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TYPOLOGY OF THE URBAN FABRIC EVALUATION OF THE INHERITED
TOWNSCAPE
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CULTURAL HERITAGE — POSSIBILITIES FOR SPATIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
PROSTORNE I RAZVOJNE MOGUĆNOSTI KULTURNOG NASLIJEĐA
Zagreb, 2015
Proceedings | Zbornik radova
ÉVA LOVRA , University of Pécs Faculty of Engineering and IT, Hungary
TYPOLOGY OF THE URBAN FABRIC
EVALUATION OF THE INHERITED TOWNSCAPE
TIPOLOGIJA GRADSKOG TKIVA
PROCJENA NASLIJEĐENOG PROSTORA GRADA
KEY WORDS
typology urban pattern
urban heritage
image of the city
evaluation
KLJUČNE RIJEČI
tipologija urbanog uzorka
urbano naslijeđe
slika grada
vrjednovanje
238
Visual and morphological characteristics
are significant in the evaluation of the inherited city image, but incomplete without
systematisation and exploration of the
adequate values. The effectiveness of
design and rehabilitation depends on the
structural and morphological information
of the urban fabric: the proposed typological system emerges from an organizing
structure in urban development and renewal. The study aims to examine the
inherited urban spatial system of Hungary (1867-1918), in order to present and
define an aesthetical heritage evaluation
through a typo-morphology of the structural changes. Determination of the typology of the selected settlements’ urban
fabric is the basis of the analysis, as-built
heritage as an important and valued part
of the contemporary urban fabric in the
context of the wider aesthetic values.
Vizualna i morfološka obilježja važna su
za vrjednovanje naslijeđene slike grada,
ali su nepotpuna bez sistematizacije i
istraživanja odgovarajućih vrijednosti.
Učinkovitost oblikovanja i revitalizacije
ovisi o strukturnim i morofološkim podatcima urbanog tkiva jer predložen tipološki sustav proizlazi iz strukture urbanog razvoja i ranijih obnova. Cilj je
istražiti takav naslijeđen sustav Mađarske
između 1867. i 1918. godine kako bi se
utvrdilo estetsko vrjednovanje naslijeđa
pomoću tipoloških strukturnih promjena.
Utvrđivanje tipova urbane strukture odabranih naselja osnova je za analizu graditeljskog naslijeđa kao važnog dijela suvremene urbane strukture u kontekstu
širih estetskih vrijednosti.
É. LOVRA
CULTURAL HERITAGE — POSSIBILITIES FOR SPATIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
PROSTORNE I RAZVOJNE MOGUĆNOSTI KULTURNOG NASLIJEĐA
Zagreb, 2015
Proceedings | Zbornik radova
INTRODUCTION
“In order to define this quality in buildings and in towns, we must begin by understanding that every place is given its character by certain patterns of events that keep on
happening there.”1
The period of modern city development in the former Hungarian Kingdom (1867-1918)
was the same as the era of economic recovery and reconciliation that followed the
Austro-Hungarian Compromise (1867). Through progressive urbanization of the 19th
century, mainly due to the intensive development during the second half of the century
the Hungarian towns seem to have risen to the Western European standards and the
modern image of the city was created. The current built heritage, the inherited city
structure, even in many cases with lacking heritage protection, represents a valuable
inheritance of the cities nowadays, and combined with the contemporary layers and
defines the cityscape.
The evaluation of the structural changes and built environment, harmonization with the
contemporary urban tissue requires analyses and an advanced multi-layered methodology for zones (types) identification. The used hierarchy determines the guiding principles in the urban development as well as the evaluation of the urban heritage. The
conceptual approach of perception could be classified via the image of the city, which
has been created through history and requires an individual method of approach in
conservation activities. As one purpose of this paper, the typo-morphology and urban
heritage evaluation analysis methods are proposed. The urban spaces show the history of past and actual urban stratification, and through historical mapping it is possible to describe the evolution of forms, identify changes and make comparative analyses to find the relationship between the elements of urban space of the Hungarian
towns (1867-1918).
Fig. 1 The process and the basic elements
of the research that lead to localization and
objective evaluation of the urban heritage
(Source: Author)
In case of these cities, the meaning of image/identity has multi-layered views: perpetuity/evolution – difference/similarity – unity/diversity. The research is directed to particular interests: to analyse the urban heritage as urban tissue permanence, able to
ground typo-morphological transformations in the sense of identity and image.
URBAN MORPHOLOGY AND THE TYPO-MORPHOLOGICAL EVALUATION
OF THE URBAN HERITAGE
The urban fabric is determined by the interaction between the components (streets,
squares and green spaces, public spaces). The morphological basis can be described
by socio-technical schemas and typified forms: analysis of maps was chosen to
achieve a method for the analysis of urban spaces by looking at characters/identity to
describe the historical process of development of the city form and its spatial consequences. Understanding and evaluating the components of the urban context and
building an urban fabric type is a case-dependent research, but these can be typified
and defined in a semi-general analysis. To evaluate the inherited cityscape and spatial
pattern, besides the typo-morphological approach, the assessment has to take into
account the principles of the Conzenian hierarchy.2 The cities could be studied in terms
of several key elements: land use, building structures, plot pattern and street pattern as
identified by Conzen (1960) while stressing the difference in permanency of these elements. According to Larkham (1997), these can be combined at different levels to create a hierarchy inside the city (town plan: maximal/permanent, build environment: considerable/semi-permanent, varying with periods). All these estimations create a hierarchical framework, what can be used to create a city map to evaluate the urban
heritage and define the image of the city. The proposed typo-morphological analysis
system follows the Conzenian cognitive approach, with a combination of Caniggia’s
research methodology (understanding the built form through the historical process).
The approach of the study negates the doctrine that each city is unique (Benevolo),
establishing rather that each city can be seen as a collage of different urban tissue
types, the organization of which creates a specific urban type and image.
TYPOLOGY OF THE URBAN FABRIC
1 Alexander, 1979: x
2 Conzen, 2004
239
CULTURAL HERITAGE — POSSIBILITIES FOR SPATIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
PROSTORNE I RAZVOJNE MOGUĆNOSTI KULTURNOG NASLIJEĐA
Zagreb, 2015
Proceedings | Zbornik radova
1
2
3
4
5
SYSTEMATIC FORM
COMPLEX
DEGREE OF FORM
PERSISTENCE
TYPO-MORPHOLOGICAL
PERIODS
MORPHOLOGICAL CONSTITUENTS
OF HISTORICAL STRATIFICATION
CONTRIBUTION TO HIERARCHY
OF TOWNSCAPE REGIONS
TOWN PLAN
Maximal
Late medieval 1270-1500
and early post-medieval
Visible urban layout around the Castle,
especially in the Eastern part of the city,
irregular outlines of street system, irregular
geometric plot pattern and building
arrangement
Intermediate rank: isolated districts
Modern ages, especially the
period of the dual Monarchy
(1867-1918)
Regulated and visible spatial system, geometric, High rank: most of the territory of the
well-defined blocks and street-square system
town was changed and built in this
Railway: diagonal pattern
period
Late medieval 1270-1500
and early post-medieval
The Castle, the actual form was completed
between 1570-1618
Early modern 1500-1840
Majority of churches in the central area
Individual buildings (intermediate rank)
1840-1918, especially
between 1867-1918
Most of the public and private buildings in the
central area
Highest rank: the period defines the
urban heritage ensembles and the
townscape
Inter-war and post war,
post-1918
Some few buildings in the centre, more in the
periphery
Lower rank: residential and individual
buildings
BUILT
ENVIRONMENT
Considerable
Though varying
with periods
Intermediate: Castle district
1
2
3
4
5
SYSTEMATIC FORM
COMPLEX
DEGREE OF FORM
PERSISTENCE
TYPO-MORPHOLOGICAL
PERIODS
MORPHOLOGICAL CONSTITUENTS
OF HISTORICAL STRATIFICATION
CONTRIBUTION TO HIERARCHY
OF TOWNSCAPE REGIONS
TOWN PLAN
Maximal
Late medieval 1270-1500
and early post-medieval
Visible urban layout around the former fortress’
walls, especially in the central part of the city,
irregular outlines of street system, irregular
geometric plot pattern and building
arrangement
High rank: isolated district in the very
central area
Modern age
(till the late 1910s)
Regulated and visible spatial system, geometric, High rank: most of the territory
well-defined blocks and street-square system,
of the town was changed and built
diagonal pattern
in this period
Late medieval 1270-1500
and early post-medieval
Bishop palace: some parts from the 14th
Intermediate: Castle district
century, the actual form of the bastion was
completed in the 16th century, adjunctions from
the 18th century
Early modern 1500-1840
Majority of houses and public buildings in the
central area and in the other districts (Baroque,
Renaissance, Classicist)
Highest rank: the period defines
the urban heritage ensembles
and the townscape
1840-1918, especially
between 1867-1918
A quarter in the outskirt and some public
buildings and many residential buildings
in the downtown (streets and individual houses
in mostly Romantic, Eclectic style and
a Secessionist district)
Individual quarter (high-intermediate
rank) the period define the urban
heritage ensembles and the townscape
Inter-war and post war,
post-1918
Some few buildings in the centre, more
in the periphery
Lower rank: residential and individual
buildings and most of them in the
industrial area
BUILT
ENVIRONMENT
Considerable
Though varying
with periods
1
2
3
4
5
SYSTEMATIC FORM
COMPLEX
DEGREE OF FORM
PERSISTENCE
TYPO-MORPHOLOGICAL
PERIODS
MORPHOLOGICAL CONSTITUENTS
OF HISTORICAL STRATIFICATION
CONTRIBUTION TO HIERARCHY
OF TOWNSCAPE REGIONS
TOWN PLAN
Maximal
Late medieval 1270-1500
and early post-medieval
Visible urban layout especially in the Western
part of the city, irregular outlines of street
system, irregular geometric plot pattern
and building arrangement
High rank: isolated district (inner town)
Modern ages, especially the
period of the dual Monarchy
(1867-1918)
Regulated and visible spatial system, geometric, Intermediate rank: low rate of the
well-defined blocks and street-square system
territory of the town was changed
West from the inner town: diagonal pattern
and built in in this period, outskirt:
after the studied period
Early modern 1500-1840
Majority of churches in the central area,
the Castle (1763/83), Town Hall (1784/86)
Individual buildings (high rank),
the period defines the urban heritage
ensembles and the townscape
established townscape
1840-1918, especially
between 1867-1918
Some of the public and private buildings
in the central area
Intermediate rank
Inter-war and post war,
post-1918
Some few buildings in the centre, more
in the periphery
Lower rank in the inner city: residential
and individual buildings
BUILT
ENVIRONMENT
240
Considerable
Though varying
with periods
É. LOVRA
CULTURAL HERITAGE — POSSIBILITIES FOR SPATIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
PROSTORNE I RAZVOJNE MOGUĆNOSTI KULTURNOG NASLIJEĐA
Zagreb, 2015
Proceedings | Zbornik radova
Lynch (1960) mentions: “The image of a given physical reality may occasionally shift its
type with different circumstances of viewing.”3 Even if the type of the town can be seen
by urban physics in the specific semantic rules of architecture, landscape and urban
design, the image is more subjective, but can be described via objective factors and
rules (according to the Analysis 2 about the image and heritage evaluation). Moudon
states: “typo-morphology offers a working definition of space and building type (…) its
relationship to the city, and to the society in which it takes place”4. The case study analyses are dealing with the physical and spatial structure of the built environment, based
on detailed classifications of buildings and open spaces by type. In our case generalized information about city development is not sufficient, since the Hungarian towns
went through a specific evolution during the study period, partially following the Western trends of city-development. In order to apply the complex method in the evaluation
of the inherited townscape and extend the scope of the typology, Korpf’s zoning practice5 has to be combined with a single semantic description of the urban elements.
Tab. I Analysis 3a: Heritage hierarchy in case
of Nagyvárad (Oradea, Romania)
Tab. II Analysis 3b: Heritage hierarchy in case
of Győr, Hungary
Tab. III Analysis 3c: Heritage hierarchy in case
of Arad (Arad, Romania)
In order to describe and evaluate the inherited townscape to give a proper background
of the heritage protection and conservation processes a particular logic was found in
the organization of the urban fabric through different periods: some categories remain
constant (town plan), certain aspects are less stable (build environment): different
levels of permanency can be found by studying the layers. The development of the city
is not random, follows rules and creates a hierarchical system since the elements are
not separated objects and the relations between elements are essential.
Fig. 1 describes the process and the basic elements of the research that lead to localization and objective evaluation of the urban heritage: the urban character is synonymous with the concept of physical identity, built up by urban elements, which create the
city’s pattern through their combination, and divide it into zones: physical and functional characteristics define the zones, and the urban fabric typology can be created.
BUILT HERITAGE AND EVAULATION: TOWNSCAPE
The historical areas are considered to represent cities’ identity via urban facades. In
order to conserve the complex heritage of the historical quarters the urban fabric has
to be taken into consideration. The importance of protecting the urban heritage of the
city has emerged since the ’Declaration of Amsterdam’ (1975) stated that the architectural heritage should include “not only individual buildings of exceptional quality and
their surroundings, but also all areas of towns or villages of historic or cultural interest”.6 The ‘Washington Charter’ (1987) strengthened recognition of the qualities to
be preserved, since “Urban patterns as defined by lots and streets; Relationships
between buildings and green and open spaces”.7
The typo-morphology can solve the problem of identification of the historical areas. An
important contribution can be made to the conservation and management of historical
urban landscapes by employing the approach of typo-morphology to improve the consideration of the historic urban landscapes as ensembles of defined and detected
urban pattern or as an urban fabric zone.
CASE STUDIES
The proposed complex research method was used to find the aesthetic, heritage values of the cities via studies of typo-morphology, hierarchy and townscape. One of the
most significant signs of the modernization progress, besides the progress in infrastructure development, was the regularization of the streets and the increased number
of the paved roads, establishment of the transport network. At the beginning of the 20th
century the selected towns mostly achieved the character of a western-like city. In
case of Oradea and Győr the spatial system, urban pattern and in part the functions of
the space syntax changed in the historic city core due to the redevelopment of the inner
town, giving the base of the typo-morphological urban heritage evaluation.
TYPOLOGY OF THE URBAN FABRIC
3
4
5
6
Lynch, 1960: 48
Moudon, 1994: 290
Kropf 1998: 127
http://www.icomos.org/en/charters-andtexts/179-articles-en-francais/ressources/charters-and-standards/169-the-declaration-of-amsterdam [03.04.2015]
7 http://www.international.icomos.org/charters/towns_e.pdf [03.04.2015]
241
CULTURAL HERITAGE — POSSIBILITIES FOR SPATIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
PROSTORNE I RAZVOJNE MOGUĆNOSTI KULTURNOG NASLIJEĐA
Zagreb, 2015
Proceedings | Zbornik radova
8 Sources: Magyarország története 6/2.
1138–1144.; Magyar Korona Országainak
Népszámlálása 1910. I. 678–741.; Thirring, G. (1912) A magyar városok statisztikai évkönyve Budapest; MSK 58/8; Kőszeghy, J.(1913) Nagyvárad város közintézményeiről. Nagyvárad; Fleisz J. (1997).
Nagyvárad a dualizmus korában. Nagyvárad. Maps: Molnár, G., Timár, G. (2009)
Mosaicking of the 1:75000 sheets of the
Third Military Survey of the Habsburg Empire. Acta Geodaetica et Geophysica Hungarica 44(1): 115-120:
http://mapire.eu/en/map/hkf_25e/?zoom
=14&lat=47.05145&lon=21.94686 [01.12.
2014]; 1890: Vidor Manó. Ed. Berger Sámuel. Nagyvárad, Cholnoky Jenő Térképtár; 1856: Rapports und Projects Plan (…)
[S 11 No 1996] Magyar Országos Levéltár;
1859: Nagy Várad városa belső területének
térképe [S 101 No 0701] Magyar Országos
Levéltár; 1906: Nagyvárad; 1897: Pallas
Nagy Lexikon
9 Lovra, 2014
10 Conzen, 1988: Morphogenesis, morphological regions and secular human agency in
the secular townscape, as exemplified by
Ludlow. In Denecke, D., & Shaw, G. (eds.),
Urban historical geography, published in
Thinking About Urban Form Papers On
Urban Morphology 1932-1998
11 Sources: Magyarország története 6/2.
1138–1144.; Magyar Korona Országainak
Népszámlálása 1910. I. 678–741.; Thirring, G. (1912) A magyar városok statisztikai évkönyve Budapest; Magyar Statisztikai Közlemények 58/8; Borbíró V. Valló I.
(1955): Győr városépítéstörténete, Budapest, Akadémiai Kiadó. Maps: Molnár, G.,
Timár, G. (2009) Mosaicking of the 1:75000
sheets of the Third Military Survey of the
Habsburg Empire. Acta Geodaetica et
Geophysica Hungarica 44(1): 115-120:
http://mapire.eu/en/map/hkf_25e/?zoom
=14&lat=47.05145&lon=21.94686 [09.12.
2014]; 1897: Pallas Nagy Lexikon; 1821:
C.65.39.4. Xántus János Múzeum, Győr;
1910: DKA-026593 MEK OSZK
http://dka.oszk.hu/026500/026593/big_var
mpic_gyor_066b_nagykep.jpg [15.02.2015];
12 The analysis of the city and the period was
made by use of selected literature, archive
materials and historical maps, from which
the main sources were stated abow.
Monograpy of Zenta (by the VM). Source
of the maps: mapire.eu (2nd and 3rd Military
Survey), 1911: Városi Múzeum, Zenta:
Történelmi gyűjtemény I.13., postcards:
Zempléni Múzeum, Szerencs (0113410),
http://postcards.hungaricana.hu/hu/
13 The analysis of the city and the period was
made by use of selected literature, archive
materials and historical maps, from which
the main sources were stated below. Maps:
mapire.eu (2nd and 3rd Military Survey), 1897:
Pallas, 19??: http://www.banaterra.eu/magyar/T/terkeptar/terkeptar.htm Postcards:
http://www.regikepek.hu/Albums.aspx
http://postcards.hungaricana.hu/hu/
242
Analysis 1 (a-d). TYPO-MORPHOLOGY AND HERITAGE (See: Poster book)
Analysis 2 (a-d). TOWNSCAPE – URBAN HERITAGE VALUE (See: Poster book)
The historical character and tissue are the important physical background, creating a
specific view of town and providing the symbolic meaning of city.
Analysis 3 (a-c). HERITAGE HIERARCHY (Tabs. I-III)
Layers and hierarchy are added values of the typological approach to urban systematization: the urbanizing elements tend to have variable resistance to change, according
to Conzen’s10 practice, if the scheme of the individual form grows in complexity, the
resulting map shows a hierarchy of the layers.
a) NAGYVÁRAD (ORADEA, RO)8 was created on the riverside of two springs in the
crossroad of the plains and the mountains. Its area was 8,305 acres in 1869 and didn’t
change significantly until 1914. The analysis of the urban development shows that the
main characteristics are different from the type of the Transylvanian towns, shows
more similarities with lowland cities, without following the urban development path of
the ‘steppe towns’.10 A typical feature of urbanization in the lowland (Alföld) was the
“ground floor” urban development, in Oradea the rate of multi-storey houses was 5%.
New streets were opened at the place of the channels of the regulated Pece and Paris
springs, this type of spatial development can be witnessed in other towns of the former
Hungarian Kingdom (Szabadka (Subotica, RS), Győr, Sopron). The spatial pattern of the
city changed due to the works at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries.
b) GYŐR (HU),11 in the southern edge of the (Little Hungarian Plain) Kis-Magyar-Alföld
has medieval roots, after the demolition of the fortress’ walls (in 1820) the city centre
extended till the Market Place and the railway lines (1855) on the South. The greatest
modernization force was the industrial development (started in the 1890s), in the
1910s the centre and the Nádorváros were already unified, with the relocation of the
Rába’s riverbed the New Town and the Island districts also were linked to the town.
c) ARAD (RO) and d) ZENTA (SENTA, SRB)
Senta12 is located on the bank of the Tisa river, nowadays in the Vojvodina province, Serbia. The spatial plans from the studied period show amorphous, tree-like road network:
three to four principal streets escalated into the Main Square centrally, but peripherally
from the West. The city and Arad (RO)13 show similar combined spatial system (more
organic street layout in the inner city and joint geometric peripheral urban tissue).
CONCLUSIONS
The target of the study was to achieve a theoretical and practical way to assess the
character of cities via typological system addressed to the evaluation of urban pattern,
the townscape and the urban heritage. The town image is shaped by the spatial features and built environment, in conjunction with natural landscape on which it emerged.
The urban interaction of the inherited built environment depends on the balance
between the traditional and modern, and a certain rhythm in some elements, but the
most important is the relationship between the components. The process of identification provides the basis for the quality of visual elements, complexity of space, aesthetic forms, urban public spaces, traditional and modern physical characteristics that
influence the image of the city, townscape and the significance of the urban heritage.
Through analyzes of the urban zones and pattern, the identification of the historic values was achieved. The analysis was focused on the general image of the area, the relations, the spatial features and the space syntax. The central achievements of the
paper is that the study of urban tissue could offer an effective framework for identifying
values (pattern of streets, blocks, squares, plots, buildings and architectural style),
which are giving historical character of towns and identify the heritage. The outlined
methodology offers an identification of zones through the urban tissue contexts, the
value and hierarchy based analyses could be used in urban conservation projects to
define areas valuable for preservation.
É. LOVRA
CULTURAL HERITAGE — POSSIBILITIES FOR SPATIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
PROSTORNE I RAZVOJNE MOGUĆNOSTI KULTURNOG NASLIJEĐA
Zagreb, 2015
Proceedings | Zbornik radova
The case studies were selected upon the hydrographical features. In the case of Ordanea and Győr, the cities combine the image of a medieval town, characterized by free
arrangement of roads, squares that were formed by widening of the road, with the image of modern 19th/20th century city with planned forms and identity. Senta and Arad
show a more complex urban tissue (irregular street network and geometric in the
downtown area).
The urban heritage of the city, the evaluation of the inherited townscape is defined by
physical properties (architecture/urban design values), typo-morphology, continuation,
evolution and communication of the forms with the aim of forming a coherent whole.
The complexity of the roadways, the visual images and the contrasts resulting from
changes in the road network, the built environment, public and green spaces comprise
the town image and its perception. The image of the city (identity) has the highest degree in urban physical quality: a specific semantic domain in architecture and urban
design (defined by perpetuity/evolution – difference/similarity – unity/diversity).
LITERATURE
1.
Alexander, Ch. (1979), The Timeless Way of Building, New York, Oxford University
Press, ISBN 978-0195024029
2.
Conzen, M.R.G., ed.; Conzen, M.P. (2004), Thinking About Urban Form Papers On
Urban Morphology 1932-1998, Bern, Peter Lang Publishing,
ISBN 9780820472034
3.
Gutkind, E. A. ed. (1972), Urban development in east-central Europe: Poland,
Czechoslovakia and Hungary. In: International history of city development; vol.7.,
New York/London, Free Press. ISBN 9780029133200
4.
Kostof , S. (1991), The city shaped: urban patterns and meanings through history.
London, Thames and Hudson, ISBN 9780821218679
5.
Kroft, K. (1996), Urban tissue and the character of towns. Urban Design
International, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 247-263, ISSN 1357-5317
6.
Larkham, P. J. (1996), Conservation and the city, London, Routledge,
ISBN 9780415079488
7.
Lynch, K. (1960), The image of the city, Cambridge, Technology Press,
ISBN 0262120046
8.
Moudon, A. V. (1994), Getting to Know the Built Landscape: Typo morphology,
in: Franck, K.; Schneekloth, A. (eds.), Ordering Space: Types in Architecture and
Design, Architecture Series, New York, Van Nostrand Reinhold, pp. 289-311,
ISBN 9780442012335
9.
Lovra, É. (2014), Utcasávok: Az alföldi mezővárosok településstruktúrájának
változásai, in: Berényi János (ed.), Tudástérkép, Vajdasági Magyar Tudóstalálkozó
2014, Subotica, Vajdasági Magyar Akadémiai Tanács, 2014,
pp. 194-201, ISBN 9788689095067
TYPOLOGY OF THE URBAN FABRIC
AUTHOR BIOGRAPHY
Éva Lovra, urban engineer M.Sc (University of Novi Sad, Serbia), lecturer, Ph.D
student of Architecture (University of
Pécs, Hungary); researcher of the Hungarian Academy of Arts and ČVUT,
scholar of the Visegrád Fund and National Cultural Fund. Main research topics: post-Word War II architecture and
urbanism; city and urban tissue typology
of Hungary in 1867-1918. Published
book: Post-World War II Urbanism and
Architecture in Subotica (1945-1975).
243
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