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Comprehensive Paper on Divorce-Related Stress Impacts, Preventative and Treatment
Measures for Adults and Children
Sonia Fay Buckland
Caribbean Graduate School of Theology
Fundamentals of Grief and Trauma
Dr. Braxtonbrown-Smith
July 15, 2020
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Comprehensive Paper on Divorce
Table of Contents
1.1.
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 2
1.2. Prevalence, Risk Factors and Impacts of Divorce .............................................................. 2
1.2.1.
Impacts of Divorce on Adults .................................................................................. 4
1.2.2.
Impacts of Divorce on Children .............................................................................. 7
1.3.
Theoretical Approaches and Options for Prevention and Treatment............................ 15
1.3.1.
The Christian Perspective ...................................................................................... 19
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 20
References .................................................................................................................................. I
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1.1.
Introduction
Divorce has been ranked by some psychologists in the mid-twentieth century as
among the top five most stressful life events for both adults and non-adults, based on the
Scale of Social Readjustment (Holmes et al, 1967). The heart wrenching impacts of divorce
continue to be well documented in recent literature, where it is estimated that 70% of
divorcees experience depression, anxiety, guilt and anger within two years of the divorce,
while up to nearly a third report longer-term distress symptoms (Hoag, 2019). The stressful
impacts of divorce often go beyond the couple undergoing this separation, to affecting the
child(ren) who are forced to readjust to this new reality of a broken home or disrupted family
unit. This research paper will examine the issue of divorce, being defined as “the act by
which a valid marriage is dissolved” (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2020). This
review will focus on the impacts of the dissolution of specifically heterosexual monogamous
marriages on both couples and children involved. Special attention will be placed on how
these perspectives apply to the Jamaican context and Christian approaches of dealing with
clients seeking treatment post-divorce. Emphases will be placed on perspectives from peerreviewed journals and dissertation publications within the past five (5) years. However, to
provide added anecdotal context, references will also be integrated from organizational data
and periodical commentaries where deemed necessary. The paper will commence with an
overview of the prevalence, risk factors and impacts of divorce. A review of notable
preventative and treatment approaches for both adults and children will then be discussed.
1.2. Prevalence, Risk Factors and Impacts of Divorce
Data within the last 5-6 years indicate a growing prevalence of divorce in many areas
globally. According to the latest statistics from the United States Census Bureau (2020), the
average divorce rates in the USA in 2018 stood at around 7.7 per 1000. By comparison, the
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latest available statistics in Jamaica from the Statistical Institute of Jamaica indicated a
divorce rate of 9.44 per 1000 persons in 2014 (Carter, 2016). Simultaneously, with increases
in divorce rates, a downward trend in marriages has been reported over the last decade
(Carter, 2016).
Upward trends in the prevalence divorce may follow that a higher proportion of the
global population may be experiencing associated adverse impacts of this practice. It is
however important to note that divorce rates are not uniform but vary substantially based on
ethnicity and age group. Ethnically diverse couples with lower educational levels and
socioeconomic status are more likely to divorce and to become poorer and less likely to move
out of poverty. Nguyen (2019) documented that “...whereas only 22% of those holding a
bachelor’s degree will divorce, 61% of those with less than a high school diploma will
experience disruption” (Nguyen, 2019, p.1). Various recent studies have more specifically
documented that Black American women have the highest divorce rates and the highest
incidence of single-parent homes in the USA, being twice as likely to divorce as Hispanic and
White women (Williams, 2020; Gregory, 2019). McGoldrick, Preto, & Carter (2016),
however noted that the divorce rates among blacks in the USA are higher than those which
exist in other Western countries within the African community. Strong tendencies in divorce
rates are also documented based on age group. According to Dunlevy (2016), the age cohort
of adults with the highest increase in divorce rates range between the ages of 50 and 64. In
contrast to these risk factors, it was found that married couples of the same faith have lower
divorce rates and highest marital satisfaction and quality. According to Gregory (2019):
“…divorce rates are lower and marital satisfaction and quality are highest among
religiously involved couples of the same faith. As the most religious racial/ethnic
group in the United States, African Americans rely on religion and spirituality to
strengthen their marriage.” (Gregory, 2019, p. 42).
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There are not only ethnic disproportionalities in prevalence, but also in impacts.
Disagreements however exist in the literature regarding which groups are most vulnerable to
divorce impacts. For instance, relating to children of divorced couples, Williams (2020)
asserts that black children in America experience greater adverse effects of divorce than
White or Hispanic children. However, in contrast to Williams’ (2020) view that Black
American children suffer the worst effects of divorce than other ethnic groups in America,
Brand et al (2019) assert that racial minority children have less adverse effects than white
American children. The reasoning behind Brand et al (2019)’s claim is “because they
[whites] are less accustomed to negative disruptive events and disadvantaged circumstances
than racial and ethnic minority children and children of less educated parents.” (Brand,
Moore, Song, Xie, 2019, pp. 7,266).
According to Hoag (2019), divorce is often caused by “relationship issues between
spouses”, including communication problems, lack of trust, and/or lack of respect. However,
differing views also exist in the literature regarding the factors influencing divorce rates,
particularly the disproportionate rates observed among African Americans. Gregory (2019)
asserted several factors which contribute to the disproportionately high rates of divorce in the
African American community, including early sexual involvement with many partners before
marriage, poverty, low educational achievement, and slavery legacies. Gregory (2019) further
explained that many of these factors also have a link to historic legislation by the US
government which also disincentivized marriage in the African American community
creating negative feelings towards marriage and has contributed to an increase in the divorce
rate.
Apart from the factors dominating the African American community, no consensus
exists in the literature regarding familial factors influencing divorce. For instance, various
authors posit that pre-existing mental health issues within the family unit such as depression
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may be a cause of divorce (Hoag, 2019, Bourne et al, 2015) However, when examining for
instance, the likelihoods of divorce and related stress among parents with children with
disorders such as autism, opposing views exist. In their research on families with autistic
children, Freedman, Kalb, Zablotsky & Stuart (2012) found that the presence of children with
disorders such as autism may increase the likelihood of parental divorce. Freedman, Kalb,
Zablotsky & Stuart (2012) reported documentation of an 80% divorce rate between parents
with autism, being linked with decreased marital satisfaction, increased stress and maternal
depression. However, research conducted by Nascati (2017) does not support the view that
parents are more likely to divorce if they are raising a child with disorders, such as autism.
Instead, Nascati (2017) found that there was “no significant increase in marital problems
when caring for a child with ASD… parents become a closer and stronger “team” when
faced with raising a child with the disorder…” (Nascati, 2017, p. 26). These differing
findings may imply that the attitude and approach in the family unit may be either a risk or a
preventative factor in the likelihood of divorce and the impacts of the resulting stress. The
following sections provide further details on the main documented stress-related impacts of
divorce on both adults and children involved in this process.
1.2.1. Impacts of Divorce on Adults
The latest edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual on Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) mentions several disorders which have been found related to divorce stress,
including drug use disorders such as opioid use disorder, being prevalent at “all
socioeconomic levels” among persons with marital difficulties, including divorce (American
Psychiatric Association [APA], 2013, p. 543). The DSM-5 also mentions divorced persons as
having higher rates of bipolar disorder than do individuals who are married or have never
been married. Case studies and experimental research findings shed further light on the types
and magnitudes of impacts that divorce often has on couples undergoing this process.
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Literature examining divorce impacts documents a dominantly psychological impact, with
nearly three-quarters of divorcees experiencing internalizing symptoms of depression, anxiety
and stress, and reporting the lowest levels of life satisfaction when comparing all marital
statuses (Hoag, 2019; Nguyen, 2019). In examining the contributory factors of these
psychological impacts, Nguyen (2019) found that the process of divorce entailed a loss of
multiple resources and support bases, not limited to the loss of life partner, but also income
losses, loss of children and loss of the relational network which existed through the marriage
by mutual friends of the couple. Another consequence of psychological stress associated with
divorce according to some authors is stigma and shame. Thomas (2016) cited research where
couples undergoing divorce felt a considerable amount of condemnation, shame, failure and
silence. This extra source of stress was especially reported among Christian divorcees from
their places of worship while they were trying to find comfort and support during this time of
distress (Hoag, 2019).
Studies of divorce impacts in the Jamaican context further highlight how these
psychological consequences of divorce can trickle adverse externalizing behaviours in the
wider society. According to Bourne et al (2015), divorce was linked as a contributory factor
to an increase of crime and violence in society, because of the disintegration of the family
unit that results from this event. Bourne et al, (2015) pointed out that in the Jamaican context,
men often suffer from intense jealousy following the divorce process. Reprisals by men who
have been divorced by their wives sometimes leads to murder. In his article, he stated that
“men worldwide think, feel, and act as if their wife is their exclusive sexual property…A
strong correlation between homicides and divorce…emerged.” (Bourne et al, 2019, pp. 273
398, 389). Bourne, et al (2015) also found a correlation between suicide and marriage rates.
He stated that higher risks of suicides are found in divorces than marriages (RR=2.08).
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In addition to psychological impacts, divorce stress has also been linked to various
impacts on physical health. For instance, according to Hoag (2019), divorcees are at an
“increased risk for immune deficiencies, infectious diseases, and a wide range of illnesses,
and are at an increased risk of early death from cardiovascular disease”. Thomas (2016)
additionally expounded that the multiple economic and social stressors emanating from
divorce has been linked to obesity, high blood pressure, diabetes and heart disease. These
physical risks may be compounded among divorcees as increased drug use has been strongly
associated among persons facing this source of stress (APA, 2013). As elaborated by Hoag
(2019), these impacts have a gender dimension:
“...divorce has a greater negative impact on individuals who consume high amounts
of alcohol compared to those who drink low amounts or no alcohol, and the strain
after divorce lasts longer in women with high alcohol consumption and their former
spouses than for those with lower alcohol consumption ” (Hoag, 2019, pp. 25-26).
Substance abuse within the context of single-parent homes, particularly of alcohol, has been
documented as also being an impact in the Jamaican context (Hylton, 2019). In addition to
illicit drugs, overuse of antidepressants has also been documented as a risk among divorcees
(Hoag, 2019; Nguyen, 2019).
The impacts of divorce stress on the divorcees has been documented as not only
including internalizing symptoms, but also altering relations with others. Goisis, Ozcan &
Kerm (2019) stated
“…a mother’s emotional response to separation may also affect her
children’s eating patterns… divorced mothers are more likely than married mothers to
overfeed their children…” (Goisis, Ozcan & Kerm, 2019, p. 789). Outside the home, recent
literature on divorce impacts has also highlighted the economic dimension of this stressful
event (Goisis, Ozcan & Kerm, 2019, Rosenberg, 2017). According to Rosenberg (2017),
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mothers, who are divorced, suffer more financially than fathers, since men generally earn
more money than the women. Additionally, Nguyen (2019) documents that the adults
involved in the study, divorce also tended to deteriorate adults’ workplace performance.
1.2.2. Impacts of Divorce on Children
Research globally and in the Jamaican context have shown that the impacts of divorce
are not limited to the couples undergoing this process, rather, there is consensus in the
literature that children of divorcees are especially vulnerable to the psychological, social and
economic impacts of divorce. Children face multiple lifestyle changes during the divorce
process to which they are forced to readjust, including changes in parenting roles, which may
be less effective and/or reduced by the noncustodial parent. Transfer to new schools, routine
changes, fewer economic resources, readjustment in the case of new marriages also constitute
additional disruptive life events associated with divorce (Goisis, Ozcan & Kerm, 2019).
Adverse impacts have been documented regardless of the developmental stage of the child with different symptoms dominating if the divorce occurs during a child’s infancy stage,
childhood, adolescence or adulthood. The Superior Court of California (n.d.) documents that
infants up to 18 months can sense tension in their environment, and separation from their
primary caregivers is often accompanied by signs of regression. “Intense fear” is a dominant
symptom experienced by toddlers and pre-schoolers of divorced parents, externalized by
extreme tantrums and confused behaviours, while increased insecurity of the perceptions of
peers is often experienced by teens of divorced parents (Mao, 2017; Superior Court of
California, n.d.). Similar internalizing and externalizing behaviours of children from divorced
and single-parent homes have long been documented in the Jamaican context, with impacts
ranging from depression, aggression, school delinquency, aggression, and early initiation of
sexual activity, including teenage pregnancy (Makyn, 2006),
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The DSM-5 lists parental divorce as an etiological factor for the development of
various disorders that are specific to children, including Separation Anxiety Disorder, which
is in turn associated with several maladjustment symptoms, including apathy, aggression,
social withdrawal, sadness, or difficulty concentrating on work or play. Case research from
several authors further document the types and severity of the psychological impacts that
divorce can have on children. Some authors, such as Nguyen (2019) and Dunlevy (2016)
have asserted that the impacts of divorce are more profound in young children than older and
young adult children because of heightened parental dependence, fear of abandonment of
their parents, and limited know-how in seeking help. Dunlevy (2016) also asserted that
children under the age of 6, may experience elevated risks for “social and emotional
development difficulties, and are more likely to develop behavioural and achievement
problems in academic and social settings” (Dunlevy, 2016, pp. 7, 8).
A study by Nusinovici et al (2018) further elaborated on the impacts of divorce on
pre-schoolers (3-5 years old), including attention deficits in class, decreased motivation,
independence, attention and ability in using their hands well, leading to risks of lower
performance in school. Pre-schoolers whose parents divorced were also found less able to
properly engage in school conversation. Increased incidence of behavioural problems has also
been documented by researchers at older stages of development (Williams, 2020; Morgan,
2018). The magnitude of psychological stress caused by divorce is well seen in Hoag’s
(2019), in comparing psychological outcomes of children from different home environments.
Hoag (2019) found that “those children whose parents were divorced fared worse than those
in high conflict homes, (where the parents were still married)... high-conflict divorcing
families resulted in the greatest impact (of low self-esteem, depression and anxiety for the
children).” (Hoag, 2019, p. 29).
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It has been argued by some authors that added pressures of ‘stigma’, especially in the
school environment may worsen divorce-related stress in children, leading to depression.
Mao (2017) argues that “children of divorce are often seen as products of a broken home.... “
(Mao, 2017, p. 6) Rosenberg (2017) contends that whenever a divorce takes place, it shatters
children’s expectation of a family as being “reliable and intact” and that children often feel
”abnormal” for their parents to be divorced, leaving them feeling ashamed, vulnerable and
insecure. These social stressors in addition to changes in familial contact may lead to
increases in avoidant and anxiety symptoms in children, as they often feel abandoned (Goisis,
Ozcan & Kerm, 2019). This confluence of family tension and social pressures also impact the
self-esteem of children of divorcees (Hoag, 2019). Some researchers have further highlighted
that divorce stresses have even been seen to increase the likelihood of high school dropout
among teenagers (Brand et al, 2019; Morgan, 2018). Similar social impacts of divorce have
been documented in Jamaica, especially where the divorce leads to single-parent (primarily
mother-led) homes. Dr. Barry Davidson’s work as referenced in a Gleaner article, laments
that children who live in father-absent homes often have lower IQ scores than other children
who have both parents in the home (Hill, 2011). According to Rosenberg (2017), stigma
surrounding a divorce might be avoided if divorce is done “quietly”, privately, and not let
anything change in the child’s life. This fear of stigma, however, may lead divorced families
not to seek help, as they might prefer to deal with their problems alone.
In addition to these impacts on younger children, parental divorce has been
documented to have specific psychological and social effects on older children and adults
(Morgan, 2018; Rosenberg, 2017; Dunlevy, 2016). The modern trend of increasing divorce
prevalence in the 50-64 age group influences dynamics of response to the traumatic event as
oftentimes children involved in these scenarios (Dunlevy, 2016). Although Dunlevy (2016)
reiterated that adult children cope and adjust better with their parents’ divorce than young
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children do because of their decreased dependence and more information and understanding
about previous marital conflict which lowers stress and anxiety, Dunlevy (2016) found that
there is added pressure among adult children often take on the role of “social support” and
“mediator”, when there are tensions between parents, that could lead to a divorce. According
to Dunlevy (2016), although loyalty conflicts between adult children and divorced parents
may be less than young children, because they are less dependent on them; some research
shows that some adult children may have more loyalty conflicts than young children. For
instance, adult children have the added pressure of choosing which parent to spend a holiday
with, and this creates more pressure than young children being told which parent to spend a
holiday with.
Anger is a common stress symptom experienced by children of divorced parents,
regardless of age and developmental stage (Dunlevy, 2016; Rosenberg, 2017). In the words
of Dunlevy (2016), “many adult children may question why parents could not simply stay
together after having been together for so long. They may also be angry about the loss of the
family they remember and simply wish for it to remain the same.” (Dunlevy, 2016, P. 14).
There is however disagreement in the literature as to whom this anger is often directed. For
instance, Dunlevy (2016) documents that child anger is often directed at the father than the
mother. Rosenberg (2017) however contended that divorced mothers often receive
significantly more negative feelings from their children, due to ‘perfectionist’ and ‘sacrificial’
societal expectations for mothers to be considered ‘good moms’. This disproportionate blame
on mothers according to Rosenberg (2017) also stemmed from the fact that many fathers
already do not live in the home in the first place, making it easier for children to “idealize”
their absentee parent (Rosenberg, 2017, p. 57).
Children of divorce, including adult children, have also been documented to develop
self-esteem issues (Williams 2020). This depreciated self-image was apparent in a qualitative
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perception research published by Rosenberg (2017), where adult-children of divorcees, who
attend college tended to see themselves as being part of “bad”, abnormal families, from
“lower classes”, using words like “weird,” “dirty,” and “nasty” to describe the divorce”
(Rosenberg, 2017, p. 4). These adults impacted by their parents’ divorce also highlighted
their disdain for divorce in their own marital lives. Rosenberg (2017)’s research further
highlighted that many college students from divorced families were aware of their trauma as
being “painful” (Rosenberg, 2017, P. 7). The dynamics of the multiple stress factors
experienced by children of divorcees are also clearly reiterated in Williams’ (2020) study. As
recounted by one of the participants in Williams’ (2020) study whose parents divorced: “So,
like my sophomore year of school, like I was just really like, I was really stressed out. I was
really depressed. I was trying to be social too. Like, I was trying to be social, which meant
like I was staying out later and hanging out more, but also working and trying to get this
schoolwork done.” (Williams, 2020, p.70). The impact of these divorce-related stresses has
similarly been recorded to impact the likelihood of adult children of divorcees to continue
their education, with a decreased likelihood of graduation from college (Williams, 2020;
Brand et al, 2019). Brand et al (2019) found that this likelihood of college dropout was
especially significant among children whose parents were “unlikely to divorce” (Brand et al,
2019, pp. 7 and 266). Children of late teens to young adulthood (18-24 years of age) were
also found to experience delays in their adjustment into adulthood.
Another psychological impact of divorce on children as expounded upon by Williams
(2020) is not being able to turn to parents for psychological and economic support, due to
their parents still dealing with the effects of the trauma on their own. Adult children of
divorcees often experience additional economic and social responsibilities during divorce,
including providing housing for parents and siblings which may also augment stress levels.
At times these adult responsibilities are placed on children, such as assuming parental
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responsibilities in taking care of younger siblings, which may make them have to grow up
faster (Williams, 2020, Morgan, 2018). Williams (2020) reported the experience of an adult
child following the divorce of the parents, which led to the child being charged with the
responsibility to care for the mother: “I moved here to Atlanta in a two-bedroom apartment
and she moved in with me and I, I was already paying all my own bills. She transferred her
job to a location in another part of Georgia and I think I began to become her parent.”
(Williams, 2020, p.66). Williams (2020) also documented lower school performance of
divorcees’ adult-children following divorce events as a result of working to provide money
for the young siblings and one parent, with some even having to set aside their aspirations to
care for their broken family. Despite the negative impacts of these added stressors from the
divorce process, Morgan (2018) found that “…the subjects in this study felt that their
accelerated maturation helped them to realize what they want for themselves in their life
right now, and how they saw it as something beneficial to have learned when they did.”
(Morgan, 2018, p.82).
Researchers suggest that there are gender tendencies in the severity of divorce
impacts, with boys appearing to be more externalizing or expressive of hurt from the divorce
of their parents than girls, while girls may experience more internalizing symptoms (Morgan,
2018; Dunlevy, 2016). As expounded by Dunlevy (2016): “...boys often have higher rates of
conduct problems and engage in acting out behaviours at home and in school” than girls”
(Dunlevy, 2016, p. 9). In contrast, Dunlevy (2016) explains that “daughters feel more
unloved by their father during and after the divorce than sons.” (Dunlevy, 2016, p. 11).
Dunlevy (2016) further found that among adult children of divorce, young adult women
tended to feel greater emotional distress and anger than men of the same age group over their
parents’ divorce, and question why parents, who have been married for a long time, may not
keep on staying together in marriage. According to Dunlevy (2016), “this may be the case
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because females often feel the need to stay close to family and be involved in family life.
Therefore, they may find themselves more involved in the marital issues surrounding the
divorce. Women also reported higher levels of anger than men…” (Dunlevy, 2016, p. 14).
In addition to psychological impacts, divorce stress has been linked to several adverse
effects on children’s physical health. In a research on divorce effects on children’s weight,
Goisis, Ozcan & Kerm (2019) found that children may lose weight or gain weight over the
long term as a result of a divorce. Divorce has been associated with negative alterations to
children’s sleep routines and physical activity levels, resulting in either a loss or a gain of
weight. Goisis, Ozcan & Kerm (2019) also found that there is an elevated risk for children to
become overweight or obese following parental divorce over the long term. The long-term
health impacts of divorce on children was further evident in a 34-year longitudinal study by
Larson and Halfon (2013), where it was found that adults whose parents divorced during their
childhood experienced lower levels of well-being during their adulthood than even children
who lost a parent to death. These adult children of divorcees had an elevated risk of
premature death due to cardiovascular disease and had higher risks of developing other
unhealthy habits such as smoking, than those whose parents remained married throughout
their childhood.
Some researchers have recounted that the physical impacts of divorce on children are
not only symptomatic, but also have impacts on a deeper genetic level. In examining the
interplay between genes and environmental risk in adolescence, Music et al (2016)
contended that divorce affects the regulatory system of children’s genes in a way that when
they grow up they may find it more difficult to trust their romantic partner and less confident
that this relationship may last as young adults, and have high levels of overt conflict. As
quoted by Hoag (2019), Music et al (2016) asserted that:
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”..children of divorced parents suffer an accumulation of distress in such a way as to
increase their genetic tendency toward depression, negatively impacting their
psychological well-being and their ability to adapt in social contexts. Adult women
whose parents divorced when they were between seven and 13 years old reported that
they were negatively affected by high levels of overt conflict, resulting in higher
incidents of either attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance in subsequent
romantic relationships, being less trusting of their romantic partner, and less
confident in relationship sustainability as young adults” (Hoag, 2019, p. 29-30).
In agreement with this finding, Mortis (2019) states that divorce impacts the emerging adult’s
ability to form future romantic relationships. Mortis (2019) found that divorce may cause a
child to be uncertain of forming a close relationship with someone else in the future, lest the
same thing happen again, as had happened to his parents. This impact however may change
depending on the step-parents’ level of involvement, which may positively affect their ability
to form a romantic relationship in the future.
Salvatore et al (2018) further document that this epigenetic impact of divorce may
have intergenerational consequences, affecting not only children but also grandchildren for
decades to come. Salvatore et al (2018), as quoted by Hoag (2019) found that there was “a
genetic, intergenerational transmission of divorce among adoptees whose divorce rates were
more consistent with their biological siblings’ history of divorce than their adoptive siblings’
histories. remained married” (Hoag, 2019, p. 30). This divorce distress and heightened
likelihood for their own divorce appear to exist even decades after the divorce occurs. In
contrast to Hoag (2019) and Salvatore et al’s (2018) conclusions, Morgan (2018) contends
that may however have the benefit of helping children learn from the mistakes of their
parents and to make them decide that they are going to be different from their parents when
they get married.
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Despite the overwhelming view that divorce has predominantly unfavourable
outcomes on children, some authors, such as Brand et al (2019) argue that these adverse
outcomes of divorce on children, such as lower educational attainment, only hold in contexts
where the divorce is unexpected and unlikely. Brand et al (2019) contend that the outcomes
are not unfavourable nor disruptive when children anticipate the separation and divorce of
their parents. Through examination of comparative educational attainment between children
who had ‘high’ versus ‘low to moderate’ likelihoods of parental divorce, Brand et al (2019)
found that divorce stress had significant effects on children’s educational success among
those with “a low-to-moderate likelihood of parental divorce” (Brand et al, 2019, pp. 7, 269).
1.3. Theoretical Approaches and Options for Prevention and Treatment
Several theoretical approaches have emerged in the literature to assist both adults and
children to reduce the risk of, and/or recover from the psychological and social stresses
associated with the divorce process. Counsellors are also at times faced with the
responsibility of attempting to instil preventative measures against divorce for couples who
are seeking to alleviate their marital problems without going through the divorce process.
This section provides an overview of dominant perspectives and approaches to divorce
prevention and treatment.
Research has found that certain spiritual practices and social circumstances may serve
as protective factors against divorce. Counsellors may make use of this knowledge in
premarital education programs and for couples contemplating divorce to build upon these
protective factors to increase couples’ bonding and decrease the likelihood of divorce and
associated impacts (Gregory, 2019). Religious and spiritual practice has been highlighted as
especially potent preventative factors against divorce and divorce-related stresses. Prayer and
other rites of faith have been specifically documented to reduce discord among couples
(Gregory, 2019). The importance of integrating a spiritual outlook in preventative measures
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for divorce is highlighted in the dissertation by Gregory (2019), where Christianity was
specifically named as:
“...a core coping mechanism for African Americans and attributes faith as a source
of coping and prayer for strength as influences of satisfaction...the increased reliance
on God in marriages not only increases African Americans' resilience when facing
stress and crises, it strengthens the family, and by extension, the African American
community.” (Gregory 2019, p. 42).
Other large-scale studies have corroborated on the positive influence of religious
practice as a preventative factor against divorce. For instance, Perry (2016) published work
using data gathered from 2,610 participants in the Portraits of American Life Study, a
nationally representative panel survey where a link was found between marital outcomes and
religion. The more religiously committed, the greater marital stability and quality. These
results, also recounted by Gregory (2019), found that “more religious spouses reported
receiving an increased number of random acts of kindness, compliments, and affection and
utilize less criticism. They are also characterized as more faithful, patient, and forgiving,
promoting healthier interpersonal relationships with others and their marriage partner.”
(Gregory, 2019, p. 44). Counsellors may use this evidence to encourage couples who are
willing to rebuild their marriage on a God-centred foundation through increasing prayer
habits together and other faith-building activities.
In addition to religious and spiritual practice, social support has been promoted as a
both a preventative measure and treatment modality for those impacted by divorce (Dunlevy,
2016). According to Nguyen (2019), if a married couple has a greater number of married
friends in their network, then there is a lower likelihood of divorce. Support of friends and
associates in one’s social circle has also proven effective in the treatment of children of
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divorced parents. In the words of Dunlevy (2016), “…in order for children to successfully
navigate the transition of parental divorce, support and encouragement for using adaptive
coping abilities coupled with access to social support resources are critical to reducing the
negative impact of parental divorce” (Dunlevy, 2016, p.3)
Apart from prevention strategies, a broad range of counselling intervention types exist
to treat those who undergo divorce stress. These interventions vary based on whether it is
focused on only the adults and/or young children involved (Dunlevy, 2016). Therapeutic
interventions range from “individual counselling”, “family therapy” (parents and children),
“group therapy with peers” and “School-based” therapy. Experiential techniques,
psychodynamic therapy and relational therapy have also been documented to help to alleviate
the distress of parental divorce (Dunlevy, 2016). Child-centred therapies are another option,
which often focuses on reducing negative emotions and developing social skills.
In an article published by Toren et al (2013) in The American Journal of Family
Therapy, Behavioural Family Therapy and Multi Modal Family Intervention (MMFI) were
identified as ‘the most beneficial’ when addressing parental divorce issues when used with
both parents and children. The authors stated that this modality was found to decrease
depression and anxiety in children of divorced parents. Group therapy was also documented
as being extremely successful in improving the effects of parental alienation and improving
conduct behaviour of children suffering from the stresses of parental divorce (Dunlevy,
2016). When dealing with child victims of divorce, Dunlevy (2016) has also noted that
school-based interventions have been effective in child adjustment through reducing problem
behaviours and anxiety levels in children following parental divorce. Dunlevy (2016) also
noted findings that if there is alienation between parents and child, the best way to deal with
it is not in court, but through mediation as this method is less tense for children.
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In citing the results from “Children of Divorce Intervention Project”, a school-based
initiative aimed at helping children of divorcees, Morgan (2018) documented that it helped
children to come to terms with their feelings about the divorce, to strengthen their views of
themselves and of their families. In describing the concept of an ideal' intervention setting for
divorcees. This school-based intervention included age-appropriate activities such as the use
of board games and talks to children of divorced parents by trained professionals providing
pivotal information during 12-15 in school sessions. According to Morgan (2018), children
involved in this intervention were found to have improved in several aspects, including
compliance with rules, an increase in social activity, lower anxiety levels, better adjustment
and fewer problems. Morgan (2018) explained that “though there are an innumerable amount
of these programs around today, they all tend to have some main components in common
including: a small group design, typically occur in school settings, and generally encompass
the same strategies and objectives..”
In addition to care being informed by evidence, a counsellor’s selection of
intervention for divorcees should incorporate several considerations including the dynamic
and extent of stress symptoms and clients’ age and developmental level. Cultural contexts are
also important to consider during the therapeutic process. For instance, in an article on the
impact of broken homes on children, Jamaican communication specialist, Martin Henry made
a salient point regarding the communication style prevalent within the Jamaican context: that
“Jamaican children do not articulate well their feelings, perhaps because of cultural
constraints against doing so”. This tendency of the suppression of feelings is a point which
Jamaican counsellors should consider when attempting to treat children of divorcees for
therapy. Appropriate and sensitive probing techniques should be employed when attempting
to assist a child who may either be in denial or unaware of the trauma they may be
experiencing.
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When incorporating these cultural considerations and the nature of the impacts of
divorce, it is also important for counsellors to select an appropriate treatment framework. The
application of Cognitive Processing Theory (CPT) and Cognitive Behavioural Therapy
(CBT) may be a useful treatment framework for stress victims of divorce as both CPT and
CBT are concerned with assisting clients to identify negative patterns in their thought process
and replace these thoughts with more positive perceptions (APA, 2019). The strength of
using these techniques is its flexibility in treating a variety of psychological symptoms, such
as anger, anxiety, depression and withdrawal, as was outlined previously as dominant impacts
of divorce. Journaling techniques for children may be useful for counsellors to gain insight on
the feelings and emotions of children who may be less verbally expressive. Counsellors may
capitalize on the positives emanating from divorce processes and attempt to incorporate both
parents in the process to dispel faulty conceptions that children may have, such as feeling
unloved. In this regard, a key element of the therapeutic intervention process is to get
divorced parents to work together. According to Mao (2017), this will reduce the adverse
effects of divorce on children, including lower stress levels. This method has been also
documented to decrease the likelihood of “disengagement and discontinuation of financial
support from the non-custodial parent” (Mao, 2017, p. 67).
1.3.1. The Christian Perspective
In view of the evidence showing the effectiveness of faith as a protective factor
against divorce, special consideration may be placed on the Christian perspective in
counselling, particularly for Christian clients. Although divorce is not Biblically the first
option in spousal conflict, unfortunately it has been documented that the rate of divorce in the
world is the same as in the church, ranging around one-third for the United States context
(Hoag,2019). According to Hoag (2019), Christian divorcees experience more guilt and a
lack of support than non-Christian divorcees, as they “…. have the added shame of spiritual
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Comprehensive Paper on Divorce
failure, leading to an increased sense of judgment and isolation from their worship
communities”. (Hoag, 2019, P. 3). Feelings of distance from God have been reported as
additional sentiments following divorce for Christians, lowering their sense of well-being. In
view of these findings, it is therefore necessary for counsellors in the Christian community to
be equipped to integrate a faith-based approach to assist their brothers and sisters who are
undergoing this stressful circumstance.
In a research on compassionate therapy among Christian women, Hoag (2019) found
that applying Christian principles of being self-compassionate and showing kindness to one’s
self after a divorce were effective during therapy. As explained by Hoag (2019), “SelfCompassion” (SC) is a coping technique of showing kindness to one’s self in a divorce
instead of judgment”, This SC technique was applied to women divorcees to aid in the
healing and transformation of their thoughts to one “having a true view of who one is instead
of a person who failed at marriage.” (Hoag, 2019, p.42). In Hoag (2019)’s study, the impact
of applying and integrating these principles in a group therapy protocol for use with Christian
women was analysed. In her research, Hoag (2019) cited these techniques as being shown “to
reduce depression, anxiety, shame, stress and social isolation.” Although the differences
between this treatment method and a comparative method were not statistically significant, it
was found that self-compassion integrated with Christian principles and Scriptures was wellreceived by the Christian participants. In her conclusion, Hoag (2019) expressed a similar
need for tailoring treatment options for religious interventions, being “...expressly applicable
to the individual’s particular life circumstances.”
Conclusion
In conclusion, research has shown that divorce is associated with multiple adverse
psychological and social stress symptoms. These impacts transcend beyond the couple
undergoing this process to impact children and subsequent generations. In divorce prevention
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and treatment practice, counsellors may encourage adult and child clients in the adjustment
process using Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) techniques, with the option of
individual or group settings. Incorporating spiritual rites and encouragement during the
therapeutic process to willing clients has also been documented to add multiple benefits in the
treatment of divorce-related stress. In assisting clients in the recovery process, counsellors
also should bear in mind the different needs and requirements of different couples and tailor
these accordingly. In their quest to assist clients from all backgrounds in their recovery
process from divorce stress, Christian counsellors may adopt a compassion-based approach,
as Jesus did in His Ministry on earth (Mark 1:40).
I
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