential brain
power”
• A person’s handwriting is a valid and reliable
indicator of their personality traits
• We can accurately and reliably determine if another
person is lying by examining their facial expressions.
Can we always trust our Common Sense?
❑ Birds of a feather flock together
❑ Opposite attract
❑ Absence makes the heart grow fonder ❑ Out of sight, out of mind
❑ Two heads are better than one
❑ Too many cooks spoil the broth
❑ Action speak louder than words
❑ The pen is mightier that the sword
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Scientific Study……..
• Psychology Is an Empirical Science: Psychological science relies
on empirical evidence as a way of knowing about how we think,
feel, and behave
• A method to create knowledge as objective as possible
• the set of assumptions, rules, and procedures that scientists
use to conduct empirical research.
▫ Objectivity
Skepticism Repeatability
▫ Verifiability
Systematic Reliability
▫ Validity (tools)
Sciences view things from nowhere, from no ones’ perspective
………………Thomas Negal….what is in actual.
A detached understanding of the physical world
Conceptualization
• Psychology was born as the hybrid offspring of
Physiology and Philosophy
• “Psychology is the study of Soul..?”(Psyche+logos)
• “Psychology is the study of Mind…?”
• “Psychology is the study of Consciousness…?”
• “Psychology is the study of Unconsciousness…?”
• “Psychology is the study of Behaviour…?”
Psychology is the scientific study of Human
Behaviour and Mental Processes!!!!
• Key words
▫ Scientific Study
▫ Behaviour
▫ Mental Processes
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Behaviour…..and why it is difficult to understand
• Any action caused by any stimulus
▫ Action can be internal or external.
▫ Stimulation can also be internal or external
• Too inconsistent/variable to be explained
▫ Different reactions to same stimulus by different
individuals
▫ Different reactions to same stimulus by same individual in
different time and situations
• Too sensitive, affected by so many specific variables and their
interactions.
• Behaviour is a function of the attributes of the
▫ Environment(stimulation, nature of situation, cultural factors)
▫ Person(intelligence, traits, interest, values, aptitude, mood )
B=f(P,E)…….Kurt Lewin
It is Multiply Determined
Mental Processes
• Our inner experiences
• Higher cognitive processes
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Attention
Perception
Memory
Forgetting
Thinking
Reasoning
Decision making
Problem Solving
Concept Formation
Intelligence etc.
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Goals……………What we want to do
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Describe………………………………What is aggression
Explain…….why we behave aggressively as we do
Predict………..
Control ……….how to reduce aggression
Ultimate goal to modify human behaviour in order to
enhance efficiency and well-being leading to overall
productivity of the individual and concerned agency
To make a person more adaptive, happy, efficient
Psychology aims to evaluate
common beliefs and misconceptions about
behavior and mental processes scientifically
Research
• Attempt to develop principles of behaviour and
mental processes………….Basic research
▫ Why people sometime do and sometime dont help
▫ Why people behave aggressively as they do
▫ Why workers/students are not putting their best
efforts
• Application of psychological principles in solving
individual’s or organization’s issues in order to
make them more efficient…….Applied Research
▫ Modifications of thinking pattern.
▫ Changing communication pattern
▫ Changing work environment……..etc
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Methods: how do we proceed…..
• Introspection
▫ Looking within………..Objective self-observation…..
• Observation
▫ Outer behaviour
• Case study
▫ Detailed analysis of one unit
• Interview
▫ One to One Interaction
• Questionnaire
▫ List of questions, statements, items with varied types
of responses
• ……..EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
▫ Seeking Cause & Effect relationship.
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22-08-2020
HS485
Psychology at
Workplace
Module-1
Introduction to
Organizational
Psychology
Lecture-3
Psychology &
Organizational
Psychology
Objective
• After this class you will come to know
▫
▫
▫
▫
How do we study behaviour…..Methods of Psychology
Different Areas of Psychology
Applied Psychology
Nature of Organizational Psychology
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Methods: how do we proceed…..
• Introspection
▫ Looking within………..Objective self-observation…..
• Observation
▫ Outer behaviour
• Case study
▫ Detailed analysis of one unit
• Interview
▫ One to One Interaction
• Questionnaire
▫ List of questions, statements, items with varied types
of responses
• ……..EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
▫ Seeking Cause & Effect relationship.
Where do Psychologists work
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Psychology Professions
Clinical Psychologist- diagnoses and treats people with emotional
disturbances (about ½ of all psychologists are clinical).
Counseling Psychologist- help people deal with problems / challenges of
life.
Psychiatry- branch of medicine that deals with emotional and behavioral
disorders. Can prescribe medicine and is considered a medical doctor
(M.D.) NOT a psychologist.
Developmental Psychology- study of physical, emotional, cognitive, and
social changes that occur as individuals mature.
Educational Psychologist – study topics related to educating children
such as intelligence, memory, and problem solving.
Psychology Professions
Community Psychologist – studies behavior in mental health or social
welfare institution in order to design run or evaluate programs for
patients.
Industrial/Organizational Psychologist – studies concepts to make the
workplace more satisfying for employees and managers.
Experimental Psychologist – studies sensation, behavior, perception,
learning, motivation, and emotion in controlled laboratory conditions.
Forensic Psychologist – studies, diagnoses, and evaluates testimony
regarding the law and criminal behavior ( also includes effects of court on
children, jury selection, counseling victims)
Sports Psychology- studies athletics and athletic performance. Often use
visualization to help athletes mentally rehearse successful steps in
completing tasks while
reducing negative thoughts of failure.
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Difference between Pure Psychology and
Applied Psychology
Pure Psychology
Applied Psychology
• Theoretical Psychology
• Just knowing things
• Aim is to extend and improve
human knowledge with
regards to its structural,
functional, genetic and social
aspects
• To understand ultimate
nature of mental life or
experience as a whole
• Try to answer…“how we
reason or make judgement?”
• Practical Psychology
• Utilitarian purpose
• Aim is to enrich and improve the
conditions and phases of human life
and conduct
• To master or control difficult
situations or meet them with more
successful response
• Apply existing knowledge to
enhance productivity of an
individual or organization
• Applied Psychologists: use
information to deal with people and
problems directly; they have
‘patients’.
Enduring Issues in Psychology
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•
•
•
•
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Person — Situation
Freewill – Determinism
Heredity —Environment
Stability — Change
Diversity
Mind — Body
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Organizational Psychology
Various titles….
•
•
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•
Organizational Psychology
I-O Psychology
Personnel Psychology
Work Psychology
Occupational Psychology
• All are related to a domain in which knowledge
about psychological principles is applied to the
workplace
• It significantly contribute to the performance and
productivity of the workplace
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22-08-2020
WHAT IS ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY?
• Psychology is the science of human behavior
▫ Work psychology is the science of human behavior at work
• Dual focus
▫ Efficiency/productivity of organizations
▫ Health/well-being of employees
• Dual nature
▫ Application of the science of psychology to the workplace
▫ Development/discovery of scientific psychological principles at
work
• I/O Psychology is:
▫ The branch of psychology that applies the principles of
psychology to the workplace.
• The Purpose of I/O Psychology:
▫ “to enhance the dignity and performance of human beings, and
the organizations they work in, by advancing the science and
knowledge of human behavior”
Organizational Psychology
Organizational psychology represents the area of
psychology that applies psychological principles to
the workplace, including the structure of organizations,
the ways its members work together, and how the
organization attempts to improve itself through
motivation, diversity, work attitudes, leadership,
culture, and other related processes (Levy, 2006).
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Major Activities
◆Personnel Psychology (The “I” in I/O)
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Defining and analyzing jobs
Recruiting and selecting employees for jobs
Training employees
Assessing performance
Promoting and retaining employees
Test development and Validation
Legal Issues
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Determining how people feel about work
Determining why people act as they do at work
Examining the effects work has on people
Examining the effects people have on one another
How organizations are structured and function
How work is designed
Tool and equipment usage on the job
Examining work relevant health, safety, and well-being issues
◆Organizational Psychology (The “O” in I/O)
I-O psychology
• Helping people do their jobs
▫ helping employers treat employees fairly
▫ helping make jobs more interesting and satisfying
▫ helping workers be more productive
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22-08-2020
Treating employees fairly
• Treating people from diverse backgrounds fairly
▫ selecting people for jobs
 identifying the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other qualities
that are necessary to perform well, a process called job
analysis,
 identifying and/or designing tests and measures to assess
applicants’ levels on those key job requirements,
 administering the tests, and
 determining the applicants most suitable for a given position.
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providing training
rewarding promotions/raises
addressing harassment
Assessing performance accurately
Making jobs more
interesting/satisfying
• Designing jobs people will find satisfying
▫ rewarding work
▫ safe, efficient work areas (Human Factors)
• Motivating employees to perform
• Creating teams that work well together
▫ combining diverse talents and perspectives
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Leading Historical Figures and seminal
contributions
• Hugo Münsterberg: Psychology and Industrial
Efficiency
• Walter Dill Scott: The Theory of Advertising
• Frederick Winslow Taylor: Scientific Management
• Robert Yerkes: Army Alpha and Beta tests
• Lillian Gilbreth: Time and motion; Human factors
• Bruce V. Moore: First I/O PhD?
• Hawthorne Studies
Early 1900’s
◆Hugo Munsterberg
▫ Considered the “Father of Industrial Psychology”
▫ “Psychology and Industrial Efficiency” 1913
▫ Trolley Car Simulator Creation
◆Systematically studied all aspects of job through observations
◆Studied what makes good operator
◆Analyzed behaviors and asked questions
◆Basically, he pioneered Job Analysis
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Questions
• Is Work Psychology required at all?
• If yes, then how can it impact job performance and
well being of the employees?
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29-08-2020
HS485
Psychology at
Workplace
Module-2
Understanding Job
Performance
Lecture-4
Job Performance
Hawthorne studies
▫ conducted on workers at the Hawthorne plant of the Western
Electric Company by Elton Mayo and Fritz Roethlisberger in the
1920s.
▫ were part of a refocus on managerial strategy incorporating the
socio-psychological aspects of human behavior in organizations.
▫ found that workers were more responsive to social factors—such
as the people they worked with on a team and the amount of
interest their manager had in their work—than the factors
(lighting, etc.) the researchers had gone in to inspect.
▫ discovered that workers were highly responsive to additional
attention from their managers and the feeling that their managers
actually cared about, and were interested in, their work. The
studies also found that although financial motives are important,
social issues are equally important factors in worker productivity.
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Lets discuss
• Is Work/Organizational Psychology required at all?
• If yes, then how can it impact job performance and
well being of the employees?
▫ Can help individuals understand their own personality
and adjustment requirements for physical and mental
well being
▫ Can help individuals understand the desired goal state
▫ Can help individuals modify their behaviour as per the
goal state
▫ Can help organizations modify the work
environment(policies/guidelines) conducive to job
satisfaction
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Desired Goal State
Seligman’s
PERMA
Model……
Routes to Wellbeing
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•
•
•
•
P – Positive Emotion
E – Engagement
R – Relationships
M – Meaning
A – Accomplishments
Routes to well-being
• P – Positive Emotion
▫ It is more than smiling:
▫ ability to remain optimistic and view one’s past,
present, and future from a constructive perspective.
▫ pleasure VS enjoyment
 enjoyment comes from intellectual stimulation and
creativity.
• E – Engagement……The activity is its own reward.
▫ Being in the ‘Flow’
▫ This type of ‘flow’ of engagement stretches our
intelligence, skills, and emotional capabilities.
• R – Relationships
▫ Strong relationships also provide support in difficult
times that require resilience.
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Routes to well-being
• M – Meaning
▫ “why are we on this earth?”
▫ Raising children, teaching, expressing creativity, creating
something, social welfare, knowledge acquisition
▫ Goals give us that meaning
• A – Accomplishments
▫ Sense of Achievement helps to build self-esteem and
provides a sense of accomplishment.
Apart from mental health PERMA is
bidirectionally related to Learning
Job Performance
• a central construct in industrial/organizational
psychology
▫ Much of personnel selection is based on the premise of
selecting from a pool of applicants those who are likely to
perform better on the job(compared to those not selected)
▫ Many training programs are designed to improve job
performance.
▫ Assessments of individuals are undertaken to identify their
strengths and weaknesses in order to design training
programs as well as for optimal placement decisions(Guion
1998).
▫ Performance appraisal, feedback and even merit pay
systems make use of employee performance information
…………….deserves priority
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9
Understanding Job Performance
• Basic Terminology
▫ Performance
 Actions or behaviours relevant to the organizations’
goals; measured in terms of each individual’s proficiency
 Job performance refers to actions, behavior and
outcomes that employees engage in or bring about that
are linked with and contribute to organizational goals
▫ Effectiveness
 Evaluation of results of performance
▫ Productivity:
 Ratio of effectiveness (output) to cost of achieving that
level of effectiveness (input)
Job Performance
• Outcome
▫ Effectiveness
▫ Productivity
▫ Utility
• Organizational Goal Relevance
▫ Effort to achieve peripheral goals is not performance
• Multidimensionality
▫ Performance is not a single thing, but a collection of
multiple component
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Understanding Performance
• Individual differences are there in
performance
• And performance also differ within
individual across time
What are the most important predictors of
job performance
A framework for reviewing models of job
performance
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Determinants of Job Performance
• Individual trait variables (e.g., cognitive abilities, personality, stable
motivational dispositions, physical characteristics and abilities),
• state variables (e.g., relevant knowledge and skill, attitudes,
malleable motivational states), and
• situational characteristics (e.g., the reward structure, managerial
and peer leadership), as well as the interactions among them.
• Campbell et al. (1993) have argued that all of the above must affect
performance by influencing three direct determinants operating in
real time: role-specific knowledge, skill, and choice behavior
regarding the direction, intensity, and duration of effort.
• The direct determinants totally mediate the effects of everything else
14
Campbell’s Model of Job Performance
• Three direct determinants of job performance
▫ Declarative knowledge (DK)
 Understanding what is required to perform a task;
knowing information about a job or job task
▫ Procedural knowledge & skill (PKS)
 Knowing how to perform a job or task; often
developed through practice and experience
▫ Motivation (M)
 It concern the conditions responsible for variations in
intensity, persistence, quality and direction of
ongoing behaviour
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15
Campbell’s Model of Job Performance
• Indirect determinants of job performance
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Intelligence
Personality
Interest
Job satisfaction
Co-worker’s behaviour
Workplace design
Leadership
Etc.
16
Campbell’s Determinants of Job Performance
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29-08-2020
HS485
Psychology at
Workplace
Module-2
Understanding Job
Performance
Lecture-5
Job Performance-II
2
From Previous class: Campbell’s Determinants of
Job Performance
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Campbell’s Model…8 basic
performance dimensions
3
• Earlier …
▫ Since the 1980s, a number of investigators have suggested
models for the latent structure of performance.
▫ Given the population of goal relevant actions or behaviors
that an individual could perform in a work role, can they be
represented by a meaningful dimension structure that
describes the major distinguishable components of
performance?
▫ The assumption here is that the construct of performance is
not unidimensional.
• Job performance…a multidimensional construct
consisting of more than one kind of behavior….
• Most of these behaviours can be clubbed under 8
headings, i.e. 8 basic performance components
8 basic performance components
4
1. Task specific behaviours/Technical performance
behaviors that an individual undertakes as part of a job.
the core substantive tasks that delineate one job from
another.
Engineer vs front-desk operator
Such requirements can vary by
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substantive area (driving a vehicle versus analyzing data)
level of complexity or difficulty within area (driving a taxi
versus driving a jet liner, tabulating sales frequencies versus
modeling institutional investment strategies).
2. Non-task specific behaviors
 behaviors which an individual is required to undertake
which do not pertain only to a particular job. A non-task
specific behavior of a sales person might be training new
staff members.
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8 basic performance components
3. Written and oral communication
• the proficiency with which one conveys information
that is clear, understandable, compelling, and well
organized.
• Employees need to make formal and informal oral
and written presentations to various audiences in
many different jobs in the work force.
4. Demonstrated efforts
• the consistency of an individual’ effort, willingness to
keep working under adverse conditions.
• Voluntarily taking on additional tasks, going beyond
prescribed responsibilities, or working under extreme
or adverse conditions.
8 basic performance components
5. Maintaining personal discipline
• avoiding negative behaviour such as excessive
absenteeism, alcohol or substance abuse etc.
6. Facilitating peer and team performance
• the degree to which a person helps out the groups
and his or her colleagues. This might include acting
as a good role model, coaching, giving advice or
helping maintain group goals.
7. Supervision/leadership
• proficiency at influencing the performance of
subordinates through face to face interpersonal
interaction and influence.
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8 basic performance components
8. Management/ Administration
• A defining characteristic of the high performance work team
is that team members perform many management functions,
such as planning and problem solving, determining withinteam coordination requirements and workload balance, and
monitoring team performance.
• representing the unit or organization to external stakeholders
and exhibiting commitment and compliance to the policies
and procedures of the organization are critical performance
factors at any organizational level.
8
Campbell’s Model (cont'd)
• 8 basic performance components
▫ 3 are essential for every job
 Core task proficiency
 Demonstrated effort
 Maintenance of personal discipline
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9
Borman & Motowidlo (1993, 1997)
Task performance
(Doing just what is expected)
vs.
Contextual performance
…Organization Citizenship Behaviour
(Going beyond what is expected)
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Contextual Performance (cont'd)
• Increasing importance in today’s workplace
• “Behaviours that go beyond task performance
and technical proficiency, instead supporting the
organizational, social and psychological context
that serves as the critical catalyst for tasks to be
accomplished”
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Task Performance
• Requirements vary
from job to job
• Individual differences
tied to abilities &
knowledge
• Activities part of job
description
Contextual
Performance
• Common to most jobs
• Individual differences
tied to personality
• Activities not part of job
description
• Supports organizational
environment
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Contextual Performance – 5 aspects
• Organizational Citizenship behaviours
▫ a major component of performance and defined it as
discretionary behavior, not necessarily part of a job
description, that promotes the effective functioning of
the organization
 Persisting with enthusiasm & extra effort
 Volunteering to carry out task activities not in job
description… going well beyond minimal requirements
 Helping & cooperating with others
 Following organizational rules & procedures
 Endorsing, supporting, & defending organizational
objectives
 tolerating less-than-ideal working conditions
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HS485
Psychology at
Workplace
Module-2
Understanding Job
Performance
Lecture-6
Adaptive
Performance
Adaptive performance
• Today’s organizations are characterized by changing, dynamic
environments.
• Changing technologies and automation continue to alter the
nature of work tasks, requiring employees to learn new ways
to perform their jobs.
• Mergers, “rightsizing,” and corporate restructuring also
require individuals to learn new skills to be competitive for
different jobs
• In a global economy, many jobs require individuals to learn to
operate effectively in a variety of different countries and with
individuals who possess different values and orientations than
themselves
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Adaptive performance
• Workers need to be increasingly adaptable, versatile, and
tolerant of uncertainty to operate effectively in these
changing and varied environments.
• Employers seek employees with high adaptability, due to the
positive outcomes that follow, such as excellent work
performance, work attitude, and ability to handle stress.
• Adaptability, flexibility, and versatility….not well defined…..
therefore difficult to measure, predict, and teach effectively.
• Let us try to understand
Adaptive performance
• Some may call it “Role Flexibility”
• the proficiency with which individuals self-manage
their new learning experiences
• Ability to deal with new people and teams, novel and
ill-defined problems, different cultures, new
technology, challenging physical conditions, and
others
Adaptive performance in the work environment refers
to adjusting to and understanding and respecting
change in the workplace
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Adaptive performance
• Adaptability refers to being able to deal effectively
with some combination of the following:
▫ changes in organization goals,
▫ changes in individual performance requirements, and
▫ changes in the performance environment,
• Adaptability can be viewed either as a component of
performance itself or as a property of the
individual….
• we will focus on it as a property of the individual,
because we should work in the area directly under
our control
Adaptive performance
• Performance is not one thing, so how can
adaptability be unidimensional.
• Pulakos et al. (2000) proposed a few characteristics
of adaptive individuals or dimensions for adaptive
performance
• These characteristics/dimensions were obtained by
mining a large database of critical incidents of
effective and ineffective performance and using
systematic SME (subject matter expert) judgments
to identify and categorize the incidents that were
reflective of adaptation.
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Handling emergencies and crisis situations
 Reacting with appropriate and proper urgency in life
threatening, dangerous, or emergency situations
 Should always have plan-B ready; quickly analyzing
options for dealing with danger or crises and their
implications; making split-second decisions based on
clear and focused thinking;
 maintaining emotional control and objectivity while
keeping focused on the situation at hand
Handling stress in the workforce
 Keeping composed and focused on task at hand when
dealing with high demanding workload/schedule
 not overreacting to unexpected news or situations;
 managing frustration well by directing effort to
constructive solutions rather than blaming others;
 highest levels of professionalism in stressful
circumstances; acting as a calming and settling
influence to whom others look for guidance.
4
29-08-2020
Creative problem solving:
 effectiveness with which employees solve the atypical, ill-defined,
and complex problems that confront today’s work situations and
organizations
 turning problems upside-down and inside-out to find fresh, new
approaches;
 integrating seemingly unrelated information and developing creative
solutions;
 entertaining wide-ranging possibilities others may miss,
 developing innovative methods of obtaining or using resources when
insufficient resources are available to do the job.
Dealing with uncertain and unpredictable
work situations:
▫ These situations can result from formal organizational restructuring,
shifting business priorities, reductions or changes in available resources,
or joining a new organization or group….or from some pandemic like the
prevailing one
▫ effectively adjusting plans, goals, actions, or priorities to deal with
changing situations
▫ readily and easily changing gears in response to unpredictable or
unexpected events and circumstances; imposing structure for self and
others that provide as much focus as possible in dynamic situations;
▫ not needing things to be black and white; refusing to be paralyzed by
uncertainty or ambiguity.
5
29-08-2020
Learning and manipulating new
technology, task, and procedures:
▫ enthusiasm for learning new approaches and
technologies for conducting work
▫ Keep knowledge and skills updated, taking action to
improve work performance deficiencies
▫ doing what is necessary to keep knowledge and skills
current;
▫ anticipating changes in the work demands and
searching for and participating in assignments or
training that will prepare self for these changes;
Demonstrating interpersonal adaptability
▫ Being flexible and open-minded when dealing with
others, listening to and considering others’ viewpoints
▫ being open and accepting of negative or developmental
feedback regarding work.
▫ working well and developing effective relationships with
highly diverse personalities;
▫ demonstrating keen insight of others' behavior and
tailoring own behavior to persuade, influence, or work
more effectively with them.
6
29-08-2020
Demonstrating cultural adaptability
▫ Taking action to learn about and understand the climate,
orientation, needs, values, etc. of other groups, organizations,
or cultures
▫ integrating well into and being comfortable with different
values, customs, and cultures;
▫ willingly adjusting behavior or appearance as necessary to
comply with or show respect for others' values and customs;
▫ adjusting approach to maintain positive relationships with
other groups, organizations, or cultures.
7
05-09-2020
HS485
Psychology at Workplace
Module-2
Lecture-7
Performance Appraisal
Understanding Job
Performance
Performance appraisal
• Once you have been evaluated and hired by a
company, formal examinations will not be there at
the workplace. However your performance will
continue to be assessed…….
• Most of us do not like to be appraised, but if it is
done appropriately, it can be the most influential
factor in one’s or company’s growth
1
05-09-2020
Performance appraisal
• Performance Appraisal is the systematic, periodic evaluation of
the performance of employees to understand the abilities of a
person for further growth and development.
• Throughout your career, your performance will be monitored
and appraised and your salary, rank, and responsibility, or your
own emotional security and satisfaction will depend on how
well you satisfy the established criteria(company’s or your own)
for job performance.
• The overall objective of performance appraisal is to improve the
efficiency of an enterprise/individuals by attempting to
mobilize the best possible efforts and utilizing available
resources
Performance appraisal
• A process:
▫ Is not just an Interview, is not a one- act play. It is rather a process that
involves several acts or steps.
• Systematic Assessment:
▫ a systematic assessment of an employee‘s strengths and weakness in the
context of the given job.
• Scientific Evaluation:
▫ It is an objective, unbiased and scientific evaluation through similar
measure and procedures for all employees in a formal manner.
• Periodic Evaluation:
▫ Systematic (i.e., formal) appraisal of an individual employee is likely to
occur at certain intervals throughout that person‘s history of employment
(say quarterly ,six monthly, annually, etc.)
• Main Objective:
▫ to know how well an employee is going for the organisation and what
needs to be improved in him.
2
05-09-2020
Performance Appraisal: Why do they do it
• Research purpose
▫ Validation of selection criteria
• Documentation for Personnel Decision-Making
▫ promotion, dismissal, reassignment, and compensation decisions
 Recognition of Superior Performance
 Documentation of Weak Performance
 May be for a legal defense for some decisions
• Feedback and development
▫ feedback should be very concrete and very specific to the individual’s
performance, not an overall evaluation in any general domain
• Goal Setting for later evaluation
• HRD Planning
▫ Identify Training Needs
• Consider it as a source of motivation…..
▫ the mere fact of knowing that one is being observed or measured
increases performance and fosters cooperative behavior
Performance Appraisal Process:
• Setting the performance standards.
• Communicating the standards
• Measuring the actual performance
▫ Quality
▫ Quantity
▫ Timeliness
▫ Cost effectiveness
▫ Need for supervision
▫ Interpersonal impact
• Comparing actual performance with desired performance
• Providing feedback
• Taking corrective action
3
05-09-2020
Who Performs the Appraisal?
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Immediate Supervisor
Higher Management
Self-Appraisals
Peers (Co-Workers)
Evaluation Teams
Customers
“360° Appraisals”(MSMR)
▫ a process whereby a target
manager is rated on various
behavioural dimensions or
competencies by one or more
bosses, peers, subordinates and
– sometimes – customers.
Assessment of Performance
• Both ability and willingness to work will be considered
(for all eight dimensions of job performance)
• Both cognitive and personality factors are
considered(for task and contextual performance)
• Objective vs Subjective PA Methods
1. Objective PA methods
 Measures of Productivity
 No. of units produced
 No. of errors made
 Scrap material produced
Prone to
criterion contamination &
criterion deficiency
 Personnel Data




Lateness
Tardiness
Absence etc.
theft
(Employee and Worker)
4
05-09-2020
• Conceptual Criterion (theoretical)
• Actual Criteria (empirical measures)
5
05-09-2020
HS485
Psychology at Workplace
Module-2
Lecture-8
Performance Appraisal-II
Understanding Job
Performance
From previous lecture
1. Objective vs Subjective PA Methods
▫
Objective PA methods
 Measures of Productivity
 No. of units produced
 No. of errors made
 Scrap material produced
Prone to
criterion contamination &
criterion deficiency
 Personnel Data




Lateness
Tardiness
Absence etc.
theft
1
05-09-2020
2. Judgmental/subjective PA Methods
• Specific technique will depend on the type of work
being evaluated…assembly line or sale
• Written Narrative
▫ Difficult to decode expressions
 “Quick Thinking”……..(offers excuses for errors instantly)
 Tactful in dealing with Superior……(knows when to keep
quiet)
• Rating Techniques
▫ Evaluator indicate how or to what extent an employee
possesses each relevant job characteristic
▫ On the basis of personal observation of the employee
▫ 1-Poor……2-………3-Average……4-……….5-excellent
2
05-09-2020
2. Judgmental/subjective PA Methods
• Ratings Scales
formats
▫ Check Lists by Key
Words
▫ Graphic Rating scale
▫ Forced choice format
2. Judgmental/subjective PA Methods
• Ranking techniques
▫ Not a direct method of measuring job performance
▫ Evaluator list/rank the employees in order from highest to
lowest or best to worst on specific characteristics and
abilities
▫ Each employee is compared with each other unlike rating
method where each employee is compared with his/her
past performance or company standards
▫ Simplicity is the only merit
▫ difficult when number of employee is large
• Paired-Comparison method
• Forced-distribution technique
▫ Pre-determined distribution
 Superior -10%, above average-20% average-40%, below
average-20. poor-10%
3
05-09-2020
2. Judgmental/subjective PA Methods
• BARS- Behaviorally
Anchored Rating scales
▫ Evaluation of job
performance in terms of
actual specific behaviours
that are important for success
or failure on the job rather
than in terms of general
attitudes or factors.
▫ Developed through critical
incident technique
▫ Supervisor note those
behaviour necessary for
effective job performance and
these are used as standards
Management by Objectives(MBO)
• Objectives of MBO
▫ stresses goals rather than methods
• Rather than focusing of abilities (as in rating) or Behaviours
(as in BARS), MBO focuses on results-on how well
employees accomplish specified goals.
• A PA technique that involve a mutual agreement between
employee and manager/ on goals to be achieved in a given
period
• use these goals as guides for operating the unit and
assessing the contribution of each of its members.
• Involve employees in their own evaluations in addition to
others
4
05-09-2020
MBO PRINCIPLES
1.Cascading of organizational goals and
objectives
2.Specific objectives for each team member
3.Participative decision making
4.Explicit time period
5.Performance evaluation & feedback
MBO; FRAMEWORK CONCEPT
Supervisor
Jointly plan
and
• Setting
objectives
• Setting
standards
• Choosing
actions
Individually act
• Performing tasks
(subordinate)
• Providing
support
(supervisor)
Jointly control
• Reviewing
results
• Discussing
implications
• Renewing MBO
cycle
Subordinate
5
05-09-2020
STEPS FOR MBO
STEP 1: SET GOALS
STEP 2: DEVELOP PLANS
•Corporate Strategic goals
•Departmental goals
Action Plans
•Individual goals
Review Progress
&
Take Corrective Action
Appraise
Performance
STEP 3: REVIEW PROGRESS
STEP 4: APPRAISE
OVERALL PERFORMANCE
DISADVANTAGES OF MBO
• May demotivate staff if targets are too high and
unrealistic, also if imposed rather than agreed
• Requires the cooperation of all employees to succeed
• Can be bureaucratic and time consuming (meetings,
feedback)
• Can encourage short-term rather a more focused longterm growth
• Objectives may go out of date and can restrict staff
initiative and creativity
• Setting targets for certain specialised employees may be
difficult
6
05-09-2020
Biases in performance Appraisal
• The halo/horn effect
▫ Tendency to judge all aspects of a person’s behaviour or character
on the basis of a single attribute
 attractive people are much more likely to be rated as trustworthy.
 “He is not formally dressed up in the office. He may be casual at work too!”.
• The most-recent performance error(the recency effect)
▫ focus on the most recent time period instead of the total time period.
▫ Because it’s easier to remember things that happened recently
• Primacy effect
▫ focus on information learned early on in the relationship, like first
impressions.
• Inadequate information error
• Average rating or leniency error
▫ The tendency to rate most items in the middle of a rating scale.
Biases in performance Appraisal
• Interpersonal affect(attraction)
▫ Tone of relationship between employee and manager
▫ The inclination to give a higher rating to people with similar interests, skills and
backgrounds as the person doing the rating.
• Attribution
▫ Beliefs about why an employee behaves in a particular way can affect the rater’s
evaluation
• Systematic bias: Easy graders vs hard graders
7
05-09-2020
HS485
Psychology at Workplace
Lecture-9
Module-2
Counterproductive Work
Behaviours/Deviant work
Behaviour
Understanding Job
Performance
Counterproductive Work Behaviours
• At least 30% of all businesses are believed to fail due to
counterproductive work behaviours.
• Up to 89% of employees have engaged in
counterproductive at work at some point of time.
• 35% and 75% of employees have admitted to stealing from
their employer
Counterproductive work behaviour is any intentional
unacceptable behaviour that has the potential to have
negative consequences to an organization and the staff
members within that organization. These behaviours
include acts such as theft, calling in sick when you’re not
sick, fraud, sexual harassment, violence, drug and alcohol
use, and inappropriate use of the internet.
1
05-09-2020
3
Constraints on Performance
• Counterproductive employee behaviors
▫ Voluntary behavior violating significant
organizational norms & threatening
organization, its members, or both
▫ Organizational deviance
▫ Interpersonal deviance
2
05-09-2020
Deviant behaviours
• 11-dimension typology of CWB (Gruys & Sackets, 2003)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
theft of property
destruction of property
misuse of information
misuse of time and resources
unsafe behavior
poor attendance
poor quality of work
alcohol use
drug use
inappropriate verbal action
inappropriate physical action
• A five dimension typology of CWB (Spector et al. 2006)
•
•
•
•
•
abuse against others
production deviance
sabotage
theft
Withdrawal
3
05-09-2020
7
Hierarchical Model of Deviance
(Sackett & DeVore)
Figure 4.5
Hierarchical Model of Deviance
Source: Based on Sackett & Devore (2001).
Counterproductive Work Behaviours
• Counters to the organization’s goal
• Using the term deviance (behavior that violates accepted
norms), Robinson and Bennett created a four-class
typology of CWBs, dividing them into the following
dimensions
• Production deviance: behaviors like leaving early,
intentionally working slowly, or taking long breaks;
• property deviance: sabotage of equipment, theft of
property, and taking kickbacks;
• political deviance: showing favoritism, revenge,
gossiping, or blaming others;
• personal aggression: harassment, verbal abuse, and
endangerment
4
05-09-2020
Correlates of Counter productive Behaviour
• Personality traits
▫ such as low conscientiousness, low emotional stability
and low agreeableness, -Low levels of self control.
▫ The Dark Triad, three antisocial personality traits:
narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy
• Narcissism is characterized by grandiosity, pride, egotism,
and a lack of empathy.
• Machiavellianism is characterized by manipulation and
exploitation of others, an absence of morality, unemotional
callousness, and a higher level of self interest.
• Psychopathy is characterized by continuous antisocial
behavior, impulsivity, selfishness, callous and unemotional
traits (CU)and remorselessness
5
05-09-2020
Causes of Counter productive Behaviour
•
•
•
•
Interpersonal conflict
The use of discontinuous incentives
Outcome based-performance evaluations
Problem with Performance appraisal
▫ Using only the supervisor’s perspective for
performance evaluations
• Breach of psychological contract
• Organizational justice
▫ Unfair reward allocation
WHAT CAN WE DO ABOUT THESE CWBS
• For Individual Characteristics
▫ Prevention in better than Cure
 Use of unstructured interviews(and integrity test) in
the selection process alongside structured interviews
to identify employees who would be likely to engage in
counterproductive work behaviours. (Prevention in
better than Cure)
 Specialized Training Programmes
• For Organizational Characteristics
▫ Using 360° feedback to reduce the information
asymmetry between the employee and the employer.
▫ Using behaviour-based and outcome-based incentive
schemes.
▫ Enhance Perceived organizational justice
6
05-09-2020
WHAT CAN WE DO ABOUT THESE CWBS
• For Organizational Characteristics
▫ Maintaining communications and feedback
▫ Allowing participation of employees
▫ Organizations must also pay close attention to
employees for signs and sources of interpersonal
conflicts so that they can be identified and tended to
as necessary.
▫ Clear Psychological Contract
WHAT CAN WE DO ABOUT THESE CWBS
• For Organizational Characteristics
▫ Maintaining communications and feedback
▫ Allowing participation of employees
▫ Organizations must also pay close attention to
employees for signs and sources of interpersonal
conflicts so that they can be identified and tended to
as necessary.
▫ Clear Psychological Contract
7
12-09-2020
HS485
Psychology at Workplace
Module-2
Understanding Job
Performance
Active
Participation
Assignment-I
Active Participation Assignment-1
1. Self assessment for eight great competencies
required for effective job-performance (as an
employee/entrepreneur/businessperson)
2. Identification of the areas you are weak in (low and
medium category)
3. What do you think you should and can do for the
required improvement (Plan and strategies)
One page write-up (600-700 words) on this whole
exercise; It must include;
1. A Score sheet (scores on all competencies), highlight
the areas you got a low or medium grade in.
2. Your plan and strategies to improve these
competencies
1
12-09-2020
The Great Eight Competencies
Competencies
Scores assigned in Sub-domains
1
2
3
5
4
6
7
8
9
10
Total
Standing
Leading and
deciding
Support and
cooperating
Interacting and
presenting
Analyzing and
interpreting
Creating and
conceptualizing
Organizing and
executing
Adaptive and
coping
Enterprising and
performing
1. Leading and deciding
Sr.no
I perceive myself as having the
competence for…………….
Apply to me
very much,
or most of
the time
Apply to me to a
considerable
degree, or a good
part of time
CanApply to me to
not say some degree,
or some of the
time
Do not
apply
to me
at all
1
Providing direction & coordinating
action
5
4
3
2
1
2
Supervising & monitoring behavior
5
4
3
2
1
3
Coaching & delegating
5
4
3
2
1
4
Empowering & motivating others
5
4
3
2
1
5
Identifying & recruiting talent
5
4
3
2
1
6
Making decisions
5
4
3
2
1
7
Taking responsibility
5
4
3
2
1
8
Acting with confidence
5
4
3
2
1
9
Acting on own initiative
5
4
3
2
1
10
Taking calculated risks
5
4
3
2
1
2
12-09-2020
2. Support and cooperating
Sr.no
I perceive myself as having the
competence for…………….
Apply to me
very much, or
most of the
time
Apply to me to a
considerable
degree, or a good
part of time
CanApply to me to
not say some degree,
or some of the
time
Do not
apply
to me
at all
1
Working with people
5
4
3
2
1
2
Understanding others
5
4
3
2
1
3
Adapting to the team
5
4
3
2
1
4
Listening
5
4
3
2
1
5
Consulting others
5
4
3
2
1
6
Communicating proactively
5
4
3
2
1
7
Showing empathy
5
4
3
2
1
8
Showing social and environmental
responsibility
Upholding ethics and values
5
4
3
2
1
9
5
4
3
2
1
10
Acting with integrity
5
4
3
2
1
Sr.no
I perceive myself as having the
competence for…………….
Apply to me
very much,
or most of
the time
Apply to me to a
considerable
degree, or a good
part of time
Cannot say
Apply to me to
some degree,
or some of the
time
Do not
apply
to me
at all
1
Relating and networking
5
4
3
2
1
2
Building rapport
5
4
3
2
1
3
Managing conflict
5
4
3
2
1
4
Using humor
5
4
3
2
1
5
Shaping conversations
5
4
3
2
1
6
Responding to an audience
5
4
3
2
1
7
Promoting ideas
5
4
3
2
1
8
Negotiating and gaining agreement
5
4
3
2
1
9
Presenting and public speaking
5
4
3
2
1
10
Explaining concepts and opinions
5
4
3
2
1
3. Interacting and presenting
3
12-09-2020
4. Analyzing and interpreting
Sr.no
I perceive myself as having the
competence for…………….
Apply to
me very
much, or
most of the
time
Apply to me to
a considerable
degree, or a
good part of
time
CanApply to me to
not say some degree,
or some of the
time
Do not
apply
to me
at all
1
Writing in an expressive and engaging
style
5
4
3
2
1
2
Analyzing and evaluating information
5
4
3
2
1
3
Producing solutions
5
4
3
2
1
4
Making judgments
5
4
3
2
1
5
Demonstrating critical thinking
5
4
3
2
1
6
Building and sharing technical expertise
5
4
3
2
1
5. Creating and conceptualizing
Sr.no
I perceive myself as having the
competence for…………….
Apply to me
very much,
or most of
the time
Apply to me to a
considerable
degree, or a good
part of time
CanApply to me to
not say some degree,
or some of the
time
Do not
apply
to me
at all
1
Learning quickly,
5
4
3
2
1
2
Gathering information,
5
4
3
2
1
3
Thinking quickly and broadly
5
4
3
2
1
4
Encouraging and supporting
organizational learning
Innovating as well as seeking and
introducing change
Setting and developing strategy and
visioning
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
5
6
4
12-09-2020
6. Organizing and executing
Sr.no
I perceive myself as having the
competence for…………….
Apply to
me very
much, or
most of the
time
Apply to me to
a considerable
degree, or a
good part of
time
CanApply to me to
not say some degree,
or some of the
time
Do not
apply
to me
at all
1
setting objectives managing resources,
5
4
3
2
1
2
Planning and managing time & resources
5
4
3
2
1
3
monitoring progress
5
4
3
2
1
4
working systematically
5
4
3
2
1
5
maintaining quality processes
5
4
3
2
1
6
following directions and procedures
5
4
3
2
1
7
demonstrating commitment
5
4
3
2
1
8
showing awareness of safety issues
5
4
3
2
1
9
complying with legal obligations
5
4
3
2
1
7. Adaptive and coping
Sr.no
I perceive myself as having the
competence for…………….
Apply to me
very much,
or most of
the time
Apply to me to a
considerable
degree, or a good
part of time
CanApply to me to
not say some degree,
or some of the
time
Do not
apply
to me
at all
1
Adapting and responding to change
5
4
3
2
1
2
Accepting new ideas
5
4
3
2
1
3
Adapting interpersonal style
5
4
3
2
1
4
Showing cross-cultural awareness
5
4
3
2
1
5
Dealing with ambiguity
5
4
3
2
1
6
Coping with pressure
5
4
3
2
1
7
Showing emotional self-control
5
4
3
2
1
8
Balancing work and personal life
5
4
3
2
1
9
Maintaining a positive outlook
5
4
3
2
1
10
Handling criticism
5
4
3
2
1
5
12-09-2020
8. Enterprising and performing
Sr.no
I perceive myself as having the
competence for…………….
1
achieving objectives
Apply to me
very much,
or most of
the time
5
Apply to me to a
considerable
degree, or a good
part of time
4
CanApply to me to
not say some degree,
or some of the
time
3
2
Do not
apply
to me
at all
1
2
pursuing self-development
5
4
3
2
1
3
identifying business opportunities,
5
4
3
2
1
4
demonstrating financial awareness,
5
4
3
2
1
5
controlling costs
5
4
3
2
1
6
demonstrating ambition
5
4
3
2
1
7
working energetically and
enthusiastically
5
4
3
2
1
Scores on eight competencies and their interpretation
1. Leading and deciding
2. Support and cooperating
4. Analyzing and interpreting 6. Organizing and
executing
5. Creating & conceptualizing
7. Adaptive &
coping
8. Enterprising and
performing
3. Interacting and presenting
Scores
Category
Scores
Category
S
C
S
C
S
C
<20
Low
<12
Low
<18
L
<20
L
<14
L
21-40
Medium
13-23
Medium
19-36
M
21-40
M
15-28
M
>40
High
>24
High
>36
H
>40
H
<28
H
6
12-09-2020
HS485
Psychology at Workplace
Lecture-10
Module-3
Work Motivation
Work Motivation
14
Work Motivation…………RECAP<<<<<<<
7
12-09-2020
Motivation
• An answer to ‘why do we behave as we do”
• That energize/initiate, direct and maintain the behaviour
• The processes that account for an individual’s intensity,
direction, and persistence of effort toward achieving a goal
• Intensity
• Direction
• Persistence
• …………….toward a goal.
▫ A goal may be the satisfaction of a need
▫ A need is the difference between a desired state and the actual
state.
▫ A need may be Deficient need or Growth need
Hedonic motivation
• Individuals tend to initiate actions with the intent to
increase positive experience and decrease negative
experience.
▫ This aspect of hedonic motivation has been scrutinized
in Gray’s theory of personality (Gray 1981).
▫ Gray proposed that human behavior is guided by two
systems: behavioral inhibition system that is sensitive
to punishment and behavioral activation system
sensitive to reward.
▫ Effectiveness of these two systems leads healthy
individuals towards maximizing rewarding experience
and minimizing painful experience.
8
12-09-2020
Drive-reduction theory
Arousal: The need for stimulation
9
12-09-2020
HS485
Psychology at Workplace
Lecture-11
Module-3
Work Motivation
Work Motivation
Recap….. Motivation
• Why we behave as we do
▫ Hedonic Motivation vs Eudaimonic motivation
▫ Drive reduction theory
▫ Need for Stimulation
1
12-09-2020
Metaphors for Motivation
• Person is a machine
▫ Behaviour is reflexive, involuntary, without conscious awareness,
controlled by activating stimuli, pushed by internal needs
• Person as a Superhuman
▫ Behaviour is intentional and perfectly rational, voluntary, aware
▫ Choices are compared regarding their possible outcome
• Person as a scientist
▫ Active information gatherer and analyst, wants to master
environment, want to predict his/her environment, want to know.
• Person as a judge
▫ Seeks information about the extent to which the self and others are
perceived as responsible for positive and negative events.
▫ Look for evidence of intention in the behaviour of others and
respond accordingly….. Attribution
When do you feel motivated to do something.
• competence (the belief that they’re capable of doing
something),
• autonomy/control (the ability to set appropriate
goals and see a correlation between effort and
outcome),
• interest/value (a vested interest in the task and a
feeling that its value is worth the effort to complete
it),
• and relatedness (the need to feel part of a group or
social context and exhibit behavior appropriate to
that group) (Murray, 2011; Pintrich, 2003; Ryan &
Deci, 2000).
2
12-09-2020
Theories of Motivation
• Content Theories
What are the specific needs that motivate and direct human behaviours
▫ Maslow’s need hierarchy
▫ Alderfer’s ERG theory
▫ McClelland’s need theory
▫ Herzberg’s two-factor theory
▫ ……………
• Process Theories
Deal with the cognitive process we use in making decisions and choices
about our work
▫ Expectancy theory
▫ Equity theory
▫ Goal-setting theory
▫ ……………
Content Theories of Motivation
Maslow’s
Need Hierarchy
SelfActualization
Alderfer’s
ERG Theory
Growth
Herzberg’s
Theory
Motivators
Esteem
Belongingness
McClelland’s
Learned Needs
Need for
Achievement
Need for
Power
Need for
Affiliation
Relatedness
Hygienes
Safety
Existence
Physiological
3
12-09-2020
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
SelfActualization
Esteem Needs
Social and
Belongingness Needs
Safety Needs
Physiological Needs
Hierarchy of Needs
•food
•water
•air
•sleep
Physiological Needs
4
12-09-2020
Safety Needs
• from physical attack
• from emotional attack
• from fatal disease
• from invasion
• from extreme losses
(job, family members,
home, friends)
Safety Needs
Physiological Needs
Love and Belonging
(social/emotional)
• Inclusion - part of a group:
colleagues, peers, family, clubs
• Affection - love and be loved
• Control - influence over others
and self
Love & Belonging
Needs
5
12-09-2020
Esteem Needs
• respect from others
through
▫ Awards
▫ Honors
▫ status
Esteem
Needs
• respect for self
through
▫ Mastery
▫ Achievement
▫ competence
Love & Belonging
Needs
Safety Needs
Physiological Needs
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
NEED
FOR
SELF-
ACTUALIZATION
MASLOW EMPHASIZES NEED
FOR SELF
ACTUALIZATION IS
A HEALTHY INDIVIDUAL’S
PRIME
MOTIVATION
6
12-09-2020
SELF-ACTUALIZATION MEANS
ACTUALIZING
ONE’S POTENTIAL…
BECOMING ALL, WHAT ONE IS
CAPABLE OF BECOMING
Maslow’s Definition of a
Self-actualized Person
•
•
•
•
Has no mental illness
Satisfied in basic needs
Fully exploited talents
Motivated by values
7
12-09-2020
Some Characteristics of Self-actualizing persons
• Superior perception of reality
• Increased acceptance of self, of others, and of
nature
• Increased spontaneity
• Increased detachment and desire for privacy
• Increased autonomy and resistance to conformity
• Higher frequency of peak experiences
• Increased identification with the human species
• Improved interpersonal experiences
• More democratic character structure
• High levels of creativity
8
12-09-2020
HS485
Psychology at Workplace
Lecture-12
Module-3
Work Motivation
Work Motivation
Theories of Motivation
• Content Theories
What are the specific needs that motivate and direct human behaviours
▫ Maslow’s need hierarchy
▫ Alderfer’s ERG theory
▫ McClelland’s need theory
▫ Herzberg’s two-factor theory
▫ ……………
• Process Theories
Deal with the cognitive process we use in making decisions and choices
about our work
▫ Expectancy theory
▫ Equity theory
▫ Goal-setting theory
▫ Reinforcement Theory
▫ ……………
1
12-09-2020
Expectancy Theory
• Combines goal setting and reinforcement theories
• Three questions drive motivation
▫ With effort can I perform?
▫ With performance, will I be rewarded?
▫ Do I value the rewards?
• 3 Causes of Motivational Problems
▫ Belief that effort will not result in performance
▫ Belief that performance will not result in rewards
▫ The value a person places on, or the preference a
person has for, certain rewards
2
12-09-2020
Terms
• Expectancy-belief that effort will lead to
performance
• Instrumentality-performance leads to rewards
(does performance level matter)
• Valence-value of rewards
Expectancy Theory of Motivation
E-to-P
Expectancy
P-to-O
Expectancy
Outcomes
& Valences
Outcome 1
+ or -
Effort
Performance
Outcome 2
+ or -
Outcome 3
+ or -
3
12-09-2020
Expectancy Theory in Practice
• Increasing the E-to-P expectancy
▫ training, selection, resources, clarify roles, provide
coaching and feedback
• Increasing the P-to-O expectancy
▫ Measure performance accurately, explain how
rewards are based on past performance
• Increasing outcome valences
▫ Use valued rewards, individualize rewards,
minimize countervalent outcomes
Work and Motivation
• No strategies to improve its functioning can work
if employees are not motivated to do their best
• Motivation
▫
▫
Factors in workplace
Personal characteristics
• How to motivate employees to work more
productively, to increase their feelings of
satisfaction, involvement and commitment
4
12-09-2020
Theory X and Theory Y
• Social psychologist Douglas McGregor of MIT
expounded two contrasting theories in the 1960s
• Theories are about human motivation and
management
• McGregor personally promoted Theory Y more than
Theory X
Theory X and Theory Y
Theory X
Motivation
Management
Style and
Control
Work
Organization
Theory Y
• Assumes people
dislike work
• Authoritarian
• Centralized control
• Assumes people are
self-motivated
• Participative,
employees can join in
decision making
• Managers retain the
power to implement
decisions
• Specialized and often
repetitive work
• Wider areas of skill
or knowledge
• Employees can
develop their
expertise and make
suggestions
5
12-09-2020
‘Theory X’
‘Theory Y’
Management
Staff
Theory X - authoritarian,
repressive style, tight control,
no development, produces
limited, depressed culture
staff
Theory Y - liberating and
developmental, control, achievement
and continuous improvement
achieved by enabling, empowering
and giving responsibility
management
Theory X
Theory X assumes that the average person:
•
dislikes work and attempts to avoid it
•
has no ambition
•
wants no responsibility
•
would rather follow than lead
•
is self centered and therefore does not care
about organizational goals
•
resists change
•
is gullible and not particularly intelligent
•
works only for money and security
6
12-09-2020
Theory Y
• The higher level needs of self esteem and selfactualization are continuing needs in that they
are never completely satisfied.
• It is the higher level needs through which
employees can be motivated.
Theory Y
Makes the following general assumptions:
• Work can be as natural as play and rest.
• People will be self directed to meet their work
objectives if they are committed to them.
• People will be committed to their objectives if
rewards are in place that address higher needs
such as self fulfillment.
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12-09-2020
Theory Y
• People will seek responsibility.
• Most people can handle responsibility because
creativity and ingenuity are common in the
population.
Theory Y Implications
the firm can do many things to harness the
motivational energy of the employees:
• Decentralization and delegation
▫ If firms decentralize control and reduce the number
of levels of management, each manager will have
more subordinates and consequently will be forced
to delegate some responsibility and decision making
to them.
• Job enrichment
▫ Broadening the scope of an employee's job adds
variety and opportunities to satisfy ego needs.
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12-09-2020
Theory Y Implications
• Participative management
▫ Consulting employees in the decision making
process taps their creative capacity and provides
them with some control over their work
environment.
• Performance appraisals
▫ Having the employee set objectives and participate
in the process of evaluating how well they were
met.
Theory Z (Willian Ouchi, 1981)
9
18-09-2020
HS485
Psychology at Workplace
Lecture-13
Module-3
Work Motivation
Work Motivation
RECAP<<<<<<<<<<<
1
18-09-2020
How to motivate employees? An Eternal question
• The psychology of motivation is tremendously complex
• Organizational Psychologists have been exploring for the simplest,
surest, and most direct way of getting someone to do something
▫ Ask?
 But if the person responds that he or she does not want to do it, then that
calls for psychological consultation to determine the reason for such
stubbornness.
▫ Tell the person?
 If he response shows that he or she does not understand you, and now an
expert in communication methods has to be brought in to show you how to
get through.
▫ Give the person a monetary incentive?
 Complexity and difficulty involved in setting up and administering an
incentive system.
▫ Show the person?
 This means a costly training program.
How to motivate employees? An Eternal question
• Direct action…………..“Kick the person!
▫ In its literal meaning….as was done in the past
▫ In psychological sense….
▫ does not lead to motivation, but to movement
 I can charge a person’s battery, and then re-charge it, and
recharge it again. But it is only when one has a generator
of one’s own, we can talk about motivation.
 One then needs no outside stimulation.
 One wants to do it.
2
18-09-2020
Some positive personnel practices that were developed as attempts to
instil “motivation”……….but could not do the job
• Reducing Time Spent at Work
▫ 5 days a week
▫ off-hour recreation programs
▫ But the fact is that motivated people seek more hours of work, not
fewer (Herzberg, 1987)
• Spiralling Wages
▫ if rising wages don’t or won’t do the job, reducing them will.
• Fringe Benefits
▫ These benefits are no longer rewards; they are rights. A 6-day
week is inhuman, a 10-hour day is exploitation
▫ Unless these are continuously raised, the psychological reaction of
employees is that the company is turning back the clock.
Some positive personnel practices that were developed as attempts to
instil “motivation”………. but could not do the job
• Human Relations Training
• Sensitivity Training
▫ After no desired satisfaction personnel managers concluded that
the fault lay not in what they were doing, but in the employee’s
failure to appreciate what they were doing. So they started
working on communications
• Communication and two-way communication
• Job Participation
• Employee Counselling
None of these initiatives could result in
desired outcome
3
18-09-2020
Herzberg's Hygiene vs. Motivators factors theory
• Herzberg presented a model that divides motivational forces into satisfiers
(“motivators”) and dissatisfiers (“hygiene factors”)
• the factors involved in producing job satisfaction (and motivation)
are separate and distinct from the factors that lead to job
dissatisfaction.
• The opposite of job satisfaction is not job dissatisfaction but, rather,
no job satisfaction; and similarly, the opposite of job dissatisfaction
is not job satisfaction, but no job dissatisfaction.
• we normally think of satisfaction and dissatisfaction as opposites;
i.e., what is not satisfying must be dissatisfying, and vice versa. But
when it comes to understanding the behaviour of people in their jobs,
more than a play on words is involved.
Herzberg's Hygiene vs. Motivators factors theory
• Motivators and hygiene factors relate to employee satisfaction – a
more complex relationship than the traditional view that employees
are either satisfied or dissatisfied
▫ If hygiene factors are not taken care of or are deficient there will
be dissatisfaction
▫ There may be no dissatisfaction if hygiene factors are taken care of
– there may be no satisfaction also
▫ Only when motivators are present there will be satisfaction
• The theory was first drawn from an examination of events in the lives
of engineers and accountants. At least 16 other investigations, using
a wide variety of populations have since been completed.
• 1685 employees were asked to indicate which job event led to
extreme satisfaction and which event led to extreme dissatisfaction
4
18-09-2020
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
5
18-09-2020
The Two-Factor Theory of Motivation
• Hygiene factors help to prevent dissatisfaction –
thus the term hygiene as it is used in the health
field
◼ Only motivators lead to satisfaction
◼ Efforts to motivate human resources must provide:
◼
◼
◼
◼
Recognition
A chance to achieve and grow
Advancement
Interesting work
Views of Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction
Traditional View
Dissatisfaction
Satisfaction
Two-Factor View
Absent
(Hygiene Factors)
(Dissatisfaction)
Absent
(No Satisfaction)
Present
(No Dissatisfaction)
(Motivators)
Present
(Satisfaction)
n
6
18-09-2020
HS485
Psychology at Workplace
Module-3
Work Motivation
Lecture-14
Job Characteristics
Model
Motivators associated with workplace
• Among others, Job characteristics also
determine our motivation level
• Job redesign is one way to increase
motivation level
▫ Scientific management
▫ Job enlargement/job rotation
▫ Job enrichment
 Job characteristics Model
1
18-09-2020
Motivational Factors associated with
workplace………..Job Characteristics Model
• Job design has an effect on motivation, work performance,
and job satisfaction.
• The job characteristics model emphasizes the role of certain
aspects or characteristics of jobs in influencing work
motivation (Hackman & Oldham, 1976, 1980).
• Employees must experience three important psychological
states to be motivated:
▫ Workers must perceive their work as meaningful,
▫ Associate a sense of responsibility with the job, and
▫ Have some knowledge of the results of their efforts
• Five core job characteristics contribute to a worker’s
experience of the three psychological states:
Five core Job characteristics
Skill variety—
▫
▫
▫
▫
the degree to which a job requires the worker to use a variety of
abilities and skills to perform work-related tasks.
A job that demands a range of skills is likely to be perceived as
challenging and meaningful.
whether the job is monotonous and repetitive or if it asks the
worker to do a number of different tasks or actions.
Examples
• High variety
• The owner-operator of a garage who does electrical repair, rebuilds engines,
does body work, and interacts with customers.
• Low variety
• A body-shop worker who sprays paint eight hours a day
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18-09-2020
Five core Job characteristics
Task identity—
▫
▫
▫
“degree to which the job requires completion of a whole,
identifiable piece of work; that is, doing a job from beginning to
end with visible outcome”.
being able to work on an entire work process, rather than just on
bits and pieces of it
Workers tend to find more meaning in their jobs when they can
identify a complete and visible outcome at the end of the day, or
of a work cycle.
• Examples
• High identity
• A cabinetmaker who designs a pieces of furniture, selects the wood, builds the
object, and finishes it to perfection
• Low identity
• A worker in a furniture factory who operates a lathe to make table legs
Five core Job characteristics
Task significance—
• degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives of other people,
whether those people are in the immediate organization or in the world at large”.
The task – and the job – is significant if it can affect other people’s lives. And it
should not just be the people within the organization, but even those outside.
• For many, a job holds more meaning if it can help improve the well-being of other
people (not just himself), whether physically, psychologically, or emotionally.
Knowing that their job, and their performance thereof, has the capacity to have a
positive impact on others will motivate them further to do better.
• Individuals who put great stock on task significance are very keen on finding out
whether the job that they are doing actually matters to other people. For them,
meaning comes in the form of recognition by other people.
• Examples
• High significance
• Nursing the sick in a hospital intensive care unit
• Low significance
• Sweeping hospital floors
3
18-09-2020
Five core Job characteristics
Autonomy—
▫ degree to which the job provides substantial freedom, independence, and
discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the
procedure to be used in carrying it out
▫ often seen in, but not limited to, the positions with managerial, supervisorial and
ministerial functions.
▫ Making workers just to follow the instructions of a supervisor, or adhere strictly
to what a job procedures manual provides will not help them feel responsible for
their actions at all.
• Examples
• High autonomy
• A telephone installer who schedules his or her own work for the day, and
decides on the best techniques for a particular installation
• Low autonomy
• A telephone operator who must handle calls as they come according to a
routine, highly specified procedure
Five core Job characteristics
Feedback—
•
•
degree to which carrying out the work activities required by the job
provides the individual with direct and clear information about the
effectiveness of his or her performance
As much as possible, workers would like to be kept in the loop on their
performance of the job. Not only will this keep them apprised of their
progress as workers, it is also one way for them to boost their self-esteem.
If they are told by their supervisors or managers that they are going a
good job, they are likely to feel motivated to continue with how they are
doing so far. In contrast, if they are told that they are not performing as
expected, then they will respond accordingly and improve their
performance.
• High feedback
• An electronics factory worker who assembles a radio and then tests it to determine if it
•
operates properly
Low feedback
• An electronics factory worker who assembles a radio and then routes it to a quality control
inspector who tests and adjusts it
4
18-09-2020
5
18-09-2020
The Job Characteristics Model
• This model and some other have led to the
development and refinement of a strategy used to
motivate workers through job redesign.
• This intervention strategy is called Job Enrichment,
and it involves redesigning jobs to give workers
greater responsibility in the planning, execution,
and evaluation of their work.
•
6
18-09-2020
HS485
Psychology at Workplace
Module-3
Work Motivation
Lecture-15
Cognitive bases of
motivation
Cognitions
Mental
Representations:
Input:
(Sensation)
Goals, Expectations,
Cognitive Maps
Output:
(Behaviour)
Processes
Cognitive
Psychology
is concerned with
what goes on in
here.
What happens inside the “box” to
produce the observed behavior?
1
18-09-2020
Cognitive bases
• The behavior is affected by cognition rather than the
consequences of one’s actions (Stipek, 1996).
▫ Not only cognition but metacognition also
 Metacognitive knowledge and meta cognitive regulation
 MCK includes knowledge about oneself as a learner and
about the factors that might impact performance
(declarative), knowledge about strategies (procedural), and
knowledge about when and why to use strategies
(conditional).
 MCR is the monitoring of one’s cognition and includes
planning activities, monitoring or awareness of
comprehension and task performance, and evaluation of the
efficacy of monitoring processes and strategies.
Cognitive bases
• Broussard and Garrison (2004) observe that contemporary motivation research tends to be
organized around three questions:
▫ Can I do this task?
 self-efficacy, attributions, and self-worth
 Attributions: an individual’s beliefs regarding causes of successful or failing
performance
 ability, task, efforts and luck
▫ Do I want to do this task and why?
 expectancy-value theories, intrinsic motivation theories, and self-determination theory
 attainment value-personal value of doing well on a task;
 intrinsic value-subjective interest or enjoyment of performing a task;
 utility value- whether task completion is perceived to facilitate current or future goals;
and
 Cost- negative aspects of engaging in a given task, such as anxiety and fear of failure
 Reasons
 Mastery goals/performance goals
 Ego involved goals/task involved goals
▫ Will I look smart? or Will I outperform others? VS How can I do this task? and
What will I learn
▫ What do I have to do to succeed in this task?
2
18-09-2020
Maladaptive Thinking
ABC
Many people are A – C people.
• They believe: “You made me angry.”
• They believe the A – your remark or action –
caused the C, their anger.
• Your behavior caused their anger.
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18-09-2020
ABC
REBT argues, no, their Beliefs…between the A and
the B -- largely determine how they feel.
A (Activating) – He yelled at me.
B (Beliefs) – I can’t believe he dared to yell at
me That’s totally unprofessional. He should
never have acted that way. I can’t stand it. I
want a drink (and I have to have what I want
when I want it). I can get a way with it. It won’t
matter. He must be frustrated. He is like this
only, he shouts at everyone. He just lost his
position
C (Consequences) – Anger, drinking, indifferent
etc.
4
18-09-2020
Irrational Beliefs and Emotional
Disturbance (Ellis, 1984)
• “I absolutely must perform important tasks well
and be approved by significant others or else I am
an inadequate, pretty worthless person”
▫ RESULT: Severe feelings of anxiety, depression, and
demoralization often leading to severe inhibition.
5
18-09-2020
Irrational Beliefs and Emotional
Disturbance (Ellis, 1984)
• “Other people, especially my friends and
relatives, truly must treat me kindly and fairly,
or else they are rotten, damnable people”
▫ RESULT: Severe feelings of anger, rage, fury, often
leading to fights, child abuse, assault, rape, murder and
genocide.
Irrational Beliefs and Emotional
Disturbance (Ellis, 1984)
“The condition under which I live absolutely must
be comfortable, hassle-free and enjoyable, or else
it’s awful, I can’t stand it, and my life is hardly
worth living!”
RESULT: Severe feelings of low frustration tolerance, often
leading to compulsion, addiction, avoidance, inhibition, and
public reaction.
6
18-09-2020
Thinking and Motivation
• Common Distortive Thoughts
▫ Mind reading/Assuming
 He’s thinking that I should not be around him/her.
▫ Personalization
 A student who raises his hand in class and is not called on
by the professor believes that the instructor dislikes or is
biased against him.
▫ Dichotomous thinking
 An "all-or-nothing," "good or bad," and "either-or"
approach to viewing the world
 If I’m not a total success, I’m a failure.
 if I do not get a job after college, then I wasted the past
four years
7
25-09-2020
HS485
Psychology at Workplace
Module-3
Work Motivation
Lecture-16
Cognitive bases of
motivation
Thinking and Motivation
• Common Distortive Thoughts/Cognitive Distortions
(Beck et al. )………habitual ways of thinking that are often
inaccurate and negatively biased and have the potential to cause
psychological damage
▫ Mind reading/Assuming
 He’s thinking that I should not be around him/her.
▫ Personalization
 A student who raises his hand in class and is not called on by the
professor believes that the instructor dislikes or is biased against him.
▫ Dichotomous thinking
 An "all-or-nothing," "good or bad," and "either-or" approach to
viewing the world
 If I’m not a total success, I’m a failure.
 if I do not get a job after college, then I wasted the past four years
1
25-09-2020
Thinking and Motivation
▫ Emotional reasoning
 I know I do a lot of things okay at work, but I still feel like
I’m a failure…and “If I feel that way, it must be true.”
▫ Disqualifying the positive
 I did that project well, but that doesn’t mean I’m
competent; I just got lucky
▫ Catastrophizing
 A runner experiences shortness of breath and interprets it
as a major health problem, possibly even an indication of
imminent death.
▫ Should/Must statements
 it’s terrible that I made a mistake. I should always do my
best
 Everybody should like me otherwise I am worthless
Thinking and Motivation
▫ Always Being Right
 To a person engaging in “always being right,” being wrong is unthinkable —
they will go to any length to demonstrate their rightness.
▫ Selective abstractions
 Mental Filter…..only negative allowed
 a person may pick out a single, unpleasant detail and dwell on it exclusively so
that their vision of reality becomes darkened or distorted.
 A student who receives a C on an exam becomes depressed and stops
attending classes even though he has A's and B's in his other courses.
▫ Overgeneralization
 A man who has relationship problems with her boss may believe he is a failure
in all other types of relationships.
 Global statements
▫ Labeling
 you screwed up in the past, and now you think you are an evil person.
 I’m a loser
2
25-09-2020
PS: Reverse is true in case core-belief is unrealistically positive
3
25-09-2020
Question yourself
4
25-09-2020
5
25-09-2020
HS485
Lecture-17
Psychology at Workplace
Module-3
Work Motivation
A few more
motivational
Interventions
Motivational Interventions
• Each perspective discussed so far should be taken into consideration
• Already covered
 Individual need assessment (Content Theories)
 Expectancies (Process theories)
 Job characteristics
 Hygiene factors and Motivators
 Management By Objectives
• Some more to be discussed
 Contingent Rewards……..Behaviorism
 Self-efficacy…..Social Cognitive theory
 Need for Achievement Motivation……..McClelland et al.
 Equity……..Adams’s
 Goal setting
 Job enrichment
 Quality of work life/Job Satisfaction
1
25-09-2020
Contingent Rewards……..Behaviorism
• Reinforcement and punishment play a central role
in the learning process and provides principles for
behaviour performance management
• Most learning experts agree that reinforcement is
more important than punishment and is the single
most important concept and application principles
• The first theoretical treatment of reinforcement in
learning is by pioneering psychologist Edward
Thorndike’s classical law of effect
Law of effect/ law of behaviour
• “ of several responses made to the same situation,
those which are accompanied or closely followed
by satisfaction (reinforcement) … will be more
likely to recur; those that are closely followed by
discomfort ( punishment)… will be less likely to
recur”
• Desirable and reinforcing , consequences will increase the strength
of the preceding behaviour and increase its probability of
being repeated in future
• Undesirable, or punishing, consequences will decrease the strength
of the preceding behaviour and decrease the probability of
being repeated in the future
2
25-09-2020
Principles of reinforcement
• Contingent reinforcement: consequence has
strongest effect when delivered after desired
behavior occurs
• Immediate reinforcement: consequence has
strongest effect if delivered immediately after
behavior occurs
• Reinforcement size: large consequences have
stronger effects than small ones
• Reinforcement deprivation: longer a person
is deprived of a consequence, the stronger its
effect on behavior
Four approaches
• Positive reinforcement
 Applies a positive event to increase the frequency or strength of
desirable behavior
 Example: praise, recognition, sales commissions
• Punishment
 Applies a negative event to decrease the frequency of undesirable
behavior
 Punishment stops behavior but does not change its direction
• Extinction
 withdraws a positive consequence to decrease frequency of
undesirable behavior
 Disruptive staff member in a meeting.
 Encourage other staff members to not laugh at the disruptive
member’s behavior.
• Negative reinforcement
 Increases frequency of desirable behavior by withdrawing a
negative event.
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25-09-2020
Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy…….how to develop
• Mastery experiences…..successful performances of
challenging tasks
• Vicarious learning……Modeling
• Social Persuasion…..by significant others
• Controlling physiological states….....stress/anxiety
management
4
25-09-2020
Need for Achievement Motivation
……..McClelland et al.
• an individual's desire for significant accomplishment,
mastering of skills, control, or high standards
• associated with a range of actions. These include: "intense,
prolonged and repeated efforts to accomplish something
difficult, to work with singleness of purpose towards a high
and distant goal, to have the determination to win
• Their most satisfying reward is the recognition of their
achievements
• People with a high need for achievement (nAch) seek to excel
and tend to avoid both low-risk and high-risk situations.
Equity Theory
• Focuses on exchange relationships
• Perception of equitable or inequitable exchange
• Balance the ratios of inputs to outcomes in
exchange relationships
 Inputs
 Characteristics and behaviors the person brings to the
exchange relationship
▫ Training, education, age, gender, ethnicity
▫ Level of effort and performance
 Outputs
 What the person gets from the exchange relationship
▫ Positive outcomes: pay, fringe benefits, competent supervision,
friendly coworkers
▫ Negative outcomes: close, controlling supervision; monotonous
job
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25-09-2020
A state of equity
Person
Other
Outcomes
Outcomes
Inputs
Person:
Other:
Equity:
=
Inputs
individual making the comparison
object of comparison
Person’s perception of equal ratios
Inequity: unequal ratios
• Negative inequity: underpayment
• Positive inequity: overpayment
• Responses to inequity
▫ Change inputs
 Reduce/increase effort or quality of work
▫ Change outcomes
 ask for increase in pay or status symbols, such as
larger office
▫ Cognitively distort own inputs and outcomes
▫ Withdrawal
▫ Change reference groups
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Goal setting
• It states that specific and challenging goals along with appropriate
feedback contribute to higher and better task performance.
• In simple words, goals indicate and give direction to an employee
about what needs to be done and how much efforts are required to be
put in.
• Five principles of goal setting
• Clarity
▫ You know what is expected
• Challenge
▫ It will brings a sense of achievement
• Commitment
▫ Agreed goals lead to commitment
• Feedback
▫ progress reports maintain the direction and persistence
• Task complexity
▫ Goals must be attainable
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25-09-2020
HS485
Psychology at Workplace
Module-3
Work Motivation
Lecture-18
Job Redesigning as a
Motivational
Intervention
1
25-09-2020
Job Design
• Job design
▫ An effort to identify what must be performed, how it
will be performed, where and who will perform.
Usually it takes place in case of new job profile in
any organization.
• Job redesign
▫ An effort to reorganize the task, duties, and
responsibilities for making it more satisfactory from
employee as well as organization’s benefit point of
view. It takes place for the existing job profile in any
organization.
▫ to make it more encouraging and inspiring for the
employees or workers
Job Redesigning
• Job Redesigning
▫ Job Simplification
 A particular job is simplified into
various parts and assigned to one
individual for piecemeal execution.
▫ Job rotation
 Process of shifting a person from
job to job
▫ Job enlargement
 Broadening the scope of a job by
expanding the number of different
tasks to be performed
▫ Job enrichment
 Increasing the depth of a job by
adding responsibility for planning,
organizing, controlling, or
evaluating the job
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25-09-2020
Job rotation
• A job rotation is a technique in which employees are moved
between two or more jobs in a planned manner. The objective
is to expose the employees to different experiences and wider
variety of skills to enhance job satisfaction and to cross-train
them.
▫ Benefits
 Avoids monopoly
 Provides an opportunity to broaden one’s knowledge
 Avoiding fraudulent practice
▫ Disadvantages
 Frequent interruption
 Reduces uniformity in quality
Job Enlargement
• It involves adding more tasks to a job or assignment of
varied tasks or duties of the jobs of employees at the same
level.
• Enlargement is done only on the horizontal level i.e. the
jobs remains the same, but of larger scale than before. It
increases the scope of the job.
• This process can reduce monotony and can lead to
increase the wages
▫ Benefits
 Wide Range of Activities
 Improve Earning Capacity:
▫ Disadvantages
 Increases Work Burden, Frustration,
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Job Enrichment
• Job Enrichment is another motivational strategy
that emphasizes motivating the worker through the
job itself.
• Represents an extension of job rotation and job
enlargement
• It adds depth to the job - more control,
responsibility, and discretion to how the job is
performed.
• Caters to the higher order needs to the employee, as
opposed to job enlargement which simply gives
more variety.
Job enrichment
• Job enrichment includes designing jobs that include:
▫ Greater variety of work content
▫ Require a higher level of knowledge and skills
▫ Give workers autonomy and responsibility in terms of
planning, directing, and controlling their own performance
▫ Proving the opportunity for personal growth and meaningful
work experience
• Enrichment vertically loads the job – not necessity
more tasks but more responsibility and accountability
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Quality of work life
• Quality of work life is defined by Lawler (1973) as the
employee perceptions of their physical and mental
well being at work. These perceptions can be
favourable or unfavourable.
•
• The elements that are relevant to an individual’s quality of work life
include:
▫ The task,
▫ The physical work environment,
▫ Social environment within the organization,
▫ Administrative system
▫ Relationship between life on and off the job
▫ opportunities for active involvement in group working arrangements or
problem solving that are of mutual benefit to employees or employers
Quality of work life
• Baba and Jamal (1991) listed what they described as typical
indicators of quality of working life, including:
▫ Job satisfaction(+),
▫ Job involvement(+),
▫ Work role ambiguity(-),
▫ Work role conflict(-),
▫ Work role overload(-),
▫ Job stress(-),
▫ Organizational commitment(+)
• Purpose of QWL programme is to change and improve the
work climate so that the interface of people, technology and
the organization makes for more favorable work experience
and desired outcomes
5
25-09-2020
Motivational Interventions
High performance cycle(Locke and Latham, 1990)
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HS485
Psychology at Workplace
Assignment-02
Emotion Regulation Strategies, Job
Satisfaction and Occupation stress
Primary Variables
• Emotion Regulation
▫ Emotion Regulation refers to the implementation of cognitive or
behavioural strategies for modifying the experience or overt
expression of certain emotions and the circumstances associated
which give rise to a particular emotion.
▫ The strategies identified by Izadpanah et al. (2017) are rumination, reappraisal, acceptance, problem-solving, expressive
suppression, experience suppression, avoidance and social support
(Izadpanah et al., 2017).
 Rumination is defined as repetitive thinking that focuses one's attention on
one's depressive symptoms, and on the implications, causes, and meanings of
these symptoms (Smith & Alloy, 2009).
 Reappraisal involves generating positive interpretations of a stressful
situation to reduce the resulting distress (Aldao & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2010).
 Acceptance is defined as a response focused strategy that allows to
experience emotion without making attempts to suppress or alter it (Wolgast
et al., 2011).
1
02-10-2020
Emotion Regulation
• Emotion Regulation
▫ Problem Solving is a conscious attempt, a specific action that intends to change
a stressful situation that is often regarded as the problem, thereby containing its
consequences.
▫ While Expressive Suppression refers to the modification of behavioural
expression of an emotion (Haga et al., 2009), Experience Suppression is defined
as a direct effort to set aside an emotional response from settling in mind.
▫ Avoidance is the act of looking at past specific event or occurrence to avoid
experiencing any unwanted or unpleasant internal experience.
▫ Social Support refers to the interpersonal connections shared by individuals that
establish a more extensive connection for everybody to participate and share
experiences.
• Job satisfaction:
▫ “. . . a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the
appraisal of one’s job or job experiences”
• Occupational Stress:
▫ a mismatch between the demands & pressures on the person and their
knowledge & abilities. Mismatch can be either way
Format of the report (to be submitted)
1.
2.
3.
4.
Problem/Aim
Introduction/Review of relevant Literature
Objectives & Hypotheses of the study
Method
 Design
 Participants(Within the age range of 25-35 years)
 Tools Used(DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EACH TOOL)
 Precautions
5. Procedure
 Verbatim Instructions given
 Actual carrying out of the study, any special query from the subject
 Introspective report of the subject
6. Results
 Findings and interpretation(in Tables)
7. Discussion
8. References
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02-10-2020
Detailed instructions
Problem/Aim
• Any statement which asks what kind of relationship
exists between two or more variable
• It is a gap between existing and the required
• Aim of the present study
▫ To explore the relationship between Emotion
Regulation Strategies, Job Satisfaction and Occupation
stress
Introduction/ review of relevant
literature
▫ Understanding of the phenomenon.
 Conceptualization
▫ Emotion Regulation (Definition and Strategies)
▫ Job satisfaction(Definition, Predictors and Barriers)
▫ Occupation Stress(Definition and Causes)
▫ Some studies showing relationship among
 ER and JS
 ER and OS
 JS and OS
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02-10-2020
Method
• Design:
▫ A blueprint of the study
▫ How variables are going to be manipulated and
controlled
▫ The statistical techniques to be used to maximize
systematic variance, minimize error variance and
control extraneous variance
• Tools Used
▫ Heidelberg Form for Emotion Regulation Strategies
(HFERST: Izadpanah et al., 2017)
▫ Occupation Stress Index ( Srivastava & Singh)
▫ Job Satisfaction Scale (McDonald & MacIntyre, 1997)
Results
• Individual and Group Data
• Individual data:
▫ Demographic details
▫ Scores on ER strategies(8), JS(1) and OS(1)
• Group data:
▫ Difference analysis
 Nature of employment
 Nature of organization
 Gender
▫ Correlational analysis
 ER strategies, JS and OS
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02-10-2020
Group Data
Sr
no.
e.No
Subject’s
gender
age
Nature of
Employment
Nature of
Organization
ER 1
2....7
8
1
2017ceb---
M
25
Cont.
Private
15
18---16 15
JS
OS
26 45
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Results: Difference Analysis(Gender)
Means (Males)
Means (females)
t-ratios
Social support
Reappraisal
Acceptance
Problem-solving
Total Positive
Suppression of
emotional expression
Suppression of
emotional experience
Avoidance
Rumination
Total Maladaptive
Job Satisfaction
Occupational Stress
5
02-10-2020
Results: Difference Analysis(Nature of Employment)
Means
(Contractual/Daily
Wages/ )
Means (Permanent)
t-ratios
Social support
Reappraisal
Acceptance
Problem-solving
Total Positive
Suppression of
emotional expression
Suppression of
emotional experience
Avoidance
Rumination
Total Maladaptive
Job Satisfaction
Occupational Stress
Results: Difference Analysis(Nature of organization)
Means (Private)
Means (Govt.)
t-ratios
Social support
Reappraisal
Acceptance
Problem-solving
Total Positive
Suppression of
emotional expression
Suppression of
emotional experience
Avoidance
Rumination
Total Maladaptive
Job Satisfaction
Occupational Stress
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02-10-2020
Correlational Analysis
Rumination
Rumination
Reappraisal
Reapprais
al
Acceptan
ce
Proble
msolving
Suppressi
on of
emotional
expressio
n
Suppressi Avoidanc
on of
e
emotional
experienc
e
SS
JS
OS
1.00
1.00
Acceptance
Problem-solving
Suppression of
emotional expression
Suppression of
emotional experience
Avoidance
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
Social support
1.00
1.00
JS
1.00
OS
Discussion
• What do findings suggest
• Explain findings with empirical support
7
02-10-2020
References
• APA format
▫ Dancey, C. P., & Reidy, J. (2004). Statistics
without math for psychology: Using SPSS for
Windows (3rd ed.). Harlow, England:
Pearson/Prentice Hall.
▫ Sharma, S.(1991). Personality Correlates of
Depression. International Journal of Personality,
2, 58-65.
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02-10-2020
HS485
Psychology at Workplace
Lecture-20
Module-3
Job Satisfaction
Work Motivation
Emotions, Attitude, mood, work values influence
behavior in organizations?
Work Environment:
•Characteristics of job
•Job demands
•Emotional labor
requirements
Work Events:
•Daily hassles
•Daily uplifts
Personal
Predispositions:
•Personality
•Mood
Work values
Emotional
Reactions:
•Positive
•Negative
Job
Satisfaction
(Attitudes)
Job
Performance
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02-10-2020
Job-Satisfaction
• An attitude towards one’s job
• An affective reaction to one’s job
• “. . . a pleasurable or positive emotional state
resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job
experiences” (Locke,1976)
• 10,000 studies so far to investigate the phenomenon
in last 50 years….but there is no consistent and
conclusive theory
Job satisfaction and life satisfaction are
interrelated
Determinants of Job Satisfaction
2
02-10-2020
5
Job Satisfaction
Person-job fit
• Environmental antecedents
▫ job characteristics
▫ role variables
 role ambiguity
 role conflict
▫ Work-family conflict
▫ Pay
• Personal antecedents
▫ Personality
 negative affectivity
 locus of control
▫
▫
▫
▫
Gender
Age
Genetics
Cultural and ethnic
differences
Emotions/attitudes at workplace….. a brief history
• Life is full of strong emotions.
▫ you may be angry with a co-worker, stressed by your boss, amused by
another colleague, and proud from the praise given by a manager.
▫ Emotions experienced at work affect both work and non-work
behavior. Similarly, nonwork-related emotions affect both work and
non-work behavior.
• Is A Happy Worker A Productive Worker?
• In the mid-1920s, Elton Mayo, an Australian psychologist, introduced the
concept of emotions into mainstream American I-O psychology.
▫ He argued that factory work resulted in various negative emotions such
as anger, fear, suspicion, lowered performance, and increased illness
• Until this point, there had been little interest among psychologists or
managers in the happiness of workers.
• It was assumed that workers cared only about wages and that as long as
they were paid adequately, they would be happy.
3
02-10-2020
Job Satisfaction
• In the early 1930s, two very different research projects
breathed life into the concept of job satisfaction.
▫ Robert Hoppock (1935) Survey: How happy were workers, and were
workers in some occupations happier than workers in other
occupations?
 both job-related and individual differences variables might influence job
satisfaction.
▫ Hawthorne effect….
▫ Insight: Job satisfaction is closely linked to two outcomes very
important to industry: the prevention of labor unrest in the form
of strikes, and productivity.
• Brayfield and Crockett (1955) concluded that there was little evidence of
any substantial connection between satisfaction and performance. In
contrast, Herzberg, Mausner, Peterson, and Capwell (1957) concluded
that there was a connection between satisfaction and at least some work
behaviors, particularly absenteeism and turnover. This led to the
introduction of one of the first modern theories of job satisfaction, the
two-factor theory (Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman, 1959).
Is A Happy Worker A Productive
Worker?
• In 60 year’s worth of research I/O psychologists have
found highly variable linkages between job
satisfaction and job performance.
• The most recent examination by Timothy Judge and
his colleagues suggests a correlation of .30 between
satisfaction and performance, a small but meaningful
association.
4
02-10-2020
Antecedents considered relevant in 20th century
In 21st century, many more factors have been
added in the list…..
Some correlates studied in 21st century
•
•
•
•
Concern for job security (Probst, 2003)
Effects of perceived discrimination on job satisfaction (Ensher, Grant-Vallone, & Donaldson, 2001)
Attitudes toward a multicultural workplace
Satisfaction with production models such as Six Sigma
• In a meta-analysis of 7,933 business units in 36 companies, Harter, Schmidt, and Hayes (2002)
found positive relations between employee satisfaction and customer satisfaction, productivity,
profit, safety, and employee retention.
• Several studies (LePine, Erez, & Johnson, 2002; Tang & Ibrahim, 1998) reported that increased
satisfaction is associated with increased organizational citizenship behavior.
• A meta-analysis by Williams and colleagues (2006) found that satisfaction with pay is moderately
associated with turnover intentions (-0.21) and actual turnover (-0.14).
• Judge, Thoreson, Bono, and Patton (2001) found a positive correlation of a substantial magnitude
(.30) between job satisfaction and task performance.
• Satisfied employees are less likely to be absent from work (Johns, 1997).
• Satisfied employees are less likely to be late for work (Kozlowsky, Sagie, Krausz, & Singer, 1997).
• Conte, Dean, Ringenbach, Moran, and Landy (2005) found that job satisfaction is associated with job
analysis ratings: More satisfied employees give high ratings for the frequency and importance of
various tasks.
• Several researchers have found a positive association between job satisfaction and general life
satisfaction and feelings of well-being (Warr, 1999; Wright & Cropanzano, 2000).
5
02-10-2020
Multi-faceted nature of Job
Satisfaction
General
Job Satisfaction
Work
Pay
Promotion Supervision Coworker
Satisfaction Satisfaction Satisfaction Satisfaction Satisfaction
11
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02-10-2020
Global Vs facets job satisfaction
• Spector (1997)lists 14 common facets:
▫
▫
▫
▫
▫
▫
▫
▫
▫
▫
▫
▫
Appreciation,
Communication,
Coworkers,
Fringe benefits,
Job conditions,
Nature of the work,
Organization,
Personal growth,
Policies and procedures,
Promotion opportunities,
Recognition,
Security, and Supervision.
14
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02-10-2020
HS485
Psychology at Workplace
Lecture-21
Module-3
Job Satisfaction-II
Work Motivation
Components of Job Satisfaction
• Affective job satisfaction
▫ the degree of pleasure or happiness their job in
general induces
• Cognitive job satisfaction
▫ more objective and logical evaluation of various
facets of a job
▫ the extent to which those job facets are judged by the
job holder to be satisfactory in comparison with
objectives they themselves set.
1
02-10-2020
Consequences of Job Satisfaction
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Productivity
Prosocial/counterproductive behavior
Absenteeism
Turnover(functional/dysfunctional)
Job involvement
Commitment
Health and well being
Organizational citizenship behavior
Increasing Job satisfaction
• Changing Employee Attitude
▫ Reward system closely associated with individual performance, perceived
organized justice
▫ Role clarity and role specification
▫ Employee participation and involvement programs
▫ Show appreciation for appropriate effort and citizen behaviours
▫ Setting challenging goals but realistic
▫ Provide frequent feedback
▫ Other elements of Job enrichment
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02-10-2020
Other types of Attitudes related to work
• Job Involvement
▫ Identifying with the job, actively participating in it, and considering
performance important to self-worth.
• Organizational Commitment
▫ Identifying with a particular organization and its goals, and wishing to
maintain membership in the organization (Affective, Normative, and
Continuance Commitment)
 Affective commitment is an emotional attachment to, identification with, and
involvement in the organization; continuance commitment is the cost of leaving an
organization; and normative commitment is the perceived obligation to an
organization
• Perceived Organizational Support (POS)
▫ Degree to which employees feel the organization cares about their wellbeing.
• Employee Engagement
▫ An individual’s involvement with, satisfaction with, and enthusiasm for
the organization.
Other types of Attitudes related to work
6
• Values
▫ Perceived worth of 1) doing a job and 2) the outcome
▫ Values can be intrinsic (i.e., related to the nature of
work itself) or extrinsic (i.e., related to the
consequences of work).
Intrinsic Values
• Interesting work
• Challenging work
• Learning new things
• Making important
contributions
• Responsibility and autonomy
• Being creative
Extrinsic Values
• High pay
• Job security
• Job benefits
• Status in wider community
• Social contacts
• Time with family
• Time for hobbies
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02-10-2020
Edwin A. Locke’s Range of Affect Theory
• Satisfaction is determined by a discrepancy between
what one wants in a job and what one has in a job.
• how much one values a given facet of work (e.g. the
degree of autonomy in a position) moderates how
satisfied/dissatisfied one becomes when expectations
are/aren’t met.
• If Employee A values autonomy in the workplace and
Employee B is indifferent about autonomy, then
Employee A would be more satisfied in a position that
offers a high degree of autonomy and less satisfied in a
position with little or no autonomy compared to
Employee B.
Edwin A. Locke’s Range of Affect Theory
• Satisfaction is determined by a discrepancy between
what one wants in a job and what one has in a job.
• how much one values a given facet of work (e.g. the
degree of autonomy in a position) moderates how
satisfied/dissatisfied one becomes when expectations
are/aren’t met.
• If Employee A values autonomy in the workplace and
Employee B is indifferent about autonomy, then
Employee A would be more satisfied in a position that
offers a high degree of autonomy and less satisfied in a
position with little or no autonomy compared to
Employee B.
4
02-10-2020
Emotional Intelligence
and Job Performance
Emotional Intelligence and Job performance
“We are being judged by a
new yardstick; not just how
smart we are, or by our
training and expertise, but
also how well we handle
ourselves and each other.”
Daniel Goleman, Ph.D.
Working with
Emotional Intelligence
Helped popularize EI 25 years ago
5
02-10-2020
Emotional Intelligence
“an array of non-cognitive capabilities, competencies and
skills that influence one’s ability to succeed in coping
with environmental demands and pressures”
— Reuven BarOn
“the ability to perceive emotions, to access and generate
emotions so as to assist thought, to understand emotions
and emotional meanings, and to reflectively regulate
emotions in ways that promote emotional and
intellectual growth”
— Salovey & Mayer
“the capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of
others, for motivating ourselves, and for managing
emotions well in ourselves and in our relationships”
— Daniel Goleman
5 Main Components of EI
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5 Main Components of EI
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10-10-2020
HS485
Psychology at Workplace
Module-4
Leadership
Lecture 22
Leadership:
Meaning and approaches to
leadership
1
Objectives of this module
• To understand
▫ What is leadership, approaches to Leadership
▫ Theoretical explanations about the determinants of
effective leadership
▫ Various styles of leadership
▫ Characteristics of successful leadership and
▫ Problem Associated with leadership
2
1
10-10-2020
What is leadership
• Interest in Leadership is not new…great Generals
• Leadership is a process, that involve the
Influencing of others, takes place within a group
context and involves achieving Goals
(Northhouse, 2001)..The behaviours involved in
exerting the influence can be called ‘Leadership’
• about motivating others
A process in which a leader and follower interact in a
way that enable the leader to influence the actions of
followers in a non-coercive way towards the
achievement of certain aims and objectives
3
Leader Vs Manager or Supervisor
• Managers and supervisors are job titles
▫ Imply the tasks or duties of the person…what to do
▫ Leadership deals with how these tasks or duties are
carried out
• Leader is a social-psychological aspect of the role of
supervisor or Manager
• Leadership can be
▫ Attempted……leaders are putting efforts to change
▫ Successful…….behaviour of the followers is changed
▫ Effective……….both leaders and followers are satisfied
with this change
4
2
10-10-2020
How important is a leader?
• In most cases, people will perform at
about 60% of their potential with no
leadership at all
• Thus, an additional 40% can be realized
if effective leadership is available
Contribution due to leadership
ability of manager
Default contribution due to
need for a job, peer pressure, etc.
capability
utilization
40%
60%
5
Approaches to leadership
• Leaders behaviours are based on certain assumptions about
human nature
• Consciously or unconsciously, they operate on the basis of
some personal theory of human behaviour…
• 1. Scientific Management Approach
▫ Promoted by an Engineer…Frederick W. Taylor.
▫ A management philosophy concerned with increasing productivity that
regarded workers as extensions of the machines they operated.
▫ Taylor wanted to increase productivity by getting the workers and the
machines to run faster and more efficiently
▫ No consideration to the employees as human beings as people with
different needs, ability and interest
▫ Laborers must be told what to do and shown how to do as they lack
intelligence
▫ (In the early twentieth century)
6
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Approaches to leadership
• 2. The Human Relation Approach
▫ It regards the satisfaction of employee’s need as a legitimate
corporate responsibility
▫ After Hawthorne studies……
• 3. Theory X and Theory Y(McGregor. 1960)
▫ Theory X




Most people are lazy, dislike work, avoid it,
They must be coerced, watched, and scolded
They have no ambition, prefer to be led and directed
Management by Bureaucracy
▫ Theory Y
 Most people seek inner satisfaction and fulfillment
 Control and punishment is not required
 Management of Objective
7
Theories of Leadership
(Determinants of leadership)
• Effective leadership depends on interaction of three
factors
▫ The traits and behaviours of the leaders
▫ The characteristics of the followers
▫ The nature of the situation in which leadership occurs
• Leader is concerned with the interaction of 3 areas:
▫ Task – goal setting, methods and process
▫ Team – effective interaction/communication,
clarify roles, team morale
▫ Individual – attention to behaviour, feelings,
coaching, CPD
8
4
10-10-2020
1. Traits Theories of Leadership/ The Great
Man/Woman theory
Theories that consider personality, social, physical, or intellectual
traits to differentiate leaders from non-leaders
• Assumption
: Leaders are born
• Goal
: Select leaders
Leadership Traits
• Extraversion
• Conscientiousness
• Openness
• Emotional
Intelligence
9
Leadership Traits and Skills
Traits
Skills
• Adaptable to situations
• Clever (intelligent)
• Alert to social environment
• Conceptually skilled
• Ambitious and achievement
• Creative
orientated
• Diplomatic and tactful
• Assertive
• Fluent in speaking
• Cooperative
• Knowledgeable about group task
• Decisive
• Organised (administrative ability)
• Dependable
• Persuasive
• Dominant (desire to influence
• Socially skilled
others)
• Energetic (high activity level)
Stogdill, 1974
• Persistent
• Self-confident
• Tolerant of stress
• Willing to assume responsibility
• Conflict management/problem
solving
Effective Leaders will also use:
Integrity, Honesty, Compassion, Humility
10
5
HS485
Psychology at Workplace
Module-4
Leadership
Lecture 23
Theories about
leadership
2. Behavioural Theories
Theories proposing that specific behaviors differentiate leaders from
non-leaders….
➢ Assumption: Leaders can be trained
➢Goal: Develop leaders
Behavioural Theory
Leadership behaviors can
be taught.
vs.
Initiating Structure/ Consideration…… as per Ohio
State Studies…………..OR
Trait Theory
Leaders are born, not made.
Production Orientation /Employee Orientation….
As per University of Michigan
• Initiating structure-helping in task behaviors - facilitate goal accomplishment
• Behaviors associated with the category of initiating structure include
facilitating the task performance of groups. One example of an initiating
structure behavior is meeting one-on-one with subordinates to explain
expectations and goals.
• Consideration- caring behaviors - help subordinates feel comfortable
• An example of a consideration behavior is showing compassion when
problems arise in or out of the office.
The
Managerial
Grid
(Blake and Mouton)
Styles of leadership
Benevolent
Leader
(Y)
concern
Laissez-faire
for
Leader
people
(L)
Team
Leader
(Z)
Autocratic
Leader
(X)
concern for production →
L: “missing management” or
“The indifferent style”
Very low productivity
Less innovative decision
X: “my way or the highway” or
The dictatorial
Job stress; low satisfaction; unions
form
Y: “country club” or
Two other style added later
accommodating style
Paternalistic Management.
Low achievement; productive
A Paternalistic manager will jump between
people leave
the Country Club and Dictatorial styles.
friendly, but not necessarily very
Opportunistic Management.
productive
Opportunistic managers place their own
needs first, shifting around the grid to
adopt whichever style will benefit them.
They will manipulate and take advantage
of others to get what they want.
Z: “good manager” The sound style
High productivity, cooperation, low
turnover, employee commitment
3. Cognitive Resource Theory
• Focuses on leader’s cognitive resources-intelligence, technical
competencies and job related knowledge
• Cognitive ability will determine the nature of plans, decisions
and strategies, better the ability, more effective the
plan…..but some moderators are also there
▫ Stress
▫ Directive vs non-directive
▫ Group’s compliance
▫ Matching of Specific cognitive abilities and task
4. Contingency theory (Fiedler)
• Contingency-focused theories base a leader’s effectiveness on their ability
to assess a situation and adapt their behavior accordingly
• Leadership effectiveness is determined by the interaction between the
leader’s personal characteristics and aspects of the situation.
• Effective leadership depends on the degree of control the leader has over
the situation.
▫ This control is contingent on three factors
 Relationship between leader and followers
 The degree of task structure
 Leader’s position power
• Popular leader, directing a highly structured task and having the authority
or power to enforce discipline may be an effective leader.
• In extremely favorable or unfavorable conditions, task oriented leaders
will be more effective
5. Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory
Situational Leadership Theory (SLT)
A contingency theory that focuses on followers’ readiness; the more
“ready” the followers (the more willing and able) the less the need for
leader support and supervision.
Amount of Leader Support
& Supervision Required
The model is not a static leadership style. Instead, it is flexible, wherein
the manager adapts their management style to various factors in the
workplace, e.g. maturity level, relationship with employees.
HIGH
LOW
LOW
HIGH
Amount of Follower Readiness
Hersey and Blanchard Situational theory
• Considers Leader Behaviors (Task and Relationship)
▫ Assumes leaders can change their behaviors
• Considers Followers as the Situation
▫ Follower task maturity (ability and experience),
▫ Follower psychological maturity (willingness to take
responsibility)
 later they used “developmental level”
➢Assumptions
– Leaders can and should change their style to fit their followers’
degree of readiness (willingness and ability)
– Therefore, it is possible to train leaders to better fit their style to
their followers.
Situational Leadership II
• Blanchard's situational leadership II model uses the terms
"competence" (ability, knowledge, and skill) and
"commitment" (confidence and motivation) to describe
different levels of development.
• According to Ken Blanchard, "Four combinations of
competence and commitment make up what we call
'development level.'"
• D1 – Enthusiastic Beginner:
• Low competence with high commitment
• D2 – Disillusioned Learner:
• Low/middling competence with low commitment
• D3 – Capable but Cautious Performer:
• High competence with low/variable commitment
• D4 – Self-reliant Achiever:
• High competence with high commitment
•
•
•
•
Delegating style:
• A low-task, low-relationship style wherein the leader allows the group to take
responsibility for task decisions. This is best used with high maturity followers.
• Individuals are experienced at the task, and comfortable with their own ability to
do it well. They are able and willing to not only do the task, but to take
responsibility for the task.
Participating style(Supporting leadership style) :
• A low-task, high-relationship style that emphasizes shared ideas and decisions.
Managers can use this style with moderately mature followers.
• Individuals are experienced and able to do the task but lack the confidence to
take on responsibility.
Selling style:
• A high-task, high-relationship style in which the leader attempts to sell their ideas to
the group by explaining task directions in a persuasive manner. This, too, is used with
moderate followers. Unlike the previous style, these followers have the ability but are
unwilling to do the job.
Telling style(directing leadership style) :
• A high-task, low-relationship style wherein the leader gives explicit directions and
supervises work closely. This style is geared toward low maturity followers.
• Individuals lack the specific skills required for the job in hand and they are
willing to work at the task. They are novice but enthusiastic.
6. Leader-Member Exchange Theory
• Leader-follower relationship(LMX) affects the leadership process
• According to the theory, leaders form strong trust, emotional, and respectbased relationships with some members of a team, but not with others.
• LMX theory claims that leaders do not treat each subordinate the same. The
work-related attitudes and behaviors of those subordinates depend on how
they are treated by their leader.
▫
▫
▫
▫
Different types of leadership with different types of LMX
Two types of subordinates: ‘in group’ and ‘out group’
Two leadership style: supervision for ‘out group’ and leadership for ‘in group’
Tasks requiring low ability and with less importance are given to ‘out group’
members, no or little personal relationship
▫ Tasks requiring high ability and with more importance are given to ‘in group’
members, good personal relationship
7. Path-Goal Theory
• Leaders can be more effective in enhancing
motivation, satisfaction and job performance of
the employees by helping them in reaching
personal and organizational goals by pointing out
the paths they should follow and by providing
them with the means to do so.
• It can be achieved by four ways
▫
▫
▫
▫
Directive leadership
Supportive leadership
Participative leadership
Achievement-oriented leadership
10-10-2020
HS485
Psychology at Workplace
Module-4
Lecture 24
Types of leadership
Leadership
1
Types of Leadership styles
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The Autocratic or Authoritarian Leader
The Democratic or Participative Leader
The Laissez-faire or Delegative Leader
Transactional leadership
Transformational leadership
The Charismatic Leadership
2
1
10-10-2020
The Autocratic or Authoritarian Leader
• Given the power to make
decisions alone, having total
authority.
• Closely supervises and
controls people when they
perform certain tasks.
• Effective in job requiring rapid decisionmaking skills….law enforcement and
other emergency services
3
The Democratic or Participative Leader
• Includes one or more persons in the decision making process of
determining what to do and how to do it.
• Maintains the final decision making authority.
The Laissez-faire or Delegative Leader
•
•
•
•
Allows people to make their own decisions.
Leader is still responsible for the decisions that are made.
This style allows greater freedom and responsibility for people.
However, you need competent people around you or nothing will get done.
Laissez-faire is a
French phrase
meaning “let do”
4
2
10-10-2020
Transactional leadership
• Focuses on the social interaction or exchanges between leaders and
followers
• Believe that they must act in accordance with what their followers expect of
them
• Conduct their business by identifying the needs of their followers and
bestowing rewards to satisfy those needs in exchange for a certain level of
performance
• Through a rewards and punishments system, transactional leaders are able
to keep followers motivated for the short-term.
But in Military service—is there any transaction that can explain continued
sustained performance in the face of such a risk? Of course not; there is
something more at work.
5
Transforming/Transformational
leadership
• James MacGregor Burns (1978)
• Bernard M. Bass (1985,2008)
Rather than following the needs and expectations of the
followers, transformational leaders work to change or
transform their followers’ needs and redirect their
thinking
In its ideal form, it creates valuable and positive change
in the followers with the end goal of developing
followers into leaders.
6
3
10-10-2020
Transformational leadership Involves
• inspiring followers to commit to a shared vision and goals for
an organization or unit,
• challenging them to be innovative problem solvers,
• developing followers’ leadership capacity via coaching,
mentoring, and provision of both challenges and support.”
• They makes their followers want to be better than they are
• Focuses on higher order needs rather than lower ones
7
What indicate transformational leadership
• The extent to which a leader is transformational, is
measured first, in terms of his influence on the
followers.
• The followers of such a leader feel trust, admiration,
loyalty and respect for the leader
• Because of the qualities of the transformational
leader are willing to work harder than originally
expected.
These outcomes occur because the transformational
leader offers followers something more than just
working for self gain; they provide followers with an
inspiring mission and vision and give them an identity.
8
4
10-10-2020
Transformational leadership…
• The transformational leadership style consists of
five leader factors or behaviors:
1. Idealized influence (attributed)
▫
▫
a socialized personification of the leader
The leader is perceived as being determined,
strong, and possessing moral and ethical
conviction, which followers’ trust and respect
2. Idealized influence (behavior)
▫
This type of leader portends toward a charismatic
nature and is committed to a set of values, vision,
and readily appeals to followers on an emotional
basis
9
Transformational leadership
• The transformational leadership style consists of five
leader factors or behaviors:
3. Inspiration Motivation
▫
▫
▫
▫
Leader articulate a vision that is appealing and inspiring
to followers.
Leaders with inspirational motivation challenge followers
with high standards, communicate optimism about future
goals, and provide meaning for the task at hand.
Followers need to have a strong sense of purpose if they
are to be motivated to act. Purpose and meaning provide
the energy that drives a group forward.
The visionary aspects of leadership are supported by
communication skills that make the vision
understandable, precise, powerful and engaging.
10
5
10-10-2020
Transformational leadership…
The transformational leadership style consists of five
leader factors or behaviors:
4. Intellectual Stimulation
▫
▫
▫
Followers are intellectually stimulated to apply new
ways of thinking to previous situations.
Reframing problems with the utilization of
innovative ideas and creative thinking
They nurture and develop people who think
independently.
11
Transformational leadership
• The transformational leadership style consists of five
leader factors or behaviors:
5. Individualized consideration
▫
▫
▫
Here the leader participates on an individual basis in
the capacity of mentor or coach.
The leader reaches out, striving with the objective of
personal satisfaction and growth of each follower.
gives empathy and support, keeps communication
open and places challenges before the followers
12
6
10-10-2020
Charismatic Leadership
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Have a broad knowledge of their field
self-promoting personality
a high energy level
willing to take risks
Use unconventional strategies
Use powers effectively to serve others
Let their followers to think independently and to ask questions
Communicate their vision to subordinates
Display a powerful communication style, captivating tone of voice, animated
facial expressions
• But they may misuse their powers, can be insensitive to the needs of their
followers and may act only for their personal gain
13
7
10/15/2020
HS485
Psychology at Workplace
Module-4
Leadership
Lecture 25
Power and
Persuasion in
leadership
Role of Power in leadership
• All leadership relies on the use of power to influence
others and get things done
• Effective Leadership is just an adequate exercise of
this power; therefore leaders must develop the proper
bases of organizational power in order to use it
effectively and efficiently in influencing others
• ‘A has power over B to the extent that he can get B to
do something that B would not otherwise do
1
10/15/2020
How can we influence: Role of Power
in leadership
Position
Power/Hard Powers
1. Legitimate
2. Reward
3. Coercive
Personal Power/
Soft Powers
4. Expert
5. Referent
Five Main types of Leadership Powers
Position Powers
• A written, spoken, or implied contract wherein people
accept either a superior or subordinate role and see the use
of coercive as well as noncoercive behavior as an acceptable
way of achieving desirable results.
1. Legitimate Power
 granted from a formal positions in an organization.
 Rights, responsibilities and privileges given to anyone
holding a formal leadership position
 Set goals, make decisions and direct activities
 boss can assign projects, a policeman can arrest a citizen with
doubtful identity
 Others comply with the requests these individuals make
because they accept the legitimacy of the position, whether they
like or agree with the request or not.
2
10/15/2020
Position Powers
2. Reward Power
 Reward power tends to accompany legitimate power and is
highest when the reward is scarce.
 It’s the authority to bestow rewards on other people
 Appointed leaders may have access to rewards such as
pay increases, promotions, physical resources
 Influences subordinate’s behavior
Position Powers
3. Coercive Power
 Authority to punish or recommend punishment
 threatening employees with “if-then” statements and
consequences such as being fired, demoted, having bad
reviews, and so on.
 Abuses the fear that majority of the employee carry with
them into the workplace
Personal Powers
4. Expert Power… power of knowledge
 Results from special knowledge or skill
 Followers go along with recommendations because of
his/her superior knowledge
 Usually gained from experience
 Bill gates/Steve Jobs
3
10/15/2020
Personal Powers
5.
Referent Power
 To what Extent employees identify with leader
 To the extent followers want to be like them
 Comes from personality characteristics that command identification, respect
and admirations so that others want to emulate the person
 Role model/Ideal
 Dependent on personal characteristics rather than title
 Friendliness
 How much concern that leader shows
 How accurate they were in their decision making
 Are they able to handle difficult situation
▫ Become genuinely interested in other people.
▫ Smile.
▫ Remember that a person’s name is to that person the sweetest and most
important sound in any language.
▫ Be a good listener. Encourage others to talk about themselves.
▫ Talk in terms of the other person’s interests.
▫ Make the other person feel important—and do it sincerely……..Carnegie
8
Responses to the Use of Powers
Position Power
Compliance
Resistance
Personal Power
Commitment
4
10/15/2020
Responses to the Use of Powers
• Compliance means that people follow the directions
of the person with power, whether or not they agree
with those directions.
▫ They will obey orders and carry out instructions even
though they may not like it.
 followers do just enough work as is necessary to satisfy the
leader and may not contribute their full potential.
• When the use of coercion, exceeds a level people
consider legitimate, Resistance take place, means that
employees will deliberately try to avoid carrying out
instructions or they will attempt to disobey orders.
▫ Thus, the effectiveness of leaders who rely solely on
position power is limited.
Responses to the Use of Powers
• The follower response most often generated by soft,
personal, and interpersonal power (expert, referent)
is commitment. People become partners or
advocates, rather than resisters or observers
▫ …followers adopt the leader’s viewpoint and
enthusiastically carry out instructions.
▫ Although compliance alone may be enough for routine
matters, commitment is particularly important when
the leader is promoting change.
• Successful leaders exercise both personal and
position power effectively to influence others.
5
16-10-2020
HS485
Psychology at Workplace
Module-4
Leadership
Lecture 26
Persuasion in
Leadership
Persuasion…. What matters
• Any leader faced with the inherent complexities of
leading his or her organization through
transformational change must be capable of
persuading.
• Persuasion is the use of communication to influence
beliefs, attitudes and/or behavior
• Hovland et al.
▫
▫
▫
▫
▫
Who?
Says What?
To Whom?
In Which Channel?
With what effect?
1
16-10-2020
Persuasion…. What matters
▫ Who?......the source
 Credibility of source
 Expertise……..Said by a Doctor
 Trustworthiness…honest and straight forward, History, self Interest
 Likeability…Personal charm, attractiveness, Homophily
 Combination of all three
▫ Says What?.......the message
 Structure of arguments….one sided vs two-sided, conclusive vs general
 Rational v. emotional appeals(Ethos, Logos, Pathos), moderate fear,
 Framing, examples vs statistics, comparisons, loss vs gain
▫ To Whom?..........the audience
 Education/suggestibility/interest/gender
▫ With what effect?
 ... Changing specific action/Attitude change/Behavior
intention/Behavior
Dual-processing theory
• Dual-processing theories argue that we process persuasive
messages differently if we are motivated to attend to them
and are capable of processing them than if we just monitor
them at a very low level or are unable to process them
▫ Peripheral Processing to Central Processing.
▫ heuristic processing to intensive systematic processing.
The intensity of processing is determined by recipients’ processing
ability and processing motivation.
• Central processing
▫ If we are motivated and capable of processing we
will carefully review the arguments made to see if
they are convincing according to rational
argument
 Appropriate evidence
 Strength of argument, logic
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16-10-2020
Peripheral processing
• If we just give slight attention to a persuasive
message, are not motivated enough to dedicate
the effort to evaluate the logic and strength of
argument, then we will tend to process
according to ‘peripheral cues’
▫
▫
▫
▫
Attractiveness of the source
Visual cues/attractiveness of the setting
Music
Emotion
Dual process theories of persuasion
• There are two types of qualitatively different information,
which people use in evaluating the validity of a position
advocated by a communicator, namely message
arguments and heuristic cues (e.g. communicator
expertise).
• Heuristic cues are typically easier to process than message
arguments, but message arguments frequently provide
more reliable information about the validity of the position
advocated by the communicator
• Heuristic processing
▫ use of simple decision rules (rules of thumb or heuristics) in deciding
on whether to accept or reject a persuasive communication (Chaiken,
1980)
▫ ‘experts can be trusted’
• Systematic processing
▫ carefully and thoughtfully consider the arguments presented in
support of a position
3
16-10-2020
Implications: For strong arguments, no need to add peripheral (like celebrities on TV
commercials) for weak, Peripherals has to be added to maintain a balance
4
16-10-2020
HS485
Psychology at Workplace
Module-4
Leadership
Lecture 27
Improving
Leadership
1. Understanding of The Process of Great Leadership
• The road to great leadership that is common to successful
leaders include (Kouzes, Posner, 1987):
• Challenge the process - First, find a process that you
believe needs to be improved the most.
• Inspire a shared vision - Share your vision in words that
can be understood by your followers.
• Enable others to act - Give them the tools and methods to
solve the problem.
• Model the way - When the process gets tough, get your
hands dirty. A boss tells others what to do; a leader shows that
it can be done.
• Encourage the heart - Share the glory with your followers'
hearts, while keeping the pains within your own.
1
16-10-2020
Understanding of the Key Team-Leader
Responsibilities
1. Guide/coordinate team members – encourage
teamwork and motivate individuals
2. Provide structure for team – set mission and purpose,
clarify roles and responsibilities, allocate tasks and set
objectives
3. Clarify working methods, practices and protocol
4. Focus on performance – anticipate challenges,
monitor performance, delegate and provide support
Leaders at different levels have different functions,
characteristics and problems on the job., e.g. First line
supervisor Or Vice president of a company
Key Team Leader Responsibilities
• Effective first line supervisor have been found to be;
▫ Person oriented
▫ Supportive
▫ Democratic
▫ Flexible
▫ Coach rather than director
• Effective Higher level Administrative
▫ High on leadership motive pattern (LMP)
 High nPower, low nAff and considerable self control
▫ Help followers interpret events
▫ Build and maintain consensus about objectives, priorities
and strategies
▫ Facilitate learning and innovation
▫ Promote social justice and ethical behaviour
2
16-10-2020
Ineffective leaders
Lack consideration behaviour
Insensitive
Arrogant
Aloof
Abrasive and dominating style
Overly ambitious to attain personal rather than
organizational goals
 Inability to get along with other…poor interpersonal
relationship






• Many managers who are bright, hardworking,
ambitious and technically competent fail because of
personality factors (Hogan et al., 1994)
Leadership self-discovery
1.Assess yourself as a Leader
• Conduct a SWOT analysis - Strengths, Weaknesses,
Opportunities, Threats
• Proactively discover your strengths and weaknesses.
• Be receptive to feedback from others about both your
positive and negative behavior as they perceive it.
• Don’t fear assessment tests or evaluations. They are
designed to help.
• What key skills and traits do you have?
2.Develop an Action Plan to improve as a leader
• Actions to address Weaknesses or capitalise on Opportunities
identified
• Apply SMART targets to your actions –
• Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, Time-bound
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16-10-2020
Leadership self-discovery
• 3. Work on your energy level and stress tolerance.
▫
Help the leader to cope with the hectic pace, long hours
and constant unrelenting demands of others.
▫
Effective problem solving requires the ability to be
calm and focused rather than one of panicking, denial
or fault finding.
• 4. Work on Self-confidence
▫
Leaders with self-confidence are more likely to attempt
difficult tasks and set challenging expectations for
themselves.
▫
They are more persistent to solve problems. Their
optimism affects others and is likely to increase
commitment by others to the task.
Leadership self-discovery
• Strong internal “locus of control” orientation
▫ believe their lives are more determined by their
own actions.
▫ People with a strong external “locus of control”
believe events are determined by chance or fate
and they can do little to change their lives
• Emotional maturity
▫ Aware of their own strengths and weaknesses.
▫ Oriented toward self-improvement rather than
denial, blame or ”success fantasies”.
▫ They have stable emotions, not “mood swings”
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Leadership self-discovery
• 5. Personal integrity
▫
consistent with espoused values
▫ It determines whether people will perceive
him/her as trustworthy and credible.
▫ Without trust it is difficult to gain commitment
and cooperation from others.
▫ Integrity includes honesty, keeping a confidence
and accepting responsibility
• 6. Socialized Power Motivation
▫ desire power for the benefit of others
▫ less egoistical and defensive
▫ need for power is to build up the organization or
others to be successful. They tend to use more of a
participative “coaching style” of behavior and take
advice from others
Leadership self-discovery
• 7. Develop relevant skills that you lack.
▫
▫
▫
▫
Effective leaders value continuous learning and selfdevelopment.
Make a real effort to develop needed skills.
Take classes or workshops to grow.
Seek challenging assignments to broaden your skills.
5
16-10-2020
Leadership self-discovery
• Remember that a strength can become a weakness
▫
▫
•
A strength in one situation can later become a
weakness when the situation changes.
Confidence can become arrogance, innovation can
become recklessness, decisiveness can become
rashness, “global vision” can become lack of focus.
Compensate for weaknesses
▫
▫
Look for associates who have the strengths you lack.
Ask for help!
Don’t give up on these areas…develop them to your
fullest extent.
6
23-10-2020
HS485
Psychology at Workplace
Module-5
Lecture 28
Stress and it’s effect
Stress at the Workplace
To be covered….
• Dynamics of stress in general
▫ Different conceptualizations of stress
•
•
•
•
•
•
Common effects of stress
Common types of stressors
Stress at Workplace
Sources of worker’s stress,
Consequences of stress at workplace
Primary and secondary prevention strategies to
reduce stress at workplace
• Stress Management
1
23-10-2020
Stress
• We are biologically programmed to defend ourselves
whenever there is some sort of threat(Real or perceived)
• An unconscious mobilization of energy resources that occurs
when the body encounters a stressor(threat).
• Stress is the reaction people have to excessive pressures or
other types of demand placed upon them. It arises when they
worry that they can’t cope.
S=P>R
Stress occurs when the perceived pressure is greater than the
perceived resource
• Different conceptualizations of stress
•
Stress is a response (Hans Selye)
•
Stress is a stimulus (Holmes & Rahe)
•
Stress is a transaction(Lazarus)
1. Stress as a Response
• Stress as a response model, initially introduced by Hans
Selye (1956).
• Stress as a physiological response pattern
▫ was captured within the general adaptation syndrome
(GAS) model
• This model describes stress as a dependent variable and
includes three concepts:
▫ Stress is a defensive mechanism.
▫ Stress follows the three stages of alarm,
resistance, and exhaustion.
▫ If the stress is prolonged or severe, it could result in diseases
of adaptation or even death.
• Stress could be experienced as eustress (positive)
or distress (negative).
2
23-10-2020
GAS Model(Hans Selye)
• Alarm Stage
▫ When confronted with a negative stimulus, the alarm response
initiates the sympathetic nervous system, to combat or avoid the
stressor (i.e., increased heart rate, temperature, adrenaline, and
glucose levels), fight or flight reaction
• Resistance stage
• Body tries to counteract the physiological changes that happened
during the alarm reaction stage.
• The parasympathetic branch of the ANS tries to return the body
to normal by reducing the amount of cortisol produced. The heart
rate and blood pressure begin to return to normal.
• If the stressful situation comes to an end, during the resistance
stage, the body will then return to normal.
▫ However, if the stressor remains, the body will stay in a state of
alert, and stress hormones continue to be produced.
GAS Model(Hans Selye)
• Exhaustion stage.
• At this stage, the body has depleted its energy resources by continually trying but
failing to recover from the initial alarm reaction stage.
• If a person does not find ways to manage stress levels at this stage, they are at
risk of developing stress-related health conditions.
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23-10-2020
2. Stress as a stimulus
• Stress as a significant life event or change that demands response,
adjustment, or adaptation.
• Holmes and Rahe theorized that stress was an independent variable in the
health-stress-coping equation — the cause of an experience rather than the
experience itself.
• Holmes and Rahe (1967) created the Social Readjustment Rating Scale
(SRRS) consisting of 42 life events scored according to the estimated
degree of adjustment they would each demand of the person experiencing
them (e.g., marriage, divorce, relocation, change or loss of job, loss of loved
one).
• The stress as stimulus theory assumes:
1. Change is inherently stressful.
2. Life events demand the same levels of adjustment across the population.
3. There is a threshold of adjustment beyond which illness will result.
• Initially, they considered subject as a passive recipient of stress, but later
introduced concept of interpretation
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HS485
Psychology at Workplace
Lecture 29
Stress and it’s effect
Module-5
Stress at the Workplace
Stress
• 1.Stress as a response
• 2.Stress as a stimulus
• 3.Stress As a Transaction
▫ Stress is a product of a transaction between a person (including
multiple systems: cognitive, physiological, affective,
psychological, neurological) and his or her complex environment.
▫ Stress is experienced when a particular relationship between the
person and environment is appraised by the person as taxing or
exceeding his or her resources and endangering his or her
wellbeing
▫ Whether or not a stressor is experienced as discomforting is
influenced by a variety of personal and contextual factors
including capacities, skills and abilities, constraints, resources, and
norms
▫ Appraisal (Primary and Secondary) and Reappraisal are the main
determinants of stressors
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23-10-2020
Stress As a Transaction
• Primary Appraisal
▫ When we decide if a situation is threatening or positive,
relevant or irrelevant for us.
 Threat to our well being
 Challenge
 Opportunity
• Secondary Appraisal
▫ When we assess what resources are available to us to help
combat or cope with the stressor.
 Internal resources (skills, knowledge, experience, physical strength,
will-power)
 External resources (peers, finance, professional help etc.)
• Reappraisal
▫ Ongoing and involves continually reappraising both the
nature of the stressor and the resources available for
responding to the stressor.
Overview of the Stress Process
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Stress Response
• A Stressor is anything that throws your body out of
“allostatic” balance (the optimal points for various
functions).
• The body’s attempts to survive through the
following processes:
▫ Secretion or inhibition of hormones
▫ Activation of the sympathetic nervous system
▫ Other physiological changes
• Activate Emergency Systems
▫ Energy Mobilization
 Puts fuel (glucose) in the bloodstream
 Delivers it fast to rapidly increased heart rate and
blood flow
Stress response
• Suppression of “non-essential services”
(Suspend long term building projects)
 Growth
 Immune system
 Reproduction
 Digestion
Allows us to survive the
next few minutes
• Sharpens cognition and alertness(if
optimal (Increases dopamine)
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External manifestation of Stress
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
You feel irritable.
You have sleeping difficulties.
You do not get any joy out of life.
Your appetite is disturbed.
You have relationship problems and have a difficult
time getting along with people.
6. Rumination
7. Less confident
PHYSICAL SYMPTOMS
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Sleep pattern changes
Fatigue
Digestion changes
Loss of sexual drive
Headaches
Aches and pains
Infections
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Dizziness
Fainting
Sweating & trembling
Tingling hands & feet
Breathlessness
Palpitations
Missed heartbeats
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PSYCHOLOGICAL SYMPTOMS
•
•
•
•
•
•
Lack of concentration
Memory lapses
Difficulty in making decisions
Confusion
Disorientation
Panic attacks
BEHAVIOURAL SYMPTOMS
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Appetite changes - too much or too little
Eating disorders - anorexia, bulimia
Increased intake of alcohol & other drugs
Increased smoking
Restlessness
Fidgeting
Nail biting
Hypochondria
Deterioration of personal hygiene and
appearance
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23-10-2020
EMOTIONAL SYMPTOMS
•
•
•
•
•
Mood swings, Bouts of depression/Sadness
Irrational anxiety/Fear
Fits of rage
Tearfulness
Guilt etc.
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HS485
Psychology at Workplace
Module-5
Lecture 30
Types of stressors
Stress at the Workplace
Major categories of Stressors
• Frustration: blocked goal
• Conflict: incompatible
motivations
▫
▫
▫
▫
Approach-approach
Approach-avoidance
Avoidance-avoidance
Multiple ApproachAvoidance
• Change: having to adapt
▫ Social Readjustment Rating
Scale
▫ Life Change Units
• Pressure
▫ Perform/conform
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Specific types of stressors
External
• Physical Environment
• Social Interaction
• Organisational
• Major Life Events
• Daily Hassles
Internal
• Lifestyle choices
• Negative self - talk
• Mind traps
• Personality traits
ENVIRONMENTAL
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Noise
Bright Lights
Heat
Confined Spaces
Floods
Earthquakes
Terrorism
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SOCIAL INTERACTION
•
•
•
•
Rudeness
Bossiness
Aggressiveness by others
Bullying
ORGANISATIONAL
•
•
•
•
Rules
Regulations
“Red - Tape”
Deadlines
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MAJOR LIFE EVENTS
•
•
•
•
•
Birth
Death
Lost job
Promotion
Marital status change
DAILY HASSLES
• Commuting
• Misplaced keys
• Mechanical breakdowns
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INTERNAL STRESSORS
• Lifestyle choices
▫
▫
▫
▫
Lack of sleep
Overloaded schedule
Lack of physical exercise
Unhealthy diet
• Negative self – talk
▫ Pessimistic thinking
▫ Self criticism
▫ Over analysing
INTERNAL STRESSORS
MIND TRAPS
▫
▫
▫
▫
▫
Unrealistic expectations
Taking things personally
All or nothing thinking
Exaggeration
Rigid thinking
PERSONALITY TRAITS
▫ Perfectionists
▫ Workaholics
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INTERNAL STRESSORS
MIND TRAPS
▫
▫
▫
▫
▫
Unrealistic expectations
Taking things personally
All or nothing thinking
Exaggeration
Rigid thinking
PERSONALITY TRAITS
▫ Perfectionists
▫ Workaholics
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HS485
Psychology at Workplace
Module-5
Stress at the Workplace
Lecture 31
Stress at the
Workplace
So far…………………..
• Stress is ‘the adverse reaction people have, to excessive
pressures or other types of demands placed on them’
• The word ‘stress’ is neutral, It is the amount and quality
of stress that causes problems.
Over (hyperstress)
eustress
stress
distress
Under (hypostress)
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Why to study stress at the workplace
• Different debilitating effects of stress
▫ Half of the visits to physicians are precipitated by stress….High BP,
Ulcers, cardiovascular, headaches/Migraine etc, increase in infections
• Stress is a psychological agent that influences physical and emotional well
being and our ability to perform our jobs
• Health of the organization is also affected
▫ Turnover intentions, CPB
▫ Cost of health care
• As a consequence…..Occupational Health Psychology emerged
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Stress at Workplace
• Work-related stress is the response people may have
when presented with work demands and pressures
that are not matched to their knowledge and abilities
and which challenge their ability to cope.
• Pressure and Stress
▫ Pressure at the workplace is unavoidable due to the
demands of the contemporary work environment. Pressure
perceived as acceptable by an individual, may even keep
workers alert, motivated, able to work and learn, depending
on the available resources and personal characteristics.
▫ However, when that pressure becomes excessive or
otherwise unmanageable it leads to stress. Stress can
damage workers’ health and business performance (WHO,
2018)
Stress at Workplace
• Other things being equal*…….Stress results from a
mismatch between the demands and pressures on the
person, on the one hand, and their knowledge and abilities,
on the other. Mismatch can be either way
• A healthy job is likely to be one where the pressures on
employees are appropriate in relation to their abilities
and resources, to the amount of control they have over
their work, and to the support they receive from people
who matter to them.
*Following organized way of doing things, prioritizing, notprocrastination, intact health condition
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Two Models of Workplace Stress
Effort-Reward
Imbalance
Model
Demand-Control
(support)Model
(Karasek & Theorell, 1990)
(Siegrist,1998)
Demand-control(Support) model –
• a model that suggests experienced
stress is a function of both job
demands and job control. Stress is
highest when demands are high but
individuals have little control over the
situation
• Social support can moderate the
relationship
• Demand=workload and interpersonal
conflict etc.
• Control:ability to control their work
activities(Decision authority and
variety of skills)
Effort-reward imbalance model
• a model that suggests experienced stress
is a function of both required effort and
rewards obtained. Stress is highest when
required effort is high but rewards are low.
• effort at work is spent as part of a
psychological contract, based on the norm
of social reciprocity, where effort spent at
work is paired with rewards provided in
terms of money, esteem, career
opportunities.
• An imbalance (non-reciprocal) relationship
between the effort spent and rewards
received can result in the emotional
distress
Job Control
Demand-Control Model
High
Low
Low Strain
Active
(EUSTRESS)
Passive
High Strain
(DISTRESS)
Low
High
Job Demands
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What causes work stress• Poor work organization, the way we design jobs and
work systems, and the way we manage them, can cause
work stress.
• Workplace stress is caused by factors at the organizational,
management and individual levels.
• The Health and Safety Executive (HSE), UK have defined
six areas of work that can have a negative impact on
employee health if not properly managed:1. Demands – includes workloads, work patterns and the
work environment.
2. Control – how much say the person has in the way they
do their work.
3. Support – includes the encouragement, sponsorship
and resources provided by the organization, line
management and colleagues.
•
What causes work stress
4.
5.
6.
Role – whether people understand their role
within the organization and whether the
organization ensures that they do not have
conflicting roles.
Change – how organizational change (large
or small) is managed and communicated in
the organization.
Relationships – promoting positive working
to avoid conflict and dealing with
unacceptable behavior.
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HS485
Psychology at Workplace
Module-5
Stress at the Workplace
Lecture 32
Stress at the
Workplace
Stress-related hazards you may have
to face
• aspects of work have the potential for causing
harm, they are called ‘stress-related hazards’
• WHO identify 9 categories of stress-related
hazards
• Job Content
▫
▫
▫
▫
Monotonous, under-stimulating, meaningless tasks
Lack of variety
Unpleasant tasks
Aversive tasks
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Stress-related hazards
• Workload and Work pace
▫ Having too much or too little to do
▫ Working under time pressures
• Working Hours
▫
▫
▫
▫
Strict and inflexible working schedules
Long and unsocial hours
Unpredictable working hours
Badly designed shift systems
• Participation and Control
▫ Lack of participation in decision making
▫ Lack of control
Stress-related hazards
• Career Development, Status and Pay
▫
▫
▫
▫
▫
▫
▫
Job insecurity
Lack of promotion prospects
Under-promotion or over-promotion
Work of ‘low social value’
Piece rate payments schemes
Unclear or unfair performance evaluation systems
Being over-skilled or under-skilled for the job
• Role in the Organization
▫
▫
▫
▫
Unclear role
Conflicting roles within the same job
Responsibility for people
Continuously dealing with other people and their
problems
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Stress-related hazards
• Interpersonal Relationships
▫ Inadequate, inconsiderate or unsupportive
supervision
▫ Poor relationships with co-workers
▫ Bullying, harassment and violence
▫ Isolated or solitary work
▫ No agreed procedures for dealing with problems
or complaint
• Organizational Culture
▫ Poor communication
▫ Poor leadership
▫ Lack of clarity about organizational objectives and
structure
Stress-related hazards
• Home-Work Interface
▫ Conflicting demands of work and home
▫ Lack of support for domestic problems at work
▫ Lack of support for work problems at home
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29-10-2020
Stress-related hazards
• Home-Work Interface
▫ Conflicting demands of work and home
▫ Lack of support for domestic problems at work
▫ Lack of support for work problems at home
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29-10-2020
HS485
Psychology at Workplace
Lecture 33
Module-5
Stress Management
Stress at the Workplace
Lifestyle
Gender
Cognitive
Distortions
Individual
Influences on
Experiencing
Stress
Type A vs.
Type B
Personality
Self-Esteem
Hardiness
1
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Stress Management
▫ Primary Prevention





Eliminating stressors in the work environment
‘Stressors-directed’
Proactive
Problem focused coping….targeting source of stress
Redesigning job, flexibility, control etc.
▫ Secondary Prevention





Modifying responses to inevitable demands or stressors
‘Response-Directed’
Emotion focused coping
Avoiding, Minimizing, and distancing oneself from the stressors
Can be both, Proactive and Reactive
▫ Tertiary prevention
 Symptom-directed
 Healing the negative effects of stressors
Stress Management
• As stress is an outcome of the interaction of
organizational elements and individual
characteristics, so Intervention must consider
changes in both these dimensions
▫ Management at organizational level
▫ Management at individual level
2
29-10-2020
Elements or organizations that may cause stress
1. Demands – includes workloads, work patterns and the work
environment.
2. Control – how much say the person has in the way they do
their work.
3. Support – includes the encouragement, sponsorship and
resources provided by the organization, line management
and colleagues.
4. Role – whether people understand their role within
the organization and whether the organization ensures
that they do not have
conflicting roles.
5. Change – how organizational change (large
or small)
is managed and communicated in the organization.
6. Relationships – promoting positive working to avoid
conflict and dealing with unacceptable behavior.
The primary prevention….Stress Management at
organizational level…
• Managing ‘Demands’ element
▫ The standard: Employees indicate that they are able to
cope with the demands of their jobs
▫ What should be happening
 The organization provides employees with adequate and
achievable demands in relation to the agreed hours of
work.
 People’s skills and abilities are matched to the job
demands.
 Jobs are designed to be within the capabilities of
employees.
 Employees’ concerns about their work environment are
addressed.
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Managing ‘Demands’ element
• Ways to achieve the standard
▫ Workload
 Ensure sufficient resources are available for staff to be able to do their jobs
(time, equipment etc).
 Adjust work patterns to cope with peaks and staff absences (this needs to
be fair and agreed with employees).
 Provide training (formal or informal) to help staff prioritize, or information
on how they can seek help if they have conflicting priorities.
 Hold weekly team meetings to discuss the anticipated workload for the
forthcoming week (and to deal with any planned absences).
▫ Working patterns
 Review working hours and shift work systems – have these been agreed
with staff?
 Consider changes to start and end times to help employees to cope with
pressures external to the organization (e.g. child care, poor commuting
routes).
 Develop a system to notify employees of unplanned tight deadlines and any
exceptional need to work long hours.
Managing ‘Demands’ element
• Physical environment and violence
▫ Assess the risk of physical threat, violence and verbal abuse and ensure
your risk assessments for physical hazards and risks are up to date.
▫ Provide training to help staff deal with and defuse difficult situations
• More Do’s:
▫ allow regular breaks, especially when the work is complex or emotionally
demanding; set realistic deadlines;
▫ design jobs that provide stimulation and opportunities for workers to use
their skills to keep staff motivated and interested in their work;
▫ attend to the physical environment – take steps to reduce unwanted
distraction, disturbance, noise levels, vibration, dust etc where possible;
▫ provide support to those less experienced or under pressure; if you’re a
team-leader – learn to say no to work if your team is already at full
capacity
• Don’t:
▫ allow workers to ‘cope’ by working longer hours, starting earlier, finishing later,
taking work home or working through breaks and lunch;
▫ contact staff by phone or email outside of working hours or when they are on
leave or otherwise ‘off duty’.
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Managing ‘Control’ element
• The standard
▫ Employees indicate that they have some control over the way they do their work
• What should be happening
▫ Where possible, employees have control over their pace of work, eg have a say
over when breaks can be taken.
▫ Employees are encouraged to develop new skills to help them undertake new
and challenging pieces of work. And use their skills and initiative to do their
work.
• Do’s
▫ Provide opportunities for discussion and input.
▫ Talk about the way decisions are made – is there scope for more involvement?
▫ allow and encourage staff to participate in decision-making, especially where it
affects them
• Don'ts
▫ monitor employees’ movements in detail (including breaks);
▫ monitor working style, unless necessary
▫ ask staff to stay late without notice.
Managing ‘Support’ element
• The standard
▫ Employees indicate that they receive adequate information and support
from their colleagues and superiors.
• What should be happening
▫ Employees know what support is available and how and when to access
it.
▫ Employees know how to access the required resources to do their job.
▫ Employees receive regular and constructive feedback.
• Do’s
▫ Hold regular one-to-one and team meetings to talk about any emerging
issues or pressures.
▫ Include ‘work-related stress/emerging pressures’ as a standing item for
staff meetings and/or performance reviews.
▫ Seek examples of how people would like to, or have, received good
support from managers or colleagues – can these be adopted across the
unit?
▫ Offer training in basic counselling skills/access to counsellors.
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Managing ‘Relationships’ element
• The standard
▫ Employees indicate that they are not subjected to unacceptable
behaviours, e.g. bullying at work.
• What should be happening
▫ The organization promotes positive behaviours at work to avoid conflict
and ensure fairness.
▫ Systems are in place to enable and encourage employees to report
unacceptable behaviour & system to resolve conflict should be effective
• Do’s
▫ provide appropriate training to aid skill development (eg listening skills,
confidence building).
▫ Develop a written policy for dealing with unacceptable behaviour and
grievance and disciplinary procedures for reporting incidents –
communicate these to staff.
▫ Identify ways to celebrate success (e.g. informal lunches)
▫ Communicate clearly which behaviours are unacceptable
Managing ‘Role’ element
• The standard
▫ Employees indicate that they understand their role and responsibilities
• What should be happening
▫ The organization provides information to enable employees to
understand their role and responsibilities
▫ Ensure that the requirements organization places upon employees are
clear.
▫ Systems are in place to enable employees to raise concerns about any
uncertainties or conflicts they have in their role and responsibilities.
• Do’s
▫ Develop suitable induction arrangements for new staff
▫ Display team/department targets and objectives to help clarify unit and
individual role.
▫ Agreed specific standards of performance for jobs and individual tasks
and review periodically.
▫ Introduce personal work plans which are aligned to the outputs of the
unit
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Managing ‘Change’ element
• The standard
▫ Employees indicate that the organization engages them frequently when
undergoing an organizational change.
• What should be happening
▫ The organization provides employees with timely information to enable
them to understand the reasons for proposed changes.
▫ If necessary, employees are given training to support any changes in their
jobs.
• Do’s
▫ involve staff in the planning process so that they understand how their
work fits in;
▫ explain what the organization wants to achieve and why it is essential that
the change(s) takes place;
▫ Ensure all staff are aware of why the change is happening – agree a
system for doing this.
▫ Provide a system to enable staff to comment and ask questions before,
during and after the change, eg for staff who want to raise their concerns.
▫ consult staff throughout the change process;
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HS485
Psychology at Workplace
Module-5
Stress at the Workplace
Lecture 34
Stress Management…
…the personalized plan
……Stress Management
• Recap
▫ As stress is an outcome of the interaction of organizational elements and
individual characteristics, so Intervention must consider changes in both these
dimensions
 Management at organizational level…to improve performance…..done
 Management at individual level…..to improve mental health
• Management at individual level
▫ At individual level, poor stress management and Mental Health make a
vicious circle
▫ Many a times our efforts to manage stress are not fruitful…… May be due
to
 Lack of knowledge about what to do…
 If you know it precisely, then Inconsistent efforts, less intense than
required, are to blame
 Rumination….and personality factors
 And……Lack of personalized Plan
1
04-11-2020
Mental Health….our ultimate goal …but…
WHAT IS IT?…..
• Mental health is more than just absence of
Mental Illness
• Mental health includes;
▫ Subjective well-being
▫ Psychological well-being
▫ Social well-being.
• determine and as well as affected by how we
think, feel, act, handle stress, relate to others,
and make choices.
Stress Management…….the personalized plan
Step-I
Identify your personal stressors…… all
including potential ones
As sometimes you misattribute your stress to wrong
source and behave maladaptively
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04-11-2020
What is Stressful to You?
Work
Roommate
Legal matters
Classes
Childcare
Mental health
Studying
Finances
Law violation
Relationship with
partner
Appearance
Spiritual/Religious
issues
Relationship with
family
Physical Health
Major/Career
decisions
Relationship with
friends
Not “fitting in”
Attitudes/thoughts
Trauma
Getting married
Buying a house
Change in residence
Change to a new
school
Change in amount of
recreation
Change in amount of
social activities
Change in eating
habits
Death of
friend/family
member
Stress Management…….the personalized plan
• Step II. Identify predisposing and reinforcing causes
also rather than just precipitating ones
• Precipitating cause……the trigger
▫
▫
▫
▫
▫
Sudden loss
Failure of efforts
Interpersonal conflict
Work family conflicts
High demands
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04-11-2020
Stress Management…….the personalized plan
• Predisposing Causes….Stressors are not the only
cause
▫ Your self concept
 Either lack of self awareness
 Wrong conception of the self…Low self-esteem/extremely
high self esteem
▫ Types of experiences so far…..positive and negatives
 Need to have an constructive perspective for all kind of
negative experiences.
▫ Frequency of stress experiences as stress has
accumulating effect
▫ …..and many more personal issues
▫ Chronic illness (self and significant others)
▫ Lack of support system(it is reinforcing also)
Stress Management…….the personalized plan
• Reinforcing Causes
▫ Life style
 Priorities
 Habits….procrastination
 Sleeping pattern, Eating pattern
▫ Decision making
 Impulsive Vs Thoughtful
 Stress let you feel that you need to things immediately, but sometime it can handled
better when you are relaxed
▫ Approach to resolve conflict
 Try to make it win-win: a balance of assertiveness and cooperativeness
▫ Coping pattern
 Emotion focused Vs Problem Focused
 Acceptance Vs Denial
▫ Lack of support system
 Poor network…Internet of Friends/well-wishers
▫ Consistent use of defense mechanism
 Projection
 Rationalization
 Repression
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04-11-2020
HS485
Psychology at Workplace
Module-5
Stress at the Workplace
Lecture 35
Stress Management…
…the personalized plan
Stress Management…….the personalized plan
• Reinforcing Causes
▫ Life style
 Priorities
 Habits….procrastination
 Sleeping pattern, Eating pattern
▫ Decision making
 Impulsive Vs Thoughtful
 Stress let you feel that you need to things immediately, but sometime it can be handled
better when you are relaxed
▫ Approach to resolve conflict
 Try to make it win-win: a balance of assertiveness and cooperativeness
▫ Coping pattern
 Emotion focused Vs Problem Focused
 Acceptance Vs Denial
▫ Lack of support system
 Poor network…Internet of Friends/well-wishers
▫ Consistent use of defense mechanism
 Projection
 Rationalization
 Repression
1
04-11-2020
Stress Management…….the personalized plan
• Step 3.
Organization and Planning
▫ Being unorganized or engaging in poor planning often leads to
frustration or crisis situations, which most always leads to feeling
stressed.
 Plan your time
 Make a schedule in advance





Establish your priorities.
Don’t procrastinate….somehow manage to start it
Practice
Learn to delegate tasks(beyond your limits)
Always have a PLAN B ready
▫ Be organized in your expression also
▫ Be organized in your thoughts, whatever you want to
convey.
Stress Management…….the personalized plan
• Step 4.
Life-style changes
▫ Physical Health
 Healthy-balanced diet
 Physical activity
 Adequate sleep
▫ Subjective and psychological well being






Make metal health a goal
Follow a routine, but be flexible in accommodating emergencies
Allow yourself to do something you enjoy each day
Make realistic Goals
Improve decision making, it can be learned
Find a support system




Instrumental support….direct help……colleagues
Emotional support……family member….close friends
Informational support…..health care professional, reliable websites
Appraisal support….feedback to improve.
 Give yourself "my quite time” and think about your mental health
▫ Social Well-Being
 Communication…..make it as precise as possible
 Analyze your previous conflict with friend/family member and see did communication pattern
contribute to the conflict, in addition to the real issue
 Learn to listen and empathize
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04-11-2020
HS485
Psychology at Workplace
Module-5
Stress at the Workplace
Lecture 36
Stress Management…
…the personalized plan
&
Active Participation
Assignment-II
Stress Management…….the personalized plan
• Step 5.
Relaxation exercises
▫ Yoga
 Slow diaphragmatic breathing
 Physical Stretching
▫
▫
▫
▫
▫
Muscular Relaxation Therapy
Bio-feedback
Music Therapy
Laugh, use humor
Ventilation
• Make it a part of your daily routine
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04-11-2020
Stress Management…….the personalized plan
• Step 6.
Cognitive Restructuring
▫ Be realistic
 Develop realistic expectations of yourself and others.
▫ Try to change the way you appraise a situation
to make it less stressful
▫ Learn to say “NO’
▫ Understand your rumination
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04-11-2020
We all know but we don’t follow……Why
Active Participation
Assignment-II
Personalized Stress
Management Trial
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04-11-2020
Personalized Stress Management Trial
1. Identification of Personal Stressors
▫
Listing of all the factors causing stress

It may be your thoughts, or lack of control over your
thoughts
2. Identify & write about the predisposing and
reinforcing cause that may be adding more stress in
actual/real stress arising in a situation.
3. On the bases of the perceived causes of stress try to
do the following, just for four consecutive days after
you write down stressors and the perceived causes
1. Changes in your existing style of organizing and planning
as discussed in one of the lectures or as you feel
comfortable………………Contd.
Personalized Stress Management Trial
2.
Changes in life style factors; Focus on all the aspects mentioned in the
class, i.e. Physical health, subjective, Psychological and social well
being….things that you are not doing presently ….communication
pattern etc.
3. Any one relaxation exercise for at least 10 mins, deep breathing,
favourite instrumental music etc.
4. Understand and experiment with your cognitive distortions (if any) just
for four days. Think about your rumination or benefits of reappraisal,
practice to say NO to your irrational impulses etc.
• Write about all the these things, i.e. your stressors, possible causes, and the
activities you decided to do during this four day trial.
• Then present the day wise summary of activities performed and how did
you feel at the end of each day.
▫
▫
▫
This task requires certain meta-cognitive abilities therefore it may seem
difficult to some students to write about their feelings. Try to understand, If
you are successful in knowing and describing your internal representations,
expressing external things will be easier.
So it is not just stress-management activity but
Submit it By
it adds to your meta-cognitive abilities also.
18-11-2020
Enjoy while performing…and writing
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HS485
Psychology at Workplace
Module-6
Lecture 37
Introduction to
Engineering Psychology
Engineering Psychology
Engineering Psychology
• Within the broader field of Human Factors(Ergonomics) lies
the discipline of engineering psychology.
• The field of human factors engineering, human-systems
integration and user-interface design addresses issues of how
humans interact with technology.
• Ergonomics (or human factors) is the scientific discipline
concerned with the understanding of interactions among
humans and other elements of a system, and the profession that
applies theory, principles, data and methods to design to
optimize human well-being and overall system performance.
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History and Scope of Engineering Psychology
• Prior to 1940, engineers made machines without
considering the human factor
• The worker was adapted to the machine through
time-and-motion studies
• WW II weaponry was complex but did not perform
up to expectations, thus giving rise to engineering
psychology
▫ Example: There was no consistency in design of aircraft
controls. “On” position for some controls was up, for
others, down – difficult to remember in a dog fight.
▫ Different controls in different aircrafts
▫ Many pilots died as a result
History and Scope of Engineering
Psychology
• Poor design resulted in many accidents
▫ Three Mile Island in 1979 - poor design of controls
• Human factors research resulted in safer
automobiles, including redesigns of headlights,
brake lights, and tinted windows
• Other areas of effort include license plate visibility,
signage, cell phone use while driving, driver
aggression, and mailbag design
• Ergonomics has net gains of 1 to 12% over the costs
of human factors interventions
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Time and Motion Study
• An early attempt to redesign work tools and to
reshape the way workers performed routine,
repetitive jobs
• F.W. Taylor (1898) performed first empirical
demonstration of the relationship between work
tools and worker efficiency
▫ Introduced shovels of different sizes for handling
different materials
▫ Saved the company $78,000 per year
Time and Motion Study
• Frank and Lillian Gilbreth (1911) were interested in
the mechanics of job performance to eliminate
unnecessary motion
▫ Started with improving the efficiency of bricklaying
▫ Increased rate of bricklaying from 120 to 350 bricks an
hour by reducing motions from 18 to 5
• The basic unit of motion was the Therblig (Gilbreth
spelled backwards)
• Gilbreth’s had 12 children – their lives were depicted
in the movie Cheaper by the Dozen
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Guidelines for Increasing Efficiency of
Manual Jobs suggested by early
researchers
•
•
•
•
Minimize reaching distance of tools from worker
Symmetrical movements of both hands
Hands should never be idle
Hands never do tasks that can be performed by other
parts of body
• Work materials held by a vice
• Workbench height should be adjustable to prevent
fatigue
Origin
• Just after World War II when experimental
psychologists were called in to help understand
▫ Why pilots were crashing perfectly good aircraft (Fitts
& Jones, 1947)
▫ Why vigilance for enemy planes over the English
Channel was sometimes wanting (Mackworth, 1948),
▫ Or how learning theory could be harnessed to better
train military personnel (Melton, 1947).
• Since that time, over the past 70 to 80 years, the field
has grown and expanded into areas such as consumer
products, business, highway safety,
telecommunications, and, most recently, health care
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What is Engineering Psychology?
• Science of designing or engineering machines &
equipment for human use and of engineering
appropriate human behaviour for the efficient
operation of the machines.
• Associated Areas
▫ Human factors
▫ Human engineering
▫ Ergonomics
Engineering Psychologist’s Role in the system design
• to ensure that human’s psychological, physiological
and performance characteristics are addressed.
Questions of interest include the following:
▫ Will a particular design exceed the operator's capacity
to respond or to process information?
▫ Is there a better way to design a system that
capitalizes on human strengths and compensates for
human shortcomings?
▫ What are the optimal training methods and
procedures for systems and people?
▫ Where did the system break down and how can it be
fixed?
▫ What kinds of human errors were exhibited and how
can these be eliminated in the future?
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Engineering psychology
• Engineering psychology focuses on “human factors
from the neck up,” in contrast to many applications
of human factors to issues “below the neck,” such as
lower back injuries, fatigue, work physiology and so
forth.
• Human factors engineering focuses much more
heavily upon design (of products, workstations, etc.)
and the evaluation of those designs than does
engineering psychology. Engineering psychology is,
after all, a subdiscipline of psychology, and not
engineering
Engineering Psychology Vs Basic Psychology
(Experimental/cognitive ergonomics)
Basic Psychology….
Engineering Psychology
• the theories of brain, behavior,
and cognition that are applicable
to the workplace
• concern for statistical significance
• certainly not devoid of theory, but
also broadens its focus to
consider issues of task description
and analysis, design, and
principles of design that may not
directly translate to theory.
• applications of its theories and
principles
• concern for Practical significance
• Lessons learned, and challenges faced by engineering psychologists should
always feed back to the basic psychologist, to inform where new theory is needed,
or old theory may be wanting.
• Experimental psychologists are often interested in knowing the limitations of their
models and results in real-world settings, and by providing such feedback the
engineering psychologist helps ensure that application is considered.
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Engineering Psychology Vs Basic Psychology
(Experimental/cognitive ergonomics)
Basic Psychology….
Engineering Psychology
• the theories of brain, behavior,
and cognition that are applicable
to the workplace
• concern for statistical significance
• certainly not devoid of theory, but
also broadens its focus to
consider issues of task description
and analysis, design, and
principles of design that may not
directly translate to theory.
• applications of its theories and
principles
• concern for Practical significance
• Lessons learned, and challenges faced by engineering psychologists should
always feed back to the basic psychologist, to inform where new theory is needed,
or old theory may be wanting.
• Experimental psychologists are often interested in knowing the limitations of their
models and results in real-world settings, and by providing such feedback the
engineering psychologist helps ensure that application is considered.
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HS485
Psychology at Workplace
Module-6
Lecture 38
Person-Machine System
Engineering Psychology
Human Performance in engineering Psychology
Emphasis is on the quality of performance (e.g.,
better or worse), and here we typically think of
measures of “the big three”:
• Speed (faster is better)
• Accuracy (higher is better) and
• Attentional demand (less is generally better: will
put less stress on the user/operator).
Thus, the perfect principle in engineering psychology as one
which, if applied to design, will allow the user to perform a
task more rapidly, more accurately, and with reduced
attentional demand.
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The five main principles of ergonomics are
•
•
•
•
•
Safety
Comfort
Ease of use
Productivity and performance
Aesthetics
SYSTEMS
• A system is a
▫ cohesive assembly of interrelated and interdependent parts which can
be natural or human-made and each component serve some function
▫ bounded by space and time,
▫ influenced by its environment,
▫ defined by its structure and purpose, and
▫ expressed through its functioning.
• A system may be more than the sum of its parts, it
expresses synergy or emergent behavior.
• It may be…
▫ Manual
▫ Mechanical
▫ Automated (hybrid)
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Person-Machine System
• It is the total P-M system that is the starting point for the
engineering psychologist’s job
• A system in which human and mechanical components operate
together to accomplish a task
• Neither part is of value without the other, if one fails, whole
system will be affected
• A person driving a car is a Person-Machine System
• Human operator receives input on machine status from the
Displays
• Human operator gives input to machine(regulates) status via
Controls
• Such systems vary in the extent to which the human operator is
actively and continuously involved, sometime 100% sometime
less…
• Humans remain important components of automated
manufacturing systems….can not maintain itself
Person-Machine System
• Human Component
▫ Effectors
▫ Senses
▫ Supportive Processes
• Machine Component
▫ Controlled Process
▫ Displays
▫ Controls
• Environment
▫ Workspace
▫ Physical Environment
▫ Work Organization
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Human-Machine Model
7
WORK ORGANIZATION
ENVIRONMENT
WORKSPACE
DISPLAY
SENSORY
PROCESSING
PROCESSING
CONTROL
EFFECTORS
Person-Machine System
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Human Component of a Person-Machine System
Attention
• Attention was one of the first concepts to appear in
Psychology texts (ca 1730) – e.g., Ebbinghaus, Titchener, …
• Early discussions (Hatfield, 1998) focused on properties
such as
▪
▪
▪
▪
▪
▪
▪
Narrowing (Aristotle, 4th century BC)
Active Directing (Lucretius, 1st century AD)
Involuntary shifts (Hippo, 400 AD)
Clarity (Buridan, 14th century)
Fixation over time (Descartes, 17th century)
Effector sensitivity (Descartes)
All the above phenomena (William James, early 1900s)
• More recent studies have been concerned with
➢ The view of attention as selection
➢ The analysis of attention as a process of resource allocation
➢ The study of the relation between voluntary and involuntary
control of attention
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Stroop test #1 (NCW)
• Read the color of the word
• Piece of cake right??
Stroop test #2 (RCN)
• Read the word and time yourself – NOT the
color
• Still easy right?
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Stroop test #3
• Now….. Read the color of the word and time
yourself – NOT the word
• Not so easy, eh??
• Name the word in the box
Directional Stroop
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• Give the Direction of the word in the box
▫ Is it on the top? On the left? Etc…..
• Give the Direction of the word in the box
▫ Is it on the top? On the left? Etc…..
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HS485
Psychology at Workplace
Module-6
Lecture 39
Person-Machine System
Engineering Psychology
Workplace redesigning
• Both Physical and paper Plants need to be modified
• Flaws in the paper plant can lie dormant and can lead to
undesirable outcomes in the physical plant or even personal
injury.
▫ Front-line workers “touch” the physical plant as they perform
their assigned tasks. Supervisors observe, direct, and coach
workers.
▫ Engineers and other technical staff perform activities that alter
the paper plant or modify processes and procedures that direct
the activities of workers in the physical plant.
• Managers influence worker
The activities of all these individuals need to be controlled.
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Principles for Workspace Design: For
manual workers
• All materials should be placed in order in which they
will be used so paths of movements will be
continuous
• Tools should be pre-positioned for use
• All parts and tools should be within comfortable
reach
▫ Greater than about 28 inches causes unnecessary
repositioning and consequent loss of efficiency and
increased fatigue
• Alter a workplace design to accommodate worker’s
special needs
• Heights of all working surfaces should be adjustable
Avoiding Workplace accidents
• One of the methods used to reduce accidents in the workplace is a checklist.
▫ The airline industry is one industry that uses checklists. Pilots are required to
go through a detailed checklist of the different parts of the aircraft before
takeoff to ensure that all essential equipment is working correctly.
▫ World Health Organization (WHO) developed a surgical safety checklist that
serves as the basis for many checklists at medical facilities.
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Other Design Considerations….tools
• Hand tools should be
designed for use without
bending wrists
▫ Hammers with angled
handles work better
• Properly designed tools affect
productivity, satisfaction, and
physical health
▫ e.g., reduction of carpal
tunnel syndrome
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SITTING POSTURES
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Optimum sitting position
McPhee
5
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Designing a Person-Machine System
Allocating Functions Between The Operator &
Machine
▫ Engineers first carefully analyze each process in the
functioning of the total system to determine its
characteristics
 Speed, accuracy and frequency with which it is
performed
 Stress under which it occurs
▫ They then make decisions regarding man - machine
division of labor
▫ Each component has its advantages and its limitations
Machine are better than humans in
following functions
• Detecting stimuli beyond human sensory
capacities
• Monitoring reliably for lengthy periods
• Making large numbers of rapid, accurate
calculations
• Storing and retrieving vast amounts of
information with accuracy
• Applying continuous and rapid physical force
• Engaging in repetitive activities
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Of course, Machines are not perfect
• Not very flexible, can do only what it is programmed
to do, can not adapt,
• Cannot learn from errors, change has to be initiated
by human
• Cannot improvise
• When operators only monitor, disastrous results can
happen
▫ e.g., bored pilots or subway drivers,
▫ If job skills are rarely used, they will deteriorate
• full automation is dangerous as systems can fail – no
intervention available without human monitor
Of course, Machines are not perfect
• Not very flexible, can do only what it is programmed
to do, can not adapt,
• Cannot learn from errors, change has to be initiated
by human
• Cannot improvise
• When operators only monitor, disastrous results can
happen
▫ e.g., bored pilots or subway drivers,
▫ If job skills are rarely used, they will deteriorate
• full automation is dangerous as systems can fail – no
intervention available without human monitor
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HS485
Lecture 40
Psychology at Workplace Person-Machine System:
Module-6
Machine Component
Engineering Psychology
Person-Machine System
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Displays: Presenting Information
• Displays….devices used by the information sender to
communicate with human receiver.
• Human operator receives input on machine status from the
Displays
• Displays can take the form of any technology and can be other
than visual e.g. auditory, tactile or multimodal.
• Selection of right kind of displays(communicating device) is
crucial
▫ Effective displays requires an effective system, only right selection
of displays will not be sufficient……..in case of littering, smoking
If we pin our hand written note in a dark corner of a corridor, or at
a very low height, it may not be noticed by the person for whom it is
intended.
Displays: Presenting Information
• Many systems controlled by human operators present information in
either dynamic analog form or digital form, using dials, meters, or other
changing elements, to represent the momentary state of some part of the
system.
• It is important that dials and meters be compatible with the operator’s
mental model of the system.
• The mental model, forms the basis for understanding the system,
predicting its future behavior, and controlling its actions (St-Cyr & Burns,
2001).
• As a consequence, there are three levels of representation that must be
considered in designing display interfaces,
▫ (1) the physical system itself;
▫ (2) the user’s mental model; and
▫ (3) the interface between these two, the display surface on which changes in the
system are presented to the operator, and which help form the basis for control
action and decision (Bennett & Flach, 2011).
• It is important to maintain a high degree of compatibility among all
three representations.
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Displays: Presenting Information
• In achieving this compatibility, it is first important that the properties of
the interface accurately reflect the dynamics of the physical system, a
correspondence referred to as ecological compatibility (Vicente, 1997).
▫ This will help the operator’s mental model to correspond better to the
physical system dynamics (St-Cyr & Burns, 2001; Vicente, 1997). Such
correspondence will be aided by displays that show the key physical
parameters in effective and intuitive ways
• Second, display compatibility is achieved by display representations whose
structure and organization are compatible with the user’s mental model.
Displays: Presenting Information
• Given the increase in the use of automation in complex
systems, the physical representation includes not only the
system performing the physical work, but also any automated
system controlling the process.
• Thus, for example, the physical system for an aircraft includes
not only the rudder, engines, elevators, etc. but also the
automated systems used to control those aircraft components.
• It is important for the mental model to reflect the automated
systems correctly in order to maintain appropriate awareness
should the system fail.
• Aviation accidents like Colgan Air Flight 3407 near Buffalo,
New York (Sorensen, 2011) were at least partially
attributable to the pilots’ lack of understanding of what the
automation was doing when the plane lost control.
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Displays: Presenting Information
• The principle of pictorial realism(PPR)
▫ if a variable’s physical representation is analog, then its display representation should also
be analog (Roscoe, 1968).
▫ The representation of aircraft altitude is a typical instance. Physically, altitude is
an analog quantity, with large changes in altitude more important than small
changes. Conceptually, the pilot likely represents altitude in analog form.
Therefore, to achieve compatibility, a display of altitude (i.e., an altimeter)
should be in analog format (e.g., a needle position changing on the display to
indicate a change in altitude) rather than digital.
• Why…..The human transformation of symbolic digital information to analog
conceptual representation imposes an extra cognitive processing step, leading to
longer visual fixations, increasing processing time, and increasing the likelihood of
error (Grether, 1949).
• the direction and shape of the display representation should also be compatible
with the mental (and physical) representations.
▫ Consider a violation in direction: an altimeter that places high altitudes low on
the display, and vice versa. While this would still be an analog representation,
our mental model of altitude mimics the physical variable itself: high altitudes
are up and low altitudes are down. Therefore, the altimeter should present high
altitudes at the top of the scale and low ones at the bottom
Displays: Compatibility of Display Movement
• If motion is occurring in the physical system itself, it can be useful to represent that
motion by motion display (rather than by using static displays) to produce an
appropriate mental model of the situation (Park & Gittelman, 1995).
• Beyond that, however, the compatibility of direction between the display and the
mental model is also important.
• Roscoe, Corl, and Jensen (1981) proposed the principle of the moving part
(PMP)—that the direction of movement of an indicator on a display is compatible
with the direction of movement of an operator’s mental model of the variable.
• In the moving-pointer display, high altitude is at the top and an increase in
altitude is indicated by an upward movement of the moving element on the display.
However, this simple arrangement can only show a small range of altitudes or
requires an extremely compressed scale where motion would be barely visible.
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Displays: Compatibility of Display Movement
•
•
One proposal was to have a fixed pointer and move the display scale, when necessary to show only the
relevant part (a moving-scale display). If the moving scale is designed to follow the PPR, high altitudes
should be at the top of the display However, this means that the scale must move downward to indicate an
increase in altitude—a violation of the PMP.
If the labeling is reversed to conform to the PMP (Figure c) this change will reverse the orientation and
display high altitude at the bottom, violating the PPR! A disadvantage for both moving-scale displays is that
scale values become difficult to read when the variable is changing rapidly since the digits themselves are
moving.
• A possible solution here is to employ a hybrid display.
• The pointer moves as in Figure a, but only a restricted portion of the scale is
exposed. When the pointer approaches the top or bottom of the window, the scale
shifts more slowly in the opposite direction to bring the pointer back toward the
center of the window, and expose the newer, more relevant region of the scale.
Thus the pointer moves at higher frequencies in response to the more salient
aircraft motion and the scale shifts at lower frequencies as needed. This way both
principles—pictorial realism and moving part—are satisfied.
Displays: Colour coding
• A unique color stands out from a monochrome background, and as we saw in visual
search, also allows for rapid parallel search for a target (Christ, 1975).
• Color hue is useful for coding categorical or qualitative information (e.g., blue and
red symbols on a map to show friendly and hostile forces). However, like other
sensory continua, color is subject to the limits of absolute judgment Thus, the system
designer should probably use no more than about seven hues in a display (Carter &
Cahill, 1979; Flavell & Heath, 1992).
• Color hue is effective for segregating categories of objects within a display (Yamani &
McCarley, 2010), and for showing discrete state changes (Smith & Thomas, 1964;
Van Laar & Deshe, 2007).
• Certain colors have well-established symbolic meaning within a population (e.g., red
is often used to indicate danger, or stop; green signals safety, or go). Because these
sometimes vary across culture (Courtney, 1986), such coding is often referred to as a
population stereotype. Coding levels should not conflict with population stereotypes
(e.g., assigning red to “go” or “safe”).
• Color hue does not generate a natural ordering, i.e. Red is not perceived as “more” or
“less” than green. Thus, color hue is not effective for relative judgment.
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Visual Displays
•
•
•
•
Design
Location
Lighting
Line of sight
Presenting Visual Information in Displays
• Visual presentation is most appropriate when
▫
▫
▫
▫
Message is long, difficult and abstract
Environment is too noisy for auditory signals
Auditory channels are overloaded
Multiple kinds of information to be presented
simultaneously…which is not feasible in auditory
• Least appropriate
▫ When more than required information is given
 We should ask, is this required to run a system
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Types of Visual Displays
1. Quantitative
2. Qualitative
3. Check reading
• Quantitative displays present a precise
numerical value such as speed, altitude or
temperature
• An open window display is read with fewest errors,
and the vertical display was misread one third of
the time
• Digital display can be read faster with fewer errors,
but cannot be used in all situations
▫ e.g., if conditions are rapidly changing, or need to
know direction of change
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Qualitative Displays
• Displays that present a range rather than a
precise numerical value…..temp of car’s engine
▫ e.g., red area hot – green area normal – yellow
area cold
• Consistent patterning makes multiple displays
easier to read
▫ Used in aircraft cockpits
• Unpattern displays force operator to read each
dial separately
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HS485
Lecture 41
Module-6
Machine
Component(Displays)
Psychology at Workplace Person-Machine System:
Engineering Psychology
Check Reading Visual Displays
• Simplest kind of visual display
• Tells operator whether the system is:
▫ On or off
▫ Safe or unsafe
▫ Normal or abnormal
• Warning light most common
▫ Twice as bright as background
▫ Centered in field of vision
▫ Flashing
• Push/Pull
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Auditory Displays
• The auditory modality is different from the visual modality in
three important respects relevant to attention.
▫ First, the auditory sense can take input from any direction,
we say sound is omnidirectional.
▫ Second, the auditory modality has the capacity to receive
information at almost all times; in darkness or even while
we sleep. There is no “earblink.”
▫ Third, most auditory input is transient. A word or tone is
heard and then it ends, in contrast to most visual input,
which tends to be continuously available. Hence, the preattentive characteristics of auditory processing—those
required to “hold on” to a stimulus before it is gone—are
more critical in audition than in vision to support this.
Auditory Presentation of Information
• Auditory presentation most effective when:
▫
▫
▫
▫
Information is short, simple, and straightforward
Message is urgent
Environment is too dark for visuals
The operator’s job requires moving to different
locations
• Problem with “nuisance alarms”
▫ If alarms are too sensitive or occur too frequently, they
are often ignored
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Control systems
• After receiving information through displays and
processing it, some control actions needs to be
communicated to machines
• Through switches, pushbuttons, lever, steering wheel,
mouse etc.
• Choice, location and shape of the controls must be
compatible with human factors
• Will depend on the task
▫ On/off
▫ Search frequencies
▫ Single setting/continuous use or discrete/continuous
information
▫ How much force is required(hand or feet)
Guidelines For Controls
• Control-body matching
▫ Most rely on hands and feet
▫ No one limb should be given too many tasks
 Scooter to motor-cycle, positioning of clutch
• Control-task compatibility
▫ A control action should imitate the movements it
produces
▫ Turning steering wheel right makes right turn
 When not, difficult to control
• When possible, combining controls that perform
similar or related functions is more efficient
▫ Automatic transmission
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Guidelines For Controls
• Identification of controls
▫ Controls should be clearly marked or coded
 Sign of wiper on buttons
 e.g., shape coding for touch recognition
• Placement of controls
▫ Consistency and uniformity is important
▫ Consider cultural influences on preferences
▫ Emergency controls in line of sight, clearly
distinguishable and protected with a cover
▫ Group related controls and displays according to
function
• For PwD
Recommended Direction of Movement for Controls
FUNCTION
DIRECTION
On
Down (switches),
right, forward, clockwise,
pull (pull/push type switch)
Off
Up (switches)
Left, backward, anticlockwise, push
Right
Clockwise, right
Left
Anti-clockwise, left
Forward
Forward, down
Reverse
Backward, upward
Raise
Up, back, rearward
Lower
Down, forward
Retract
Up, backward, pull, anticlockwise
Extend
Down, forward, push, clockwise
Increase
Forward, away, right, clockwise, out
Decrease
Backward, towards, left, anticlockwise, in
Open valve
Anticlockwise
Close valve
Clockwise
Emergency stop
Push button or pull cord
Remote shutdown
Left, backward, push (switch knobs), up switches
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Always keep in mind the usability of the product
9
Definition of
Need
Conceptual
Design
Usability
Preliminary
Design
Detail Design &
Development
Two Ways of Assessing Usability
10
• Analytically - by simulating how the user’s activity will be
performed
▫ We can test designs that we can’t build
▫ We can save time by not building a prototype
▫ We don’t need to plan and conduct an experiment
▫ In other words, they can be used more quickly, earlier in
the design
• Empirically - by building and testing a prototype
▫ We receive more precise information about how a user
will interact with the product
▫ We can see major flaws easier and therefore reducing
modifications to the product once it is fielded
▫ In other words, it will provide richer information;
however, there is increased cost associated with the
experimentation
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ANATOMY OF AN UNDESIRABLE CONSEQUENCE(Event)
Any undesirable
consequence
“the risk is in the people—the way they are trained, their level of
professionalism and performance, and the way they are managed.”
The strategic approach to improving
human performance
1. Anticipate, prevent, catch, and recover from active
errors at the job site.
2. Identify and eliminate latent organizational
weaknesses that provoke human error and degrade
controls against error and the consequences of
error.
But Reducing the error rate minimizes the frequency,
but not the severity of events.
Only controls can be effective at reducing the severity
of the outcome of error.
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• Reducing errors (Re) and managing controls (Mc)
will lead to zero significant events (ØE).
• The formula for achieving this goal is
Re + Mc → ØE.
• Eliminating significant events will result in
performance improvement within the organization.
…………………………….Disclaimer
• People are fallible, and even the best people make
mistakes
Dr. James Reason, author of Human Error (1990) wrote: It is
crucial that personnel and particularly their managers
become more aware of the human potential for errors, the
task, workplace, and organizational factors that shape their
likelihood and their consequences.
• But, Despite the inevitability of human error in
general, specific errors are predictable, manageable,
and preventable
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Reducing Error
• Preparation —
▫ identifying associated hazards, and what is to be avoided, including
critical steps;
▫ task assignment – putting the right people on the job in light of the
job’s task demands;
▫ Task previews and pre-job briefings
• Performance
▫ Performing work with a sense of uneasiness;
▫ maintaining situational awareness;
▫ supported with quality supervision and teamwork.
• Feedback —
▫ Reporting about the status
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HS485
Psychology at Workplace
Summary of the course
Summary of the course
• Psychology is the scientific study of Human
Behaviour and Mental Processes!!!!
• B=f(P,E)…….
• Ultimate goal to modify human behaviour in order to
enhance efficiency and well-being
• Organizational psychology applies psychological principles to the
workplace, including the structure of organizations, the ways its
members work together, and how the organization attempts to
improve itself through motivation, diversity, work attitudes,
leadership, culture, and other related processes (Levy, 2006).
• Dual focus
▫ Efficiency/productivity of organizations
▫ Health/well-being of employees
• Dual nature
▫ Application of the science of psychology to the workplace
▫ Development/discovery of scientific psychological principles at work
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Summary of the course
• Job performance
▫ actions, behavior and outcomes that employees engage
in or bring about that are linked with and contribute to
organizational goals
• 8 basic performance components
 Task specific behaviours/Technical performance
 Non-task specific behaviours






Written and oral communication
Demonstrated efforts
Maintaining personal discipline
Facilitating peer and team performance
Supervision/leadership
Management/ Administration
• Adaptive Performance
Desired Goal State
Seligman’s
PERMA
Model……
Routes to Wellbeing
•
•
•
•
•
P – Positive Emotion
E – Engagement
R – Relationships
M – Meaning
A – Accomplishments
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Campbell’s Determinants of Job Performance
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Motivation When do you feel motivated to do something.
• competence (the belief that they’re capable of doing
something),
• autonomy/control (the ability to set appropriate
goals and see a correlation between effort and
outcome),
• interest/value (a vested interest in the task and a
feeling that its value is worth the effort to complete
it),
• and relatedness (the need to feel part of a group or
social context and exhibit behavior appropriate to
that group) (Murray, 2011; Pintrich, 2003; Ryan &
Deci, 2000).
Motivation
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Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
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Motivational Interventions
High performance cycle(Locke and Latham, 1990)
Summary of the course
• Leadership is a process, that involve the
Influencing of others, takes place within a group
context and involves achieving Goals
(Northhouse, 2001)..The behaviours involved in
exerting the influence can be called ‘Leadership’
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The Autocratic or Authoritarian Leader
The Democratic or Participative Leader
The Laissez-faire or Delegative Leader
Transactional leadership
Transformational leadership
The Charismatic Leadership
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Persuasion…. What matters
▫ Who?......the source
 Credibility of source
 Expertise……..Said by a Doctor
 Trustworthiness…honest and straight forward, History, self Interest
 Likeability…Personal charm, attractiveness, Homophily
 Combination of all three
▫ Says What?.......the message
 Structure of arguments….one sided vs two sided, conclusive vs general
 Rational v. emotional appeals(Ethos, Logos, Pathos), moderate fear,
 Framing, examples vs statistics, comparisons, loss vs gain
▫ To Whom?..........the audience
 Education/suggestibility/interest/gender
▫ With what effect?
 ...Learning/Attitude change/Behavior intention/Behavior
Overview of the Stress Process
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Elements or organizations that may cause stress
1. Demands – includes workloads, work patterns and the work
environment.
2. Control – how much say the person has in the way they do
their work.
3. Support – includes the encouragement, sponsorship and
resources provided by the organization, line management
and colleagues.
4. Role – whether people understand their role within
the organization and whether the organization ensures
that they do not have
conflicting roles.
5. Change – how organizational change (large
or small)
is managed and communicated in the organization.
6. Relationships – promoting positive working to avoid
conflict and dealing with unacceptable behavior.
Stress Management…….the
personalized plan
• Step-I.
Identify your personal stressors…… all
including potential ones
• Step II. Identify predisposing and reinforcing
causes also rather than just precipitating
ones
• Step 3. Organization and Planning
• Step 4. Life-style changes
• Step 5. Relaxation Exercises
• Step 6. Cognitive Restructuring
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Summary of the course
• Engineering Psychology
Condition……….Be in the grey area
Great
Be Without Pride
Planned
Be Spontaneous
Discipline
youself
Discipline
Compassionate
Able to Say, “I’m Wrong”
Right
Serious
Enough To
Be able to Laugh
Wise
Admit You Don’t Know
Busy
Ready to Listen
Strong
Leading
Be Open To Change
Be able to Serve
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Condition……….Be in the grey area
Great
Be Without Pride
Planned
Be Spontaneous
Discipline
youself
Discipline
Compassionate
Able to Say, “I’m Wrong”
Right
Serious
Enough To
Be able to Laugh
Wise
Admit You Don’t Know
Busy
Ready to Listen
Strong
Be Open To Change
Leading
Be able to Serve
Condition……….Be in the grey area
Great
Be Without Pride
Planned
Be Spontaneous
Discipline
youself
Discipline
Compassionate
Able to Say, “I’m Wrong”
Right
Serious
Enough To
Be able to Laugh
Wise
Admit You Don’t Know
Busy
Ready to Listen
Strong
Leading
Be Open To Change
Be able to Serve
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