Chapter 4:
Learner Differences &
Learning Needs
EMILY MANGAN AND CELINE THOMAS
Chapter 4 is
divided into five
sections:
Intelligence,
Learning &
Thinking Styles,
Individual
Differences &
the Law,
Students with
Learning
Challenges, and
Students who
are Gifted &
Talented
Intelligence

Intelligence is difficult to define, and the concept in education is often
misunderstood. Labels are given to students such as “disabled” or “gifted”.

Labels can both stigmatize and help students—being identified as “special
needs” can protect the student and help them get the assistance they
deserve.

A disability is the inability to do something specific, and a handicap is a
disadvantage in a particular situation, sometimes caused by a disability.
Intelligence

When dealing with disabilities it is important to remember:

Do not feel pity for people with disabilities, and speak to them, not about them

Use “person-first” language

Avoid using bias when identifying disability based on a student’s race, culture,
or socioeconomic background (minorities are overrepresented)

Intelligence is more than one ability (or disability)
Intelligence

Intelligence is based off of the capacity to learn, the total knowledge a
person has acquired, and the ability to adapt to new situations.

“The ability to reason deductively or inductively, think abstractly, use
analogies, synthesize information, and apply it to new domains” (page
119)

Psychologists agree there is a general intelligence, a general factor in
cognitive ability that is related to performance on all mental tests.
Intelligence

Fluid intelligence is the mental efficiency and reasoning ability grounded in
brain development.

Crystallized intelligence is the ability to apply the problem-solving methods
appropriate in your cultural context.

Fluid intelligence decreases throughout a life-span, while crystallized
increases.

Intelligence can be thought of as a hierarchy of abilities, with general
ability at the top and more specific abilities (learning and memory,
language, processing speed, etc) lower down.
Intelligence

Multiple Intelligences— a theory by
Howard Gardner that there are 8
separate intelligences: logicalmathematical, linguistic, musical,
spatial, kinesthetic, interpersonal,
intrapersonal, and naturalist.

Gardner believes an intelligence is a
“biopsychological potential to process
information in certain ways in order to
solve problems or create products…”
(page 120)

The Multiple Intelligences theory is not
widely encouraged or accepted,
although educators have embraced it.
Experts conclude that the intelligences
are interrelated rather than separate,
and that Gardner’s intelligences are
really personality traits or
talents/preferences.
Intelligence

IN SCHOOLS: teachers should differentiate their instruction to connect with
each student, but this does not necessarily mean to teach each lesson in
different ways.

Concepts should be taught in several appropriate ways. Intelligences are
not the same as learning styles.
Intelligence

So far we’ve summarized how humans
differ in the content of intelligence
(abilities). Now we look at the
differences in information processing—
how humans use information to solve
problems and behave intelligently.

Sternberg’s triarchic theory of
successful intelligence is a 3-part
cognitive process approach to
understanding intelligence.

3 kinds of successful intelligence:
analytic, creative, and practical

The process serves three functions:

Higher order planning, strategy
selection, and monitoring (thinking
processes)

Implementing selected strategies
(coping with new experiences)

Gaining new knowledge (adapting to
context)
Intelligence

IQ testing was originally created by
Alfred Binet in 1904 to help identify
students with need for special instruction
early in their schooling. Binet’s test was
brought to the US and revised at
Stanford to create the formula:
IQ=mental age/ chronological age x
100.

IQ tests are designed to create statistical
characteristics—to determine what the
averages are.

“Intelligence is a current state of affairs,
affected by past experiences and open
to future changes” (page 128)

Scoring higher on IQ tests is related to
school achievement for children in all
ethnic groups, but they only measure
analytic IQ, not practical or creative.

Achievement can be more accurately
predicted when accounting for their own
learning and motivation, as well as
practical and creative intelligences.

Nature vs. Nurture– is intelligence a
potential limited by genetics or influenced
by experience and education? Answer—
BOTH heredity and environment impact
intelligence test scores.
Learning & Thinking Styles

Learning styles are defined as the way a person approaches learning and
studying.

Some experts believe “learning preferences” may be more accurate.
When identifying learning styles, researchers found people identify
preferences rather than superior SKILLS in auditory, visual, or kinesthetic
modalities.

Learning styles are often criticized for their importance—matching
teaching to learning style does not improve learning.

Presenting information in multiple modalities is useful—accommodate
student differences and differentiate instruction.
Learning & Thinking Styles

One difference that does hold validity is the distinction between visual and
verbal learners. A focus is placed on the positives for visual learners on
learning from computer-based multimedia.

3 facets in determining visual or verbal learning style:

Cognitive style

Cognitive spatial ability

Learning preference
Individual Differences & The Law

Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA) requires
states to provide a free, appropriate public education for all students with
disabilities in need of special education. There are no exceptions (zero
reject), and the expenses are considered a public responsibility.

In IDEA, disability is specific to 13 categories: specific learning disabilities,
speech/language impairments, other health impairments, intellectual
disability, emotional disturbances, autism spectrum disorders, multiple
disabilities, developmental delay, hearing impairments, orthopedic
impairments, visual impairments, traumatic brain injury, Deaf-blind.
Individual Differences & The Law

3 major points of IDEA important to education

Concept of least-restrictive placement: educating each child in a setting
closest to general education; inclusion- restructuring educational settings to
promote belonging and integration.

Individualized Education Program (IEP): an agreement between parents and
school about the services that will be provided to the student.

Protection of Rights: procedures and polices that protect rights of both parents
and the student (i.e., seeing all records, independent evaluations,
nondiscriminatory testing)
Individual Differences & The Law



Section 504 of the Vocational
Rehabilitation Act prevents
discrimination against people with
disabilities in any federal-funded
program (public schools).

Examples of accommodations:

Seat the student nearest instructor

Fold assignments in half so student is
less overwhelmed by amount of work
Covers a more broad range of
disabilities than IDEA.

Allow use of calculate or tape recorder

Provide books on tape
Accommodations must be made for a
student that has conditions that
substantially limits participation in
schools. OFTEN JUST EXAMPLES OF
GOOD TEACHING!!

Mark right answers instead of wrong
Students with Learning Challenges

Learning challenges can manifest in a variety of different ways. Learning
problems can be attributed to differences in the brain. A lot of research
focuses on working memory capacity, which is a good predictor of
cognitive skills. Our book addresses the following learning challenges in
greater detail:

Learning Disabilities

Hyperactivity and Attention Disorders

Communication Disorders

Emotional Disorders

Intellectual Disabilities

Health and Sensory Impairments

Autism Spectrum Disorders/Asperger Syndrome
Students with Learning Challenges:
Learning Disabilities

Learning disability: a wide range of problems; a disorder in one or more of
the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or using
language that may manifest itself in imperfect ability to listen, think, speak,
read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculation. (page 136-137)

Students with learning disabilities are NOT ALL ALIKE. Common
characteristics are:

Difficulty reading (phonemic awareness)

Problems organizing and interpreting visual or auditory information

Problems paying attention/seeming lack of motivation

Difficulty in mathematics (computation and problem solving)
Students with Learning Challenges:
Learning Disabilities

Students with learning disabilities can develop learned helplessness, where
they come to believe they cannot control or improve their own learning. In
treating learning disabilities, early diagnosis is key. Two general
approaches to teaching are highly effective when used together:

Direct Instruction: clear explanations, demonstrations of new material, teaching
in small steps, lots of practice, immediate feedback, and teacher support.

Strategy Instruction: specific rules for focusing attention and accomplishing
tasks.
Students with Learning Challenges:
Hyperactivity and Attention Disorders

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a pervasive pattern of
inattention, impulsivity, and/or hyperactivity that is more frequent and
severe than is typically observed in individuals at a comparable level of
development (page 140). Indicators are:

Inattention: doesn’t pay close attention to class activity, details of work, teacher
directions. Has trouble organizing belongings and work. Easily distracted.

Hyperactivity: fidgets, squirms, can’t stay in seat, talks excessively.

Impulsivity: blurts out answers, has trouble waiting for turn, interrupts.
Students with Learning Challenges:
Hyperactivity and Attention Disorders

In treating ADHD, there is a lot of controversy surrounding the use of
medication. Stimulant drugs (Ritalin, Adderall), and other drugs (Strattera,
Concerta) are found to have helpful effects for many children with ADHD
in social behaviors and educational interventions.

Regardless of medicinal treatment, behavioral treatments should also be
used. They involve the application of methods like contingency
management, time-out, self-regulation, and modeling.

MULTI-MODEL APPROACHES TO INTERVENTION ARE MOST EFFECTIVE!
Students with Learning Challenges:
Communication Disorders

Second largest group served by special education. May have speech
disorders, language disorders, or both. Can arise from many souces.

Speech Disorders: The inability to produce sounds effectively for speaking.
Articulation problems (lisps) and fluency disorders (stuttering) are most common.
Voicing problems is when a child speaks with inappropriate pitch, quality, or
loudness.

Language Disorders: Deficient or inability to understand or express language.
Students who seldom speak, use few words or short sentences, or rely on
gestures may have a language disorder.
Students with Learning Challenges:
Emotional/Behavioral Disorders

Behavioral Disorders: behaviors that deviate so much from the norm that
they interfere with the child’s own growth and development and/or the
lives of others. Emotional disturbances involve inappropriate behavior,
unhappiness or depression, fears and anxieties, and relationship issues.
ADA refers to behavioral difficulties as mental disorders.

You may observe students who are: aggressive, anxious, withdrawn, or
depressed. Have difficulty following rules, paying attention, or interacting with
others.

Important to be aware of the risk of suicide and drug abuse in disturbed
students.
Students with Learning Challenges:
Intellectual Disabilities

Intellectual disability is a more current name for mental retardation. It is
characterized by significant limitations in intellectual functioning and
adaptive behavior as expressed in conceptual, social, and practical
adaptive skills. (evident before age 18)

Usually measured by IQ tests; score below 70 is an indicator

Must also be problems with adaptive behavior, day-to-day independent living,
and social functioning.

Needed support varies as does severity of disability.
Students with Learning Challenges:
Health and Sensory Impairments

Many impairments exist that require special attention, accommodation, or
instruction. Our book covers a range of health and sensory impairments in
depth:

Cerebral palsy and multiple disabilities (page 150)

Epilepsy (page 151)

Asthma, HIV/AIDS, and Diabetes (page 152)

Vision Impairments (page 152)

Deaf (page 153)
Students with Learning Disabilities:
Autism Spectrum/Asperger Syndrome

Autism is defined as a developmental disability significantly affecting
verbal and nonverbal communication and social interaction, general
evident before age three, that adversely affect the child’s educational
performance. The preferred term, autism spectrum disorders, emphasizes
the range of disorders, from mild to severe.

Autism spectrum is dramatically increasing in children. CDC report states 1 in 310
girls and 1 in 70 boys are affected.

Children may have difficulties in social relations, avoid eye contact, don’t share
feelings of enjoyment or interest with others, have impaired communication,
and have few verbal or language skills. May be sensitive to sensory imformation.
Students with Learning Disabilities:
Autism Spectrum/Asperger Syndrome

Asperger Syndrome is included on the autism spectrum. Children share
many of the autism characteristics, but have greater trouble with social
relations. Language is less affected. Many people with Asperger syndrome
are above average intelligence or very gifted in one subject.

Theory of Mind describes the understanding that you and other people
have minds, thoughts, and emotions—something people with autism
spectrum disorders lack.

Interventions must begin early and be intensive in focusing on
communication and social relations. Providing smaller classes, ensuring
consistency, using visuals and assistive technology are a few strategies.
Students with Learning Challenges

One very serious problem for students with all types of learning challenges
is not enough intervention early in education/life. A new option in the 2004
revision of IDEA is Response to Intervention (RTI).

A three-tiered approach to ensure students get research-based instruction early
on, and that interventions are attempted and documented for struggling
students.

Used to determine who needs more intensive learning support.

Children struggling in regular classroom move “up a tier” and receive extra
support and additional small-group instruction.
Students Who Are Gifted and Talented

Gifted students are defined as very bright, creative, and talented students.
Those who “give evidence of high achievement capability in areas such
as intellectual, creative, artistic, or leadership capacity, or in specific
academic fields, and who need services or activities not ordinarily
provided by the school in order to fully develop those capabilities” (page
156, NCLB).

Being gifted comes from equal parts nature and nurture—students show
their talents at a very young age, but researchers find that deep and
prolonged practice (and support from teachers and parents) is necessary
to achieve the most.

Gifted students may struggle socially to fit in with their peers, or be bored in
class. Often they skip grades or “accelerate” through schooling. Gifted
students should be taught with other gifted students.
Summary Conclusion

To conclude Chapter 4, I will highlight that as teachers, we must be
prepared to know how to identify and best instruct students with unique
and different needs and abilities. Be aware that every child has learning
needs, and differentiate your instruction to best fit. Work with parents and
special education teachers, and most importantly listen to your students.
Most importantly remember that intelligence does not always manifest in
the same way, and each child is intelligent and capable of learning in
his/her own way.
Additional Study Tools

Click link to access a quizlet of key terms and theories/theorists to help
further your understanding of Chapter 4.

http://quizlet.com/_ky0lb