IAWA Journal, Vol. 15 (1), 1994: 3-45
SURVEY OF ENGLISH MACROSCOPIC BARK TERMINOLOGY
by
Leo Junikka 1
Department of Botany, P.O. Box 7 (Unioninkatu 44), 00014 University of Helsinki, Finland
Summary
Tenns of outer and inner bark characteristics are critically surveyed. Different macroscopical tenns with their synonyms are listed
for a comparison of bark features. Suggestions are given for a standardised usage of
the tenns to stimulate a practice of pertinent
field notes and facilitate understanding of descriptions. Preferred tenns are printed in bold
face and preferred definitions in italics.
Key words: Bark morphology, tenninology.
Introduction
Notes on the appearance of the bark or the
fonn of a trunk are often wanting or inadequate in most tropical floras. Only a minority
of plant collectors include various field characters on the labels of herbarium sheets. However, careful descriptions of mature barks
and other vegetative parts, especially in rain
forest trees, may provide a valuable tool for
reliable and quick plant identification. Plant
collectors often cannot reach the crown canopy of the rain forest emergents, or if they
obtain a branch sample, there may be no
flowers or fruits. Furthermore, the tedious
process of naming plants belonging to certain
families or other taxonomic units which are
notoriously difficult to identify in the herbarium might be greatly speeded up if good bark
characters were available. This, in turn, could
prevent undue delay in publishing, for instance, the results of inventories of tropical
forests.
There have been several attempts to construct keys based on bark characters. Presumably, Lely (1925) from Northern Nigeria and
Foxworthy (1927) from the Malay Peninsula
were the first who carefully listed different
1)
field characters of valuable timber trees with
notes on barks. They were followed by Beard
(1944; Tobago), De Rosayro (1960; Ceylon),
and Den Outer (1972; Ivory Coast).
Whitmore (1962a, b, c), in his notable studies on Dipterocarpaceae, described seven distinct bark types and demonstrated that the
bark may provide valuable taxonomic information, and may shed light on a number of
important taxonomic problems. Voorhoeve
(1965) produced a comprehensive study of
some Liberian high forest trees with a great
deal of infonnation on bark characters. Roth
(1981) summarised studies on tropical barks
in Venezuelan Guyana with some characters
and definitions worthwhile to comment. In
recent years good examples of tree floras
using different bark features are Tailfer's
(1989) work on tropical Africa and Polak's
(1992) work on Guyana. Thus good data are
available, but only from a few areas and, virtually, only from a few plant groups such as
the genus Eucalyptus (Francis 1951) or the
family Dipterocarpaceae (Whitmore 1962c).
In contrast to the strong standardisation in
wood anatomical terms by the lAW A (1957,
1964, 1989), bark anatomical terms were reviewed to a certain extent by few authors
only, e.g. Esau (1969) and Martin & Crist
(1970). Later a thorough discussion of various tenns with references to relevant literature and proposal of a list of bark anatomical
terms to be used was published by Trockenbrodt (1990).
The present paper concentrates on bark
morphology. As the anatomical composition
of the bark highly contributes to the outer aspect and other characters of the bark, terms
Temporary: Herbarium, Department of Plant Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University
of Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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4
used in bark anatomy and those used in bark
morphology overlap to a certain degree, particularly those concerning bark tissues.
The first efforts to compile a descriptive
morphological terminology of barks were
made by Wood (1952), De Rosayro (1953),
and Wyatt-Smith (1954). These papers were
mainly concerned with bark features based
on the authors' own experience from Southeast Asia. Also some terminological definitions of bark features are included in the
glossaries of tree floras, such as Corner's
book 'Wayside trees of Malaya' (1940; 3rd
ed. 1988). Various terminological notes can
be found in textbooks of tropical botany. A
good example is Letouzey's (1986) book
'Manual of forest botany' in two volumes on
tropical Africa (translation from the original
French, 1972). Among plant anatomical textbooks, Eames & MacDaniels (1947), Esau
(1960, 1965, 1969, 1979), and Fahn (1990)
have referred to macroscopical characteristics
of barks.
Rollet (1980, 1982) published a review
about the variability of characters used in macroscopic bark analysis. Based on his survey
of field floras that contain notes on bark features, and his own experience from the tropics, he described the potentiality of using
bark features, giving numerous examples.
As Trockenbrodt (1990) has pointed out,
the large number of terms with partially or
wholly overlapping meaning "reveals the lack
of a concise and widely applicable terminology of bark structure." Not only are different
morphological terms applied to the same structure but also, in some cases, a term is obscurely defined, thus allowing different meanings.
The main difficulty with regard to bark morphological descriptions is that features which
are pure responses to the environment have
to be distinguished from those which are inherent to a particular species. One has to
know the variability of barks: between individuals of the same species variation is often
considerable, and even in different parts of
the same individual. Only efficient collecting
of data from a large number of mature trees
using accepted and standardised descriptive
terms will enlarge the knowledge of bark
variation. A simple and well-defined terminology is, therefore, a prerequisite.
IAWA Journal, Vol. 15 (1),1994
This paper is intended as a proposal toward a consistent bark morphological terminology. I have quoted 'representative' definitions from the anatomical literature, from
some field floras of different geographical
areas, and from common botanical textbooks
written for tropical areas. Some well-known
terms have been omitted, although some synonyms are accepted. I have restricted the
scope of this study to the English literature,
but some common terms (e. g. rhytidome,
phloeme) from French publications are included.
This tentative list of terms certainly does
not pretend to cover all the terms used in botany and forestry. Hopefully, though, it will
bring more clarity in a rather confusing bark
terminology, and thus contribute to a badly
needed standardization.
Structure, symbols, and abbreviations
used in the list
Structure
This paper is divided into three main chapters: 1) a list of accepted terms, 2) a survey of
the terminology with the accepted definitions,
synonyms and comments on relevant
literature, and 3) a list of rejected terms with
many cross references. The accepted terms
are printed in bold face, and the accepted definitions in italics. The survey of the terminology (and the preceding list of accepted terms)
is subdivided into five parts, dealing with:
I
II
III
bark and its component tissues
bark texture
bark patterns
a. bark patterns in tangential and cross
sections
b. fissuring
c. exfoliation
d. external markings
N exudation
V bark cutting
Entries are printed in alphabetical order and
the attributes within an entry are arranged
according to its meaning. Numbers between
parentheses, (1), (2), etc., indicate two or
more meanings of a particular term. The definition of a term by its original author has been
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Junikka -
Macroscopic bark terminology
maintained, as far as possible. Sometimes an
author did not define a term explicitly, so that
its meaning had to be deduced from the original context. Often the original definitions had
to be abridged to save space. For practical
reasons some definitions are placed under entries in the chapter on rejected terms, but they
are commented upon in the list of accepted
terms.
Symbols
*
~
is placed after a reference showing a
direct quotation from the source.
refers to the term under which an explanation is given, and which is usually
preferred.
an alternative term which is also accepted.
the cited author has explicitly used the
synonym in the sense given here.
Cf.
confer =compare with.
Inc!. the term is included in the definition
proposed for this entry.
See
an explanation is given under the indicated entry, which is not synonymous.
Syn. rejected synonym(s).
Abbreviations
AHDE American Heritage Dictionary of
English language (1980)
Ba
Bena (1960)
BCFTl British Commonwealth forest terminology 1 (1953)
BCFT2 British Commonwealth forest terminology 2 (1957)
Be
Beard (1944)
BKI
Brooker & Kleinig (1990a)
BK2
Brooker & Kleinig (1990b)
BM
Bi.isgen & Mi.inch (1929)
Bor (1953)
Bo
Br
Brown (1971)
Cg
Chang (1954)
Cha
Chattaway (1953)
Ck
Craddock (1932)
Comer (1988)
Co
Dirr (1977)
Dr
Edlin (1976)
Ed
5
Ed
Edlin (1976)
Eames & MacDaniels (1947)
Esau (1960)
Esau (1965)
Esau (1969)
Esau (1979)
Fahn (1990)
Ford-Robertson (1971)
Francis (1951)
G6mez-Vazquez & Engleman (1984)
Ghouse & Jamal (1978)
Hightshoe (1989)
Hall et al. (1970)
Howard (1971)
lAWA, Committee on Nomenclature
(1964)
Ir
Irvine (1952)
Ja
Jackson (1928)
Ji
Jimenez-Saa (1973)
Kr
KrUssmann (1984)
Ku
Kunkel (1965)
Letouzey (1986)
Le
MC
Martin & Crist (1970)
Me
Metcalfe (1979)
MET
Macdonald Encyclopedia of Trees
(1982)
MW
Meijer & Wood (1964)
Nu
Nultsch (1971)
Oul
Outer, den (1967)
Outer, den (1972)
0u2
Po
Polak (1992)
PW
Penford & Willis (1961)
PZ
Panshin & De Zeeuw (1980)
RDMB Radford et al. (1974)
REC
Raven et al. (1976)
Ro
Rollet (1980, 1982)
Rt
Roth (1981)
Ry
Rosayro, de (1953)
Srivastava (1964)
Sa
SAF
Society of American Foresters,
Committee on Forestry Terminology
(1950)
Storrs (1979)
Ss
Thrower (1988)
Th
Ti
Timberlake (1980)
Vo
Voorhoeve (1965)
Whitmore (1962a)
Whl
Wh2
Whitmore (1972)
Wo
Wood (1952)
WS
Wyatt-Smith (1954)
Wy
Wyk, van (1985)
YYI
Yunus et al. (1990)
EM
Esl
Es2
Es3
Es4
Fh
Fo
Fs
GE
GJ
Hi
HJC
Ho
IAWA
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IAWA Journal, Vol. 15 (1),1994
6
ACCEPTED TERMS: DEFINmON AND COMMENTS
I. Bark and its component tissues
(Many terms commented upon here are indicated in the schematical drawing in Fig. 1)
bark, inner
bark
(1) all tissue outside the vascular cambium
regardless of its composition (Trockenbrodt 1990*).
Syn.: rind (Ck, BM, Ja).
(2) in dicotyledons the term bark in a popular
sense is applied to all secondary tissues
external to the xylem in stem and roots of
woody plants (Metcalfe 1979*).
(3) a dead outer protective tissue of woody
plants, derived from the cortex; varies
greatly in appearance and texture; often
including all tissue from vascular cambium outward (Dirr 1977*).
(4) -t I: rhytidome (1), (2).
Comments:
In plants with secondary growth bark
consists of the secondary phloem, the primary tissues still existing outside the secondary phloem, the periderm, and the dead
tissue outside the periderm. Metcalfe (1979)
omits primary tissues from the definition of
bark. Dirr's (1977) definition has to be rejected, as it is self contradictory.
Although the etymological root of the term
bark is the same as the German 'Borke', meaning rhytidome, there is no practical reason to
change the well-established definition of the
bark (1).
II
I I
Ii
II
"
II
~~'~'~~'~I~~~~I/
periderm [
rhytidome
phellem
phloem
inner bark
\=~~~~::t----=.ca mbium
xylem
Fig. 1. Suggested terms for the tissue zones
resulting from rhytidome formation.
(1) = I: phloem.
(2) -t I: phloem, non-collapsed secondary.
(3) the living part of the bark inside the innermost cork cambium (Raven et al. 1976*).
Syn.: blaze (Be), live bark (Wo, Ba,
Ji), living bark (Po).
(4) adherent rhytidome under the easily detachable scales and the tissues below it
(De Saint Aubin 1963).
(5) -t I: periderm (1).
Comments:
Martin & Crist (1970) propose that anatomists refer to the inner bark as phloem. Trockenbrodt (1990), too, recommends a more accurate expression instead of inner bark. He
suggests the expression 'living secondary
phloem' or 'secondary phloem up to the lastformed periderm'. Although the term phloem
is mostly favoured by anatomists, the term
inner bark is accepted here as an alternative,
because many non-anatomists use it frequently. In this sense, inner bark or phloem is complementary to outer bark or rhytidome. Other
meanings of the term should be avoided.
bark, outer
(1) = I: rhytidome (1).
(2) -t I: rhytidome (2).
(3) -t I: rhytidome (3).
(4) used by Roth (1981) in the microscopical
description of the outer layer of the phloem
where "the proper arrangement of cells
and especially the pattern produced by the
hard bast, is disturbed by active dilatation
growth."
Cf: I: phloem, collapsed secondary;
bark, middle (1) (rejected term).
See comments under I: rhytidome.
bark fibre
fibre in the bark (Trockenbrodt 1990*).
Syn.: bast fibre (Esl).
See comments under I: phloem fibre.
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Macroscopic bark tenninology
bast
(1) any fibres of the outer part of the plant,
though mostly obtainedfrom the secondary phloem.
Syn.: bass (EM!).
(2) --+ I: fibre, phloem.
(3) --+ I: phloem, secondary phloem.
(4) --+ 1: phloem.
See comments in Trockenbrodt (1990).
cambium
many species of Eugenia, it darkens purplish
on exposure (Wyatt-Smith 1954). A purplish
stain is, in fact, left on the knife when cutting
the phloem. This is a useful distinctive feature
(De Rosayro 1953). Rollet (1982) mentioned
that in some cases rapid discoloration takes
place in vascular cambium after slashing. I
have not found any mention of the colour of
phellogen. The meristem fonning dilatation
tissue commonly is not included in the definition of cambium.
a meristem with products of divisions arranged orderly in parallel files; consists
of one layer of initials and their undifferentiated products, or derivatives (Esau
1960*).
Syn.: lateral meristems (REC).
cork
Applied only to the two lateral mcristems:
cortex
vascular cambium: the meristematic
cell layer responsible for the development
of the wood and/or the phloem.
Syn.: wood cambium (Ed), main cambium (Ed).
pbellogen: the meristematic cell layer responsible for the development of the periderm (Trockenbrodt 1990*).
Syn.: bark cambium (Ed), cork cambium (lAWA!, Esl!, Ja!, Br!, BCFT2!,
Oul!, Fh!, Cha!, Whl!, SAP!, BM,
REC!, Ry, PZ!, Cg!, Ck!, Nu!, EM!),
cork meristem (Ja!).
Cf: I: peridenn; I: phellodenn; I: phellem.
There are also other meristems which fonn
additional tissues:
dilatation meristem: a radially oriented
meristematic cell layer in the phloem ray
of some plants; responsible for adistinctly funnel-shaped phloem ray dilatation
(Trockenbrodt 1990*).
Comments:
Meijer (1974), Raven et al. (1976), and
Fahn (1990), following Esau (1960), use the
term 'cambium' in both senses. Some authors
(Jackson 1928, BCFTI 1953, Wyatt-Smith
1954, IAWA 1964, Den Outer 1967,Panshin
& De Zeeuw 1980) have restricted it to vascular cambium only. Vascular cambium is frequently inconspicuous. If visible, it is usually translucent or watery, but, for instance in
(1) a trade product which is mainly extracted
from the cork oak tree (Quercus suber).
(2) --+ I: phellem.
See comments in Trockenbrodt (1990).
(1) the tissue of primary origin that belongs
neither to the epidermis, the periderm, or
the phloem; between epidermis (periderm)
and the vascular system (Trockenbrodt
1990*).
Syn.: primary cortex (Me, BM), periblem (Ja!).
(2) --+ I: rhytidome (1).
See comments in Trockenbrodt (1990).
dilatation tissue
all tissue affected by dilatation growth
(Trockenbrodt 1990*) (Fig. 2).
Syn.: intercalary proliferation tissue
(Whl), expansion tissue (Wy).
Incl.: radial inclusions (Ji), wedges
(Po).
C!: lILa: dilatation (growth); lILa:
streaks.
Comments:
Different parts of the tissue may undergo a
dilatation process caused by the tangential
strain which is a result of an increase in diameter of stem. Dilatation growth patterns, often
with distinct colour, should be described by
drawings and short notes when they fonn discernible patterns in the phloem. Voorhoeve
(1965) points out that dilatation tissue often
appears in different-coloured and -textured
vertical bands and stripes. These markings
are good characteristics, as Rollet (1982) has
demonstrated in the family Annonaceae.
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IAWA Journal, Vol. 15 (1),1994
8
periderm
(1) the secondarily developed protective bark
tissue replacing the epidermis, or built
during rhytidome formation; consists of
phellem, phellogen, and phelloderm
(Trockenbrodt 1990*).
Syn.: secondary cork (Oul !), corky
layer (Ja), inner bark (Kr), occasionally used in the meaning of phellem
(lAW A 1964), laminae in dead bark
('laminated dead bark') (Ji).
Cf: I: phellem; I: phellogen; I: phelloderm.
(2) the outer bark or epiphloem, ... cork cambium and its products (Jackson 1928*).
Comments:
The first-formed periderm originates most
commonly in the subepidermal layer. In older
trees last periderm separates dead outer bark
from living inner bark which consists of secondary phloem (Esau 1960).
The arrangement of periderm layers may
vary with the species and/ or different parts of
the stem, when seen in cross section. Meijer
& Wood (1964) mention that some species of
Shorea may have differently coloured periderms in the same tree, but generally they
show a uniformly coloured periderm which
is characteristic for the species. See discussion concerning periderm in Trockenbrodt
(1990).
phellem
a secondarily formed protective tissue in
stems and roots consisting of dead cells
with chiefly suberised walls; developed
outward from the phellogen and forming
a part ofperiderm.
Syn.: cork (EsI!, Ro, Rt, Ja!, IAWA!,
Oul!, Fh!, MC!, Whl!, Cha!, Me!,
Ho!, SAF!, REC!, BM, Cg!, Ck!,
EM!, Br!, BCFT2!), cork cortex (Ja),
inner surface of the dead bark (Ji)?
Cf: I: periderm; I: phelloderm; I: phellogen.
Comments:
Suberised walls of phellem have waxy or
fatty material resistant to the passage of gases
and water vapour, isolating the outer parts of
the bark. When developed, phellem frequently forms a strong tissue and may result in a
persistent bark, even though deep cracks may
develop (cf. examples like Betula, Robinia,
Sequoia; Esau 1960). According to Eames &
MacDaniels (1947), generally several to many
times more phellem cells are produced than
phelloderm cells, although there is a great
deal of variation in different plants. Trockenbrodt (1990) restricts the term 'cork' to the
trade product obtained from cork oak.
phelloderm
a secondarily formed living tissue developed inwardfrom the phellogen,forming
a part ofperiderm and resembling cortical
parenchyma.
Syn.: middle bark (Ry!, WS, Wh2),
secondary cortex (Whl!, Ck), cork
skin (RECl), outer edge (Wo!).
Cf: I: periderm; I: phelloderm; I: phellogen.
Comments:
The phelloderm may be thick- or thinwalled, and probably gives some protection
against pathogens, heat and desiccation (Martin & Crist 1970). The phelloderm is usually
a thin layer and generally indistinguishable
from the inner bark, except when it has a
distinctive colour (De Rosayro 1953). Wood
(1952), Wyatt-Smith (1954), and Rollet
(1980) consider its colour generally a valuable feature for diagnostic purposes. According to Whitmore (1962a), it usually occurs as
a distinct, up to I mm thick, red-brown layer
of soft powdery tissue in Dipterocarpaceae.
This coloured layer, usually found under thin,
easily chipping rhytidome of some species,
may be streaky and sometimes the colour of
the just peeled piece may be different from
the piece after longer exposure. This is a highly diagnostic feature in such genera as Kokoona and Lophopetalum (Whitmore 1972).
However, usually one finds under a thin rhytidome a green layer, which is too common to
be of diagnostic value (Rollet 1980).
phellogen, see under I: cambium.
phloem
= I: inner bark
a principal assimilate conducting tissue
composed of different tissues and usually
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Macroscopic bark terminology
located outward of the xylem and inward
of the periderm.
Syn.: inner bark (WS, lAW A, MC,
Oul!, Ho, Cg, Ry!, REC, GJ, Br,
Ro, SAF!, PZ, Wo, Ed!, GE!, Wh2),
bast (Ro!, SAF!, MET, Ed!, Ja!, BM,
Ry), inner rind (BM), live bark (Ro i),
liber (Ja, MET), bass (Fo).
Cf: I: bark, inner (3); bark, middle
(1) (rejected term).
Phloem can be divided into:
primary phloem: phloem of primary
origin (Trockenbrodt 1990*).
Syn.: primary bast (Ja!), primary cortex (Rt).
secondary phloem: all bark tissues derived from the vascular cambium during
secondary growth (Trockenbrodt 1990*).
Syn.: secondary bast (Ja), secondary
liber (Ja), secondary cortex (Rt, Ja),
bast (Oul!, Ou2).
Secondary phloem can be subdivided into two layers that are sometimes visible
to an unaided eye:
non-collapsed secondary phloem:
part of the secondary phloem with open
and non-collapsed sieve-elements (Trockenbrodt 1990*).
Syn.: functional phloem (Esl, Sa,
REC), functioning phloem (Es3, Es4,
Fh), conducting phloem (Es2, Es4,
Wh 1, Rt), conducting zone (GJ), inner inner bark (WS), inner bark (Ro,
Rt), inner layer (of the live bark) (Ji).
collapsed secondary phloem: part of
secondary phloem where sieve elements,
companion or Strasburger cells, and
sometimes axial phloem parenchyma cells
are collapsed (Trockenbrodt 1990*).
Syn.: non-functional phloem (EsI,
Sa, REC), non-functioning phloem
(Es3, Es4, Fh), non-conducting phloem (Es2, Es4, Whl, Rt), non-conducting zone (GJ), non-active phloem
(Fh), outer inner bark (WS), outer
bark (Ro), outer layer (of the live bark)
(Ji).
Other structures in the secondary phloem
that can sometimes be distinguished with
an unaided eye:
9
scIerenchymatic elements: fibres,
sclereids, and their intermediates forming
various structures in the secondary phloem. Patterns thus formed may be seen in
cross and tangential section.
Syn.: hard bast (BM, Ro, Rt), hard
bark (IAWA), stereome (BM!), inclusions (fibrous -, grid-fibrous -, and
sandy inclusions) (Ji).
Note! Sieve elements, companion cells
and phloem parenchyma are called soft
bast, soft bark or leptome respectively
by some authors.
Cf: bast (2) (in rejected terms).
phloem rays: rays traversing the phloem (Trockenbrodt 1990*)
Inc!.: striated inner bark (WS).
Comments:
The general arrangement of the tissues of
the phloem is governed by the interaction between the products of the vascular cambium
and the dilatation tissue. According to Whitmore (1972), phloem usually plays a role of
little value for tree identification. However,
there are some aspects of morphology, colour, texture, exudate, and smell which are
shown to be worthwhile.
Wyatt-Smith (1954) suggests subdivision
of living phloem into 'outer inner bark' and
'inner inner bark' in some cases, corresponding to Wood's (1952) terms 'outer layer' and
'inner layer', although he does not always
consider it feasible. The distinction is made
on grounds of disparity in texture and colour.
Equally, Rollet (1980) and Roth (1981) distinguish outer bark, inner bark, and middle
bark within the phloem, although Rollet prefers to avoid the term middle bark and, instead, speaks of outer bark with or without
the dilatation zone. However, Wyatt-Smith
(1954) and Whitmore (1972) adopted the
term middle bark in a completely different
sense, referring to an often coloured phelloderm in some species.
Rather than adopting a highly confusing
terminology as just discussed, a simple subdivision of phloem into non-collapsed and
collapsed phloem may suffice. These terms
correspond well enough to macroscopical
aspects like colour, texture, and occurrence
of dilatation tissue. The term middle bark
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IAWA Journal, Vol. 15 (1),1994
should be avoided, as Trockenbrodt (1990)
proposed.
According to IAWA (1964) terminology,
hard bark sometimes occurs in concentric
layers that alternate within a growth ring with
layers of soft bark, or are more irregularly
distributed in a ground tissue of soft bark.
Here such structures in the phloem are called
'phloem with laminated texture'.
In macromorphological studies it is sometimes possible to distinguish between sclerenchymatic tissues and parenchymatic or dilatation tissues, mainly because of differences
in colour. Therefore, the term sclerenchymatic elements is suggested for all sclerified
structures observed in a cross section. Reliable identification of different layers can be
obtained only in microscopy.
The phloem rays are frequently much affected by the collapse of sieve elements and
associated cells, and by stem growth. The
wide phloem rays commonly become dilatated by cell division and tangential extension
of cells. They remain radial, but they flare toward the periphery of the stem. The narrow
rays commonly become curved (Esau 1979).
Wyatt-Smith (1954) described striated inner bark in which radial stripes of a different
colour, often white, are visible, for instance
in Annonaceae. Furthermore, they are connected with the fissures in the rhytidome.
Apparently these radial stripes are rays dilatated in a different way.
phloem fibre
bark fibre of the phloem (Trockenbrodt
1990*).
Syn.: bast (Ja, EM, BCFT2, Fo),
bass (EM, BCFT2 !), bast fibre
(IAWA, PZ, Ja, Nu!, Oul, Es1),
hard bast (Nu, Ja), liber fibre (Jat).
Cf: II: texture fibrous.
Comments:
Fibres are taxonomically important. When
they occur in the secondary phloem, they are
conspicuous elements because of their thick
walls and characteristic distribution patterns
(Esau 1979). They occur in a variety of form
and arrangement, often in definite tangential
bands (Liriodendron, Populus) or solitary
(Cephalanthus). In some woody plants with
a hard, tough bark (Carya), the fibres make
up the greater part of the secondary phloem
and provide considerable mechanical support
for the stem (Eames & MacDaniels 1947). See
Trockenbrodt (1990) concerning the terms
'bast', 'bast fibre', and 'hard bast'.
rhytidome
(1) = I: outer bark
the dead outer part of bark including the
last-formed periderm, cut off by this peridermfrom still living secondary phloem.
Syn.: outer bark (Esl!, Fh!, REC, Br,
Cg, Ed, MC!, Whl), bark (MET, Ja),
cortex (MET), rind (Ja), outer rind
(BM), primary rind (BM), true bark
(Ed!, Ir), scale bark (EM!), shell bark
(EM!), secondary bark (GE).
Cf.: I: phloem.
Note! In German literature, rhytidome
is referred to as 'Borke', which is linguistically close to bark.
(2) all tissues outside the innermost phellogen.
Syn.: outer bark (Fh!, REC, WS,
Oul!, Nu!, IAWA!, Le!, BCFT2!,
Wo, Th, Ry, Fo!, Wh2), bark (Ck,
BM, Ro, Cha), true bark (PW!),
dead bark (Wo, Ro, Le!, Ba, Po, Ji).
(3) dead portion of the bark excluding lastformed periderm.
Syn.: outer bark (Ho!).
(4) superficial layer of the dead bark which
detaches spontaneously (Tailfer 1989*).
Comments:
Definition (1) follows more or less closely
Esau (1960), Martin & Crist (1970), and Fahn
(1990). Definition (2) is more or less similar
to that given by Chattaway (1953), BCFT2
(1957), Penford & Willis (1961), De Saint
Aubin (1963), IAWA (1964), Den Outer
(1967), Ford-Robertson (1971), Nultsch
(1971), Ghouse & Jamal (1978), and Letouzey (1986). Definition (3) follows more or
less that of SAF (1950), Bena (1960), Esau
(1960), Howard (1971), and Trockenbrodt
(1990), and definition (4) Troupin (1978).
Rhytidome is composed principally of
dead masses of cortical and phloem tissue in
the young stems, and secondary phloem in
the old stems. Thickness of the rhytidome
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-------------------------
may be genetically controlled, or affected by
the exposure to the sun or frequent fires. In
addition, structure and proportion of tissues
may vary during tree growth, and thus affect
thickness of the bark.
Diagnostic characters of the rhytidome are
a rcsult of the weathering process, the tangential strain, the way of growing of the peridenn,
the arrangement of the phellem, and the makeup and amount of tissues cut off by the peridenn from the bark. Typically, periderms are
only thin layers in the former inner bark tissue, thus fonning only a small component of
the whole outer bark. Occasionally periderm
tissue dominates the bark (Quercus suber), or
there is only just one or occasionally two superficial peridenns and therefore outer bark is
absent or 1-2 mm thick (Fagus sylvatica;
Whitmore 1963). Wood (1952) mentions the
alternation of colour in bands formed by the
usually darker peridenn layers and the lighter
coloured secondary phloem, which sometimes
occurs in species fonning successive periderms. Mostly, however, colour is unifonn
or nearly so.
11
Bena (1960) applies a French tenn \~corce
morte' in the sense of the definition (2), and
restricts the term 'rhytidome' to the bark outside phellem. De Saint Aubin (1963) divides
scaly or flaky rhytidome into two layers:
outer rhytidome ('rhytidome externe') is a
part which detaches easily when hit by a
machete. The inner rhytidome ('rhytidome
interne') consists of thin layers adherent to
the tissues below. He adds that these rhytidome layers usually differ in colour. Srivastava (1964) remarks that rhytidome originates from the secondary phloem and, in such
cases, may be considered merely a special
tissue of the secondary phloem.
Trockenbrodt (1990) proposes the replacement of the tenn outer bark by the unambiguous tenn rhytidome. However, also the tenn
rhytidome is used in different senses. I accept
the equivalent term outer bark for rhytidome,
because both terms are common in present
literature. Last-formed periderm should be
noted, if there is a discernible colour difference.
II. Bark texture (consistency)
texture
composition of the bark largely determined by the character of the cells composing the tissue, but also affected by the
progress of decay of the rhytidome.
Comments:
The term texture is frequently used in
wood, referring to its relative unifonnity to
the touch or in the reaction to cutting tools.
Here it is applied to bark consistency. Texture is often complicated by the presence and
distribution of sclereids and fibres set in a parenchymatous matrix (Wood 1952). A rough
distinction between the texture of outer bark
and inner bark should be made when the
blaze is examined. In addition, the quality of
scales or flakes may be detennined. There is
much confusion in tenninology and different
categories of texture used by authors. It is
next to impossible to present a list of tenns
that are mutually exclusive.
The texture may be described as fol.lows:
corky: outer bark with the texture and
quality of cork.
Syn.: corky outer bark (WS).
fibrous: outer and/or inner bark mainly
composed offibres.
Syn.: fibrous bark (Es3, Ss, Ro),
shreddy bark (RDMB), fibrous flakes
(Le).
IneZ.: fibrous inner bark (WS).
brittle: outer and/or inner bark is hard,
breakable. Outer bark may emit a metallic
sound on cutting, inner bark may be fibrous but still brittle (Wyatt-Smith 1954,
Jimenez-Saa 1973).
Syn.: crustaceous bark (Bo).
IneZ.: brittle outer bark (WS), fibrousbreakable live bark (Ji), glass-breakable live bark (Ii), living bark with
brittle fibres (Po).
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IAWA Journal, Vol. 15 (1),1994
loose: outer and/or inner bark breaks up
on cutting into coarse or fine grains (vs.
firm).
Syn.: crumbly bark (Ro).
Incl.: granular flakes (Le), granular
outer bark (WS), crumbly outer bark
(WS), chunky inner bark (Wh2!).
granular: usually referring to inner bark
which is mainly composed of sclereids
(Whitmore 1972).
Cf: m.c: bark, stringy.
mealy: outer bark falls off like powder
(Rollet 1980).
Syn.: mealy bark (Ro, Rt).
Cf: m.c: bark, powdery.
homogeneous: either fibres or sclereids
occur (vs. heterogeneous) (Whitmore
1972).
Note! Do not confuse homogeneous
texture with homogeneous bark.
soft: outer and/or inner bark is soft and
easy to cut (vs. hard) (Wyatt-Smith
1954).
Syn.: soft bark (Ro) (vs. hard bark
(Ro, Rt), compact bark (BKl), stone
bark (BM».
Incl.: soft outer bark (WS), soft inner
bark (WS) (vs. hard inner bark (WS».
laminate: concentric, cylindrical or interrupted layers in the phloem formed by
sclerenchymatic elements.
Syn.: laminated bark (MW, Ro), laminated inner bark (WS), laminated live
bark (Ii), long strings (of live bark)
(Ji), several layers (Ji), layered pattern
(in living bark) (Po).
Incl.: superposed plates (Rt), tangential bands (Rt), concentric rings (Rt).
Cf: lILa. ripple marks; L dilatation
tissue.
Comments:
In addition to rhytidome, the development
of phellem is stimulated by forest fires. Rollet
(1982) observed very spectacular ridges, over
10 cm thick, in Caesalpinia coriaria, a species
from Llanos. Sometimes corky outer bark
may be easily detached by hand (Rollet 1982).
Wyatt-Smith (1954) found corky texture in
outer bark of Pithecellobium confertum.
According to Wyatt-Smith (1954), barks
with fibrous texture can often be peeled off in
long strips in such trees as Aquilaria malaccensis and Artocarpus scortechinii. Esau (1969)
mentions that the presence of fibres "induces
the bark to split in a reticulate, or netted, pattern" (Acer platanoides, Juglans regia).
Brittle texture may include both sclereids
and fibres. Bor (1953), who used the term
'crustaceous' for the black, hard, gritty bark,
and Wyatt-Smith (1954) found brittle bark
common in Diospyros.
In describing the loose texture authors
have used many terms to describe the detaching of portions of the bark. Letouzey (1986)
applies the term 'granular' to flakes or scales
which break off easily. He gives examples
like Milida excelsa (== Chlorophora) and Alstonia boonei. Wyatt-Smith (1954) mentions
longitudinally broken, coarse granules, i. e.
'granular outer bark' in Shorea spp. He also
limits the term 'crumbly' to outer bark which
breaks in small particles on cutting, and gives
the family Burseraceae as an example. Rollet
(1982) applies the term 'crumbly' also to
similar qualities of the phloem, as distinct
from fibrous texture (for example most of
the family Chrysobalanaeeae). However, he
shows that the distinction between fibrous
and crumbly inner bark is somewhat arbitrary
because closer examination reveals merely
sclereids and fibres in varying quantity. Roth
(1981) characterises brittle and crumbly consistency, mentioning that it consists of "stone
cell groups which separate easily from the
surrounding parenchymatous tissue." She
also stresses that the more advanced the progress of decay is in the rhytidome, the more
crumbly and mealy it will be. Mealy texture
can be detected by rubbing between fingers,
for example in Chaetocarpus schomburgkianus (Rollet 1982).
Homogeneous layers may be found in the
phloem, although barks may be chiefly heterogeneous in texture. This should be noted
from the blaze. Whitmore (l962a) found that
smooth barks are fibrous inwards and granular outwards, and described the cause of this
in terms of the great amount of tangential
strain the smooth barks have to accommodate.
The term 'soft' (vs. hard) texture should
be restricted to an evaluation of cutting with
reference to outer and! or inner bark, without
regard to anatomical structure. Inner bark has
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Junikka -
Macroscopic bark terminology
usually a yielding texture, often moist, for
example in most Annonaceae. Wyatt-Smith
(1954) mentions examples of soft outer bark,
for instance certain Litsea spp., and Campnosperma auriculatum.
Trees with hard texture in the bark occur
in open and semideciduous forests affected
by regular fires, but also in closed forests.
The hardness of the rhytidome is variable,
and depends on the amount of phellem and
sclereids (Rollet 1982). Also special inclusions, such as Ca-oxalate crystals, in a large
number may result in difficulty of cutting
(Roth 1981). Bark may be so hard and resonant, for instance in Canarium resiniferum,
that a clear ringing sound may be heard if
struck with a smart blow with the back of a
dao (= a large heavy knife used by the Burmese) (Bor 1953). Inner bark is hard and
then usually dry, for example in lxonanthes
icosandra (Wyatt-Smith 1954).
Laminate texture refers to phloem where
laminae are formed through dilatation tissue
which contains sclereids in tangential layers.
Wyatt-Smith (1954) and Whitmore (1962c)
mention one example of such laminated inner
--------------
13
bark: Anisoptera spp. Jimenez-Saa (1973)
distinguished three types of laminated texture, which are hardly applicable (see rejected
terms). Roth (1981) elaborated a classification according to distribution of sclerenchymatic tissue, where sclerenchymatic tissue may
be visible as superposed plates, tangential
bands or continuous and concentric rings in
the phloem structure. She also called these
patterns 'hard bast types'.
Concentric laminate structures are useful in
describing a blaze in the field. For instance,
Meijer & Wood (1964) identified layers of
stone cells alternating with other layers of
bark which they consider "a good character to
distinguish some species of Dipterocarpaceae." The term laminate texture is related to
the ripple marks, often meaning the same, but
separated here, because in ripple marks rays
are sometimes involved. Moreover, the term
ripple marks is primarily used in describing tangential sections.
Whitmore (1962a) distinguishes a laminated bark type in Dipterocarpaceae because of
the laminated structure in the inner bark. See
the definition in the list of rejected terms.
III. Bark patterns
III.a: Bark patterns in cross and tangential
section
corrugations
the inner sUrface of the bark is corrugated
matching the similar pattern on sapwood.
Syn.: corrugated sapwood (Fs, Ro).
Comments:
De Rosayro (1953) and Jimenez-Saa (1973)
used the term in this sense. When the bark is
removed, one may see a wrinkled or corrugated sapwood surface like corduroy or the
ridged formation of a washing board. It was
found that large aggregate rays of the wood
terminate in the indentations (Francis 1951).
dilatation (growth)
the process ensuring the tangential widening of the bark during growth (Trockenbrodt 1990*) (Fig. 2).
See comments under I: dilatation tissue.
flame-marks
a pattern resembling flames formed by
phloem rays seen in the cross section of
phloem (Rollet 1982).
Cf: lILa: phloem, scalariform.
Comments:
This is a variant of scalariform phloem.
Rollet (1982) gives, among others, Anacardium giganteum and Scaphium macropodum
as examples.
phloem, mottled
phloem which is marked with spots of
various colours or shades in tangential
section.
Syn.: mottled inner bark (WS), mottled living bark (Po).
Comments:
Wyatt-Smith (1954) gives examples, such as
Endospermum malaccense, and Polak (1992)
Aspidosperma cruentum. No distinction is
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14
IAWA Journal, Vol. 15 (1),1994
Fig. 2. Close-up of the blaze where dilation growth seen in the blaze of Catostemma fragrans,
Guyana (photo A.M. Polak). - Fig. 3. Ripple marks in Tabebuia insignis var. monophylla,
Guyana (photo A. M. Polak).
made between tissues involved in mottled patterns. The term mottled is restricted to spots
as seen in the blaze, and the term patchy to
bark surface patterns.
phloem, scalariform
a pattern formed by phloem rays in
the cross section of phloem resembling
ladder-like structure with radial 'rungs'
(Rollet 1982).
Cf: lILa: flame-marks.
Comments:
This is the structure formed by phloem
rays which separate other secondary phloem
parts. Rollet (1982) gives a number of examples, for instance Scottellia coriacea and
Khaya ivorensis.
ripple marks
fine, parallel, horizontal lines in the tangential section of wood or bark, caused
by the storied structure of all the wood
and bark elements, or by the distribution
in horizontal layers of the wood rays
and bark rays only (Voorhoeve 1965*)
(Fig. 3).
Cf : II: texture laminate; ill.a: streaks.
Comments:
BCFT2 (1957), IAWA (1964), Meijer
(1974), and Panshin & De Zeeuw (1980) restrict the term to tangential and longitudinal
surfaces of certain woods. Symington (1943)
gave examples of diagnostic ripple marks in
sapwood, viz. Hopea ferrea, Balanocarpus
heimii (= Neobalanocarpus). Kunkel (1965)
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Macroscopic bark tenninology
~----------~~--------~------------------------
uses it to describe horizontal lines in cambium
(Stockwerkbau). Rollet (1982) compares it in
his glossary with "markings similar to small
ridges on the sand of the seashore." The tenn
is close to the term laminate structure, but
kept separate here because the tenn ripple
marks has a broader definition which may be
useful in describing wood characteristics in
the blaze as well.
streaks
striations on the suiface of the blaze usually formed by phloem rays and sclerenchymatic tissues.
Streaks may be:
longitudinal: longitudinal strzatlOns
against different-coloured background.
Syn.: striated inner bark (WS), streaked inner bark (Ry), striped structure
(Ro).
reticulate: regular or wavy, net-like striations against a different-coloured background.
Syn.: gritty inner bark (Ry), gridfibrous inclusions (Ji).
Comments:
De Rosayro (1953) applies 'streaks' only
to longitudinal structures. He gives Wormia
triquetra (= Dillenia) as an example, which
has an appearance similar to coconut wood.
Wyatt-Smith (1954) uses the tenn for radial
stripes of a different colour, often white (Annonaceae). Apparently these are identical
with phloem rays. Rollet (1982) mentions
numerous examples, grouping them according to dominant colour of the tangential section.
Reticulate patterns are fonned by phloem
rays and tangential layers of phloem fibres.
Rollet (1982) mentions, for example, Eschweilera corrugata (= Lecythis) and Terminalia
superba.
III. b: Fissuring
bark, fissured
(1) bark cracked lengthwise into fissures sep-
arated by ridges.
Syn.: striated bark (Ja, Ss, Ku), plated
bark (RDMB).
15
(2) longitudinal grooves with width of the
ridges between the grooves at least three
times that of the grooves or fissures
(Wyatt-Smith 1954*).
(3) ridges separating fissures are twice or
more times as wide as fissure (JimenezSaa 1973*).
(4) longitudinal grooves with width less than
flat-topped ridges separating them (Tailfer 1989*).
Comments:
In barks with successive peridenn fonnation, the expansion growth of the stem causes
cracking of the rhytidome. More or less longitudinal ridges and grooves are fonned. Fissure formation depends on certain internal
properties such as a fibrousness, ray dilatation, peridenn formation, etc. Irregular fissuring is often the result of fonnation of
scales which shed only partly (Roth 1981).
The bark should be studied in full-grown
trees, otherwise results are not reliable.
Definitions (2), (3), and (4) are very narrow. In addition to these, some other types of
fissuration are described like 'fluted bark'
(Wyatt-Smith 1954; followed by Den Outer
1972), and 'ridged bark' (see rejected tenns).
The definition of ridged bark does not differ
much from the term fluted bark which more
likely seems to be just a variety of ridged
bark. In literature the tenn 'fluted' is also applied to a stem, its characteristic shape is
fonned by unequal secondary growth.
De RosayrQ (1953) classified fissured bark
into five types and some sub-types according
to the closeness of fissures, ridges or the
shape of fissures, and also the mode of
cracking (with some examples). He does not
name these types. Furthennore, Rollet (1980)
distinguishes 'fine-fissured', 'coarse-fissured', 'deep-fissured', 'shallow-fissured' and
'wavy-fissured', but does not give any definitions. He suggests that a more refined classification of fissured barks should consider
the width of ridges and grooves.
The patterns of the outer surface of the
bark are often extremely difficult to describe.
Here, perhaps even more than with other features, authors use descriptive terms without
defining them properly. Therefore much confusion and overlap exist. I recommend to deDownloaded from Brill.com01/25/2021 05:12:32AM
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IAWA Journal, Vol. 15 (1),1994
7
8
Figs. 4-9. Schematic drawings of different fissure and ridge types as seen in cross section. 4: Fissures are deep and ridges rounded. - 5: Fissures are shallow and irregular. - 6: Squareshaped fissures. - 7: Compound fissures. - 8: Flattened ridges. - 9: Hollow ridges.
scribe fissures and ridges separately with
measures of their average width. If used in
the given sense, the descriptive terms accepted in the present paper should be sufficient.
fissures: more or less longitudinal
grooves between ridges in the rhytidome.
They may be classified according to depth
and length as follows:
deep: at least as deep as half of the total
thickness of the bark (Fig. 4).
Syn.: deep-fissured bark (Ro, GJ,
YYI), fissured bark (Po), furrowed
bark (Ro!), deeply furrowed bark
(Hi, REC), deeply cracked bark (Th),
ridged bark (Ro!), rugged bark (Ro!),
slitted fissuring (Ro), slotted fissuring (Ro).
shallow: less than half as deep as the
total thickness of the bark (Fig. 5, see
also Figs. 6, 8, and 9).
Syn.: shallow-fissured bark (GJ,
YYI), shallow-furrowed bark (Hi),
fine-fissured bark (Ra), scaly-fissured bole (Whl), cracked bark (Ro,
Po, Ji), vertically cracked bark (WS),
shallow-cracked bark (Th).
boat-shaped: oval or elliptical fissures
which are not continuous (Fig. lO).
Syn.: boat-shaped fissured bark (WS,
MW), vertical crevices (Le), boatshaped cracks (Ry).
short: less than 15 cm long (WyattSmith 1954).
long, elongated: more than 15 cm long
(Wyatt-Smith 1954).
In addition, fissures can be classified into
different morphological types (see Whitmore 1962a, Yunus et al. 1990):
V -shaped: more or less acute fissures
sometimes penetrating inner bark, lined
by special associated periderm( s) (See
Fig. 4).
Syn.: acute fissures (WS), V section
fissures (Wh 1).
round: the outer surface is concave in
cross section (Wyatt-Smith 1954).
square-shaped: flat bottom fissures, always restricted to the dead outer bark
(Fig. 6).
Syn.: square fissures (WS), square
section fissures (Whl).
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----------------~-----------~~----------------------------------
irregular: different-sized gaps or furrows in the bark surface (Fig. 5).
Syn.: irregular section fissures (Whl).
compound: anastomosing shallow fissures which are formed in the bottoms of
existing fissures (Fig. 7).
Syn.: compound section fissures
(Whl).
wavy: longitudinal grooves that are
coarse with wavy, more or less irregular
faces difficult to define clearly (derived
from De Rosayro [1953] and WyattSmith [1954]) (Fig. 11).
Syn.: wavy fissured bark (WS, Ro),
coarse fissured bark (Ro).
Fissures may be:
parallel: grooves are parallel, long, usually regular. The resulting, long ridges
may crack transversally (De Rosayro
1953) (Fig. 12).
oblique: grooves are short or long, anastomosing but not so regular and distinct
as in reticulate fissured barks. The resulting ridges may crack transversally.
reticulate: grooves join each other and
divide again irregularly leaving non-continuous and sometimes obscure ridges.
Cf: m.b: ridges reticulate; m.c: bark,
tessellated.
ridges: more or less continuous raised
parts of the rhytidome between fissures.
Ridges may be:
flattened: the outer surface is plane in
cross section (Fig. 8).
hollow: the outer surface is concave in
cross section (Wyatt-Smith 1954) (Fig. 9).
Syn.: hollow-ridged bark (WS).
rounded: the outer surface is convex in
cross section (Fig. 4).
V-shaped: the outer surface is sharp in
cross section (de Rosayro 1953).
reticulate: ridges join each other and
irregularly divide again enclosing noncontinuous fissures (Wyatt-Smith 1954)
(Fig. 14).
Syn.: reticulate-ridged bark (WS),
bark like stretched net (Le), interlaced
strands (Ro), diamond-shaped pattern
(Po).
Cf: IILb: fissures reticulate.
17
Comments:
The definitions of 'deep fissures' and
'shallow fissures' are followed more or less
closely by Yunus et al. (1990). Wyatt-Smith
(1954) and Rollet (1980) use the tenn 'cracked bark' which describes the bark that just
begins to open. They divide cracked bark
into 'grid-cracked' (~IILc: bark, tessellated)
and 'vertically cracked bark'. These cracks,
less than 1 cm wide, are continuous or noncontinuous. Whitmore (1962a) used the tenn
'scaly-fissured bole' to indicate the intennediate fonn between 'smooth' and 'shaggyscaly bole'. Moreover, he described bark
types like 'deep fissured bark', and 'shallowfissured bark' (in Dipterocarpaceae), which
are bark types as a whole. See the definitions
in the list of rejected terms.
Boat-shaped fissures are generally a sign
of young barks, where cracks or fissures are
just opening because of the tangential expansion growth of a stem. However, boat-shaped
fissures can be deep. De Rosayro (1953) and
Wyatt-Smith (1954) give Calophyllum spp.
as examples.
Wyatt-Smith (1954) classified grooves or
fissures according to shape in cross section:
shallow or deep, round (surface in form of
hemisphere), acute (with converging faces),
or square (with parallel faces). The terms
'coarse-fissured' and 'pitted bark' were used
by RolIet (1982) in his glossary, but without
a definition, however.
Ridges may be described by their width,
length, height or depth, shape, or the way
they are sloughed. They may also fonn distinctive patterns, such as reticulation. Besides
the use of shape and regularity, De Rosayro
(1953) proposed to describe the distance
between ridges (widely vs. closely spaced
ridges). Hightshoe (1989) mentions, within
the context of 'shallow-furrowed bark', that
narrow ridges occur, for instance, in Liriodendron tulipifera, and wide ridges in iuglans cinerea. Ridges may also become
cracked across into elongated, rectangular,
platy segments coming close to tessellated
bark. Wyatt-Smith (1954) gives an example
of 'hollow-ridged bark', viz. Shorea leprosula.
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IAWA Journal, Vol. 15 (1),1994
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Junikka -
Macroscopic bark terminology
I1I.c: Scaling
bark, flaky; flakes
(1) bark which has large and variable patches
or flakes ofrhytidome, more than 7.5 cm
long, which become detached (WyattSmith 1954*).
Syn.: scale (Le!, Co!), sheet bark
(BM), shaggy bark (Ro!), exfoliating
bark (RDMB, Hi).
IneZ.: ringed bark (RDMB).
Cf: IILc: bark, scaly; III.c: bark,
patchy; IILc: ring bark.
(2) a bark with numerous very thin bark scales
(Voorhoeve 1965*).
(3) Meijer (1974) follows definition (2), but
calls barks also flaky when "scales flake
off".
(4) ___ IILc: bark, scaly.
(5) --- lILc: bark, patchy.
Flakes may be (see also Rollet 1980,
Letouzey 1986):
rectangular.
irregular.
circular.
papery: thin and very flexible flakes
(vs. slab-like flakes).
scrolled: long, thin flakes which are rolled up by their edges (Fig. 16).
Syn.: scrolled bark (WS, Ro, Wh2),
scroll-like dehiscence (Ry), peeling
bark (Co, Kr, REC), horizontally I
vertically exfoliating bark (Hi), minniritchi bark (BK2).
shaggy: loosened, usually slightly curved rectangular or irregular flakes which
may hang for a time on the stem (Whitmore 1962a) (Cf. Fig. 12).
Syn.: shaggy bark (REC, Ro, Kr),
flaky bark (Ro!), shaggy-scaly bole
(Whl).
Comments:
Flakes are produced when bark develops
large sheets of periderm that are intermediate
in size between the parts shed in the cases of
19
ring bark and scaly bark. Whcn flakes are detached, a pattern of differently coloured areas
may result. See III.c: patchy bark.
De Rosayro (1953) uses 'flakes' for large
rectangular pieces (Dipterocarpus zeylanicus),
and 'scales' for small pieces like scales of
fish (D. hispidus), but does not indicate the
borderline between both terms. Letouzey
(1986), and Corner (1988) use flakes interchangeably with scales. Polak (1992) originally follows De Rosayro's concept distinguishing flakes and scales, but he relates
flakes to thickness of the stem. Hence a
flake, with a size of 10 x 15 cm from a tree
0.2 m thick is regarded merely a scale on a
tree I m thick. Relating the size of flakes to
the thickness of stem may lead to confusion,
though, since the thickness of the trunk will
increase during the life-span of the tree.
Wyatt-Smith (1954), Jimenez-Saa (1973),
and Rollet (1980) recognise papery bark,
with very thin pieces peeling off like paper.
They do not indicate the size of the pieces of
bark falling off. However, their examples,
among others, Melaleuca leucadendron and
certain Eugenia spp., suggest that in their publication, in fact, flakes are described.
Hightshoe (1989) uses the term 'exfoliating bark' to describe thin or coarse strips, or
sheets peeling either vertically (such as Thuja
occidentalis), horizontally (Betula lutea =B.
alleghaniensis). Brooker & Kleinig (1990b)
describe 'minniritchi bark', which is a special
type of eucalypt bark that is split both longitudinally and horizontally, the free edges of
the flakes rolling back while still adherent
to the trunk to uncover new green bark beneath.
Rollet (1980) used the term 'shaggy bark'
for Chlorophora excelsa (= Milicia) and Dipterocarpus sublamellatus.
bark, heterogeneous
more than one type of bark is encountered in the same stem (Fig. 13).
Cf: II: texture heterogeneous.
Fig. 10. Bark with boat-shaped fissures in Duguetia uniflora, Guyana (photo A.M. Polak). Fig. 11. Bark with developing wavy fissures in Bridelia micrantha, Malawi. - Fig. 12. Bark
with parallel fissures in Terminalia amazonia, Guyana (photo A.M. Polak). - Fig. 13. Heterogeneous bark in Brachystegia boehmii, Malawi.
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IAWA Journal, Vol. 15 (1),1994
Comments:
Surface patterns of the stem may depend
on the developmental stage of the bark. The
appearance of bark from the base of the tree
upwards may change considerably. I found a
typical example in an African species, Brachystegia bussei, where scaly zones alternated
with fairly smooth ones.
bark, patchy
lighter blotches on the outer surface of
the rhytidome resulting from the irregular
dehiscence of old rhytidome plates, usually two colours dominate on the bark
(Rollet 1980, Letouzey 1986) (Fig. 18).
Syn.: mottled bark (Ro), marble-like
blotches (Le), blotched bark (Ja), spotted bark (Le), flaky bark (Kr!), patchy
exfoliating bark (Hi).
Comments:
Kriissmann (1984) gives examples like
Platanus, Acer, Stewartia, and Parrotia. The
colour of patches where flakes or scales were
recently shed, may give some additional information and should be reported with the
use of colour charts. However, the differences in colour may be caused by lichens, especially on smooth barks.
bark, powdery
bark covered with a fine powder-like
crust which usually rubs off easily. It is
mostly associated with smooth barks
(Wyatt-Smith 1954).
Comments:
This is a result of a usually long process
of decay caused by weathering. Bor (1953)
gives some characteristic examples, viz. Aporusa spp. and Bischofiajavanica.
bark, scaly; scales
(1) bark which has small more or less irreg-
ular patches or scales of rhytidome, less
than 7.5 cm long, which become detached (Wyatt-Smith 1954*).
Syn.: scaly peeling bark (Th), flaky
bark (Ti), alligator bark (Ir).
Inc!.: ringed bark (RDMB).
Cf: m.c: bark, t1aky; III.c: ring bark;
IILc: bark, tessellated.
(2) named after stem appearance when seen
from a distance; fissures are squareshaped or irregular and scattered or close
(seldom); the width of fissures is lO (25)
mm, but they do not penetrate into the
inner bark; sloughing of the bark is continual, usually in large scales up to c. 50
cm long, which are not formed in scollops: scales are elongate or isodiametric,
layer-thick, loose or adherent, and occur
scattered or in zones (abridged from Whitmore 1962a).
(3) thin papery flakes separated by a mesh
pattern of fine shallow vertical and horizontal fissures (Hightshoe 1989*).
Scales:
According to persistence one may roughly divide them as follows (see also Whitmore 1972):
adherent: retained some time on the
stem.
loose-hanged: shed seasonally (Fig.
19, see also Fig. 13).
Scales may be roughly divided according
to density as follows (see also Whitmore
1972):
close.
distant.
Scales may be roughly divided according
to shape as follows (Whitmore 1962a,
1972, Rollet 1980, Letouzey 1986):
rectangular.
irregular.
circular.
papery: thin and very flexible.
flat-sided: one or several layers thick.
chunky: usually with irregular rough
faces and irregularly chunky shaped.
scollop-shaped: thickest in the middle,
tapering to the edges, and leaving a scallop-shaped depression on the bole on
sloughing (ef. Fig. 22).
Syn.: plates (Ji).
scrolled: thin scales which are rolled up
by their edges.
shaggy: loose and usually slightly curved, rectangular or irregular scales which
may hang for a time on the stem (Fig. 19).
Syn.: shaggy-scaly bole (Whl), shaggy bark (REe, Ro, Kr).
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Macroscopic bark terminology
21
Fig. 14. Bark with reticulate ridges in Fraxinus excelsior. - Fig. 15. Tesselated bark in Diospyros kaki. (Figs. 14 & 15 are redrawn from Vaucher 1990). - Fig. 16. Bark with scrolled
flakes in Eucalyptus citriodora (redrawn from Thrower 1988). - Fig. 17. Bark with musselshell markings in Afzelia bracteata (redrawn from Voorhoeve 1965).
Comments:
Voorhoeve (1965) defines scales simply
as "thin pieces of bark". According to Meijer
(1974), scaly bark "can be dippled-scaly with
oblong scales, or tessellate, like some species of Barringtonia." However, he calls bark
'flaky' when "scales flake off". Irvine (1952)
has described very thick bark with large scales
with the term 'alligator bark', for example in
Butyrospermum parkii (= Vitellaria paradoxa). Roth (1981) does not distinguish scales
and flakes, but instead uses the terms small
and large scales.
Definition (2) applies to a bark type of
Dipterocarpaceae. See more details and drawings in Whitmore (1962a). For thc third definition Hightshoe (1989) gives Ostrya virginiana as an "indicator" species.
Scaly barks vary much in detail. Many
trees have fissured bark with scaly ridges,
and in many cases one cannot distinguish
between scaly barks and fissured barks, or
scales are visible on ridges. Therefore it is
practical to describe shapes of scales and fissures separately.
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Junikka -
Macroscopic bark terminology
bark, stringy
thick, loose, long-fibred bark, never deciduous (Penford & Willis 1961 *).
Syn.: stripping bark (Co), fibrous
peeling bark (Th), fibrous strips (Le).
Cf: II: texture fibrous.
Comments:
This definition is followed more or less
closely by Rollet (1980). Beard (1944) noted
"ropy strings" in such species as Vitex divaricata and Citharexylum spinosum. The term
has been applied, moreover, to certain roughbarked eucalypts. This texture arises, according to Chattaway (1953), through the expansion of the phloem parenchyma, separating
bundles of fibres from one another in the
rhytidome. Brooker & Kleinig (1990a) add
that stringy bark is thick, spongy, deeply and
widely furrowed, interlaced beneath, with
outer layers weathered to grey or grey brown.
This is a highly diagnostic feature.
bark, surface rotten
bark is shortly fissured (with fissures
varying in depth and cross section), scaly,
rugose or smooth; sloughing is very variable scales being small, adherent, chunky
or flat-sided; in a transverse section the
inner edge of the outer bark is following
surface configurations, not parallel to
cambium (Whitmore 1962a).
Cf: III.b: bark, fissured (1); m.c:
bark, scaly (1), (2); lII.c: bark, heterogeneous.
Comments:
A special type of the bark, which has a
complex surface pattern. According to Whitmore (1962a), the thickness of outer bark
and undulations of its inner edge are governed by the amount of rotting at the bark surface. Moreover, the periderms (if any) devel-
23
op as localised wound responses caused by
insect of fungus attack. Bark has an appearance like rotting from the surface inwards,
and there is a lot of variation in surface feature between trees and even parts of a tree.
Whitmore (1962c) mentioned some Shorea
species having this type of bark.
bark, tessellated
surface marked by more or less regular,
square or oblong plates or blocks remaining for a long time on the stem (Fig.
15).
Syn.: cracked bark (Co), reticulately
scaly bark (Ss), grid-cracked bark
(WS, Wh2, Ro, Ji), crocodile-skin
bark (Bo), gritty bark (Po), blocky
bark (Hi).
Cf: III.c: bark, scaly; lII.c: bark,
flaky.
Comments:
The definition follows more or less closely De Rosayro (1953), Hall et al. (1970) and
Brooker & Kleinig (1990a). This is a special
type of bark, where rhytidome blocks are usually retained. The rhytidome is short-fibred,
breaking up into small plates. According to
Brooker & Kleinig (1990a), plates may be
hard and woody (in Eucalyptus, viz., paperfruited bloodwoods and some boxes), firm or
spongy (in woody-fruited bloodwoods), and
flaky (in yellow bloodwoods). The scales
are usually thick and adherent. Wyatt-Smith
(1954) applied the term grid-cracked to a
special case of cracked bark with fissures
which are just beginning to split, of which
Rollet (1980) gives examples like achroma
lagopus and Nauclea diderichii. I consider all
these terms as synonyms for tessellated bark.
Hightshoe (1989) mentions Diospyros virginiana as an "indicator" species of 'blocky
bark'.
Fig. 18. Patchy bark of Brachystegia bussei, Malawi. - Fig. 19. Bark with loose-hanged,
shaggy scales in Pterocarpus rotundifolius var. polyanthus, Malawi. - Fig. 20. Rugose bark of
Brachystegia glaucescens, Malawi. - Fig. 21. Smooth bark with lenticels in vertical lines (Ocotea tomentella), Guyana (photo AM. Polak).
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Junikka -
Macroscopic bark tenninology
ring bark
(1) a type of rhytidome in which periderms
may be formed parallel to the first one.
The concentric cylinders of bark thus
formed result in a rhytidome which detaches annually with large sheets (Esau
1960, Rollet 1980).
Syn.: very smooth bark (Ro), smooth
bark (BKl).
Cf: scale bark, bark, peeling (1) (both
in rejected tenns).
(2) the outer bark when disengaged in strips
or layers (Jackson 1928*).
Comments:
The rhytidome is shed annually, either
once in a season or in several phases, and the
resulting dead bark accumulates at the base of
the trunk in certain trees (Brooker & Kleinig
1990a). The bark falls off in one piece or in
large pieces or strips rolled up by their longitudinal edges (Rollet 1980). Srivastava (1964)
has shown that if the first periderm was deepseated, the subsequent periderms follow the
outlines of the external periderm, i.e., they
encircle the axis and, consequently, form
ring bark. Some barks are intennediate between ring bark and scaly bark, so outer layers of rhytidome are detached as relatively
large flakes (for example in Platanus, Arbutus) (Esau 1965, Fahn 1990). Esau (1969)
mentions that the bark detaches as flakes
(Betula pendula), or as large plates (Platanus
acerifolia) when sclereids are numerous. Usually fibres are then lacking or only scarce.
Most barks are of the scale bark type with
fissuring different from the rare ring bark
type. The number of peridenns developed in
the rhytidome, and their arrangement (parallel, or ramified and anastomosing) are decisive for scale formation; size, thickness, texture, shape, and outlines of the scales. Wood
(1952) used the term 'peeling bark' for all
kinds of deciduous barks.
Roth (1981) proposes a new term for ring
bark which is a literal translation of the
Gennan word 'Ringelborke'. Her suggestion
25
is 'ring rhytidome' or 'annular rhytidome'.
Nevertheless, ring bark is a well-established
tenn, so the change of the tenn is not followed here.
III.d: External markings
bark, dippled
(1) bark covered with shallow, usually circular depressions, more than 1 cm in
diameter. These are scars of the scaledoff old bark (Wyatt-Smith 1954*) (Fig.
22).
Syn.: jigsaw puzzle (like -) (Ro!,MW),
dippled-scaly bark (Co).
IneZ.: oyster shell markings (Ro).
Cf: III.c: scales scollop-shaped; III.d:
bark, pock-marked; HI.d: scroll marks.
(2) named after stem appearance seen from a
distance when the bark surface is dippled
or smooth with scattered scollop-shaped
scales and scroll marks; sloughing occurs
as scollops, small ones being entire, large
ones in pieces (abridged from Whitmore
1962a).
Comments:
Definition (1) is followed more or less
closely by De Rosayro (1953) and Rollet
(1980). Yunus et al. (1990) use the tenn when
shallow depressions may be visible on the
surface of the bark when slashed. JimenezSaa (1973) and Polak (1992) apply the tenn
'dippled' to more or less round depressions
without distinguishing pock-marked bark
from dip pled bark. Rollet (1980) employs the
term 'oyster shell markings' describing depressions deeper than covered by the term
dippled bark in the sense of Wyatt-Smith
(1954), but here 'oyster shell markings' is
included in dippled bark. Whitmore (1962a,
1972) uses the term in a slightly different
meaning. According to him, the surface of a
dippled bark is patchy in colour, sloughing
off as small, round, usually close-set, scollop-shaped scales like in Pometia and Swintonia. The term 'dippled' (or more precisely
Fig. 22. Dippled bark of Commiphora sp., Malawi. - Fig. 23. Bark with eye marks (Macaranga capensis), Malawi. - Fig. 24. Bark with ring-grooves (Myrica salicifolia), Malawi. Fig. 25. Prickles on the bark (Bombax malabaricum) (redrawn from Thrower 1988).
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26
IAWA Journal, Vol. 15 (1),1994
'dippled-scaly') was originally introduced by
Comer. According to him, 'dippled-scaly
bark' has small, round, thin, and very numerous flakes looking like irregular discs
which leave closely set scars on the bark surface (Melanorrhoea malayana = Gluta).
The size and thickness of the scales, and
colour of old and newly exposed surface may
give some diagnostic information. It seems
practicable to describe barks by the term dippled in combination with scroll-marks and
pock-marked bark.
bark, lenticellate; lenticels
barks which have on the surface more or
less raised, often somewhat corky spots
or lenticels (Fig. 21).
Syn.: pimpled (pimply) bark (Ro),
pustulate bark (Vo, Ku, Ja).
Here a combination of characters is presented which authors, as Wood (1952),
Wyatt-Smith (1954), Rollet (1980), and
Roth (1981), considered useful.
Lenticels:
The form of lenticels may be according to
the greatest diameter:
linear: usually horizontally elongated like
buttonholes (rarely vertical).
round: (usually small).
stellate: star-shaped.
diamond-shaped: rhomboid.
The size of lenticels may be divided according to the greatest diameter (JimenezSaa 1973):
large: more than 5 mm in diameter.
medium: 3-5 mm in diameter.
small: less than 3 mm in diameter.
Lenticels may occur on bark:
numerous (vs. scarce) (only when
present in large numbers or only few).
solitary (vs. compound).
in vertical lines (Fig. 21).
in horizontal lines.
in oblique lines.
According to their consistency they may
be:
soft.
powdery.
compact.
Comments:
Anatomically lenticels are structurally differentiated portions of the periderm which are
characterised by a relatively loose arrangement
of cells, where gaseous exchange takes place
(Esau 1965). Their width varies from I mm
to 10 mm (Comer 1988). Lenticels may persist for many years in barks with superficial
periderm layers, like in Betula and Prunus
avium, widening due to the thickening of the
stem. On barks with successive periderm
layers, however, the lenticels are difficult to
notice in the fissures. On thick, homogeneous dead barks they tend to be lost, or at least
are inconspicuous (Eames & MacDaniels
1947, Wood 1952). According to Busgen &
Munch (1929), fissures of the bark usually
initiate from the lenticels, as can be seen in
Populus.
Lenticels are good field characters for identification. Their size, colour, and density
should be noted. A rough estimate, like numerous/scarce, is enough. However, they
may occur relatively more abundantly on
some parts of the bark than on others. UsualIy they are most conspicuous on young
twigs.
bark, pock-marked
bark covered with small shallow circular
depressions, less than I cm in diameter
(Wyatt-Smith 1954*).
Syn.: pock-marking (Wo), dimpled
bark (Ss), eye-marked bark (Ro!),
pock-pitted bark (Ro!), pitted bark
(Vo, Dr), pitting (Wo!), spotted bark
(Le).
Cf: III.d: bark, dippled.
Comments:
De Rosayro (1953) reported this pattern
(together with dippled bark) from a variety of
Syzygium species. Pock-markings occur on
the outer edge of the live bark (~ I: phelloderm). They affect the surface of the bark as
seen on separation of the dead bark (Wood
1952). Meijer & Wood (1964) draw attention
to this diagnostic feature describing it as a
"bark with small irregular flakes and a rough
appearance."
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Junikka -
Macroscopic bark terminology
--------=----------------------------
bark, rough
bark which has an uneven surface; the
term includes various scaly, flaky and
fissured barks.
Cf: III.d: bark, rugose; III.d: bark,
smooth.
Comments:
Wyatt-Smith (1954) has a similar definition. Rough bark patterns can be seen from a
distance without closer inspection.
bark, rugose
(I) bark which is covered by wrinkles, depressions, small irregular scales, shallow
fissures; bark appears smooth from a
distance (Fig. 20).
Syn.: wrinkled bark (Vo!, Rt), sculptured bark (Rt!), little rough bark (Le),
smooth bark (WS, Ou2, Ry, Wh2),
smoothish bark (Rt).
Cf: IILd: bark, smooth; III.d: bark,
rough.
(2) small, medium or large, close or scattered lenticels or minute cracks (Whitmore
1972*).
Syn.: firm bark (Dr).
(3) covered with wrinkles, small depressions,
furrows or ridges (Den Outer 1972*).
Comments:
The definition (I) is comparable with that
by Roth (1981). Most rugose barks are thin.
Whitmore's (1972) definition of rugose
barks falls within his own circumscription of
smooth barks. Roth (1981) also distinguishes
fairly smooth or smoothish barks which
"arise through exfoliating of the cork or
through continuous desquamation of very
small scales", but here they are considered
rugose barks. Meijer & Wood's (1964) and
Meijer's (1974) definitions of 'non-fissured
bark' (see rejected terms) are close to rugose
bark.
Rugose appearance is a common feature
in young developing barks, but the terminology is often obscure and difficult to interpret
precisely from the context.
bark, scribbly
smooth bark carries characteristic 'scribbles' caused by insect larvae (Brooker &
Kleinig 1990a*).
27
Comments:
This condition may also be seen on the
smooth upper trunk of a tree that has a rough
bark on lower parts. The feature is diagnostic
in some cases.
bark, smooth
(1) bark is even, thin, unbroken, though it
may be bumpy or pimply from the lentieels (Corner 1988*) (Fig. 21).
Syn.: close bark (Dr).
Cf: III.d: bark, lenticellate; m.d: bark,
rugose.
(2) named after stem appearance seen from
a distance; bark is thin (1-2 mm), usually without rhytidome; bark surface is entire, often with raised hoop and eye
marks; sloughing is absent or inconspicuous with powdery appearance or tiny
(1-2 mm) scales (abridged from Whitmore 1962a).
(3) epidermis persistent, no outer layer of
dead cells, surface smooth, no cracks or
peeling (Thrower 1988*).
(4) -7 IILd: bark, rugose (1).
(5) -7 III.c: ring bark.
Comments:
The definition (1) is more or less similar to that by Radford et al. (1974), RoBet
(1980), Kriissmann (1984), Letouzey (1986),
Hightshoe (1989), and Yunus et al. (1990).
Smooth barks may have hoops, eye-marks,
prickles, and other types of excrescences, but
not scales or fissures. Certain species may
have the same appearance throughout the
whole life of the tree, with lenticels and a
unique periderm. A thin phellem layer may
then cover the surface of the stem (Rollet
1980).
The definition (2) is a description of a
bark type of Dipterocarpaceae which was
studied in detail by Whitmore (1962a). This
corresponds well with the first definition,
whereas Thrower (1988) in definition (3) applies the term only to the epidermis, for example in species of Ficus. Thus he does not
apply the term to bark in the pure sense.
Diagnostic characteristics, e.g. eye marks,
prickles, etc. should be noted, although the
bark is regarded otherwise as smooth.
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IAWA Journal, Vol. 15 (1),1994
burls
hard woody excrescences on a tree, more
or less rounded inform, usually resulting
from the entwined growth of a cluster of
adventitious buds (SAF 1950*).
Syn.: burr (Ja), gnaur (Ja).
Cf: IILd: warts.
Comments:
The definition is more or less similar to
that by Jackson (1928) and Sutton & Tinus
(1983). Panshin & De Zeeuw (1980) describe
it as "a bulge formed on the trunk or branches
of a tree by abnormal wood formation."
As some forest dictionaries give a wider
definition for burr (see rejected terms), the
term burl is preferred here.
cankers
(1) definite, relatively localised, necrotic lesions primarily of the bark and cambium
(SAF 1950*).
(2) ~ IILd: warts.
Comments:
The definition follows Jackson (1928) and
BCFTl (1953) more or less closely. The
term is confined to injuries or wounds of the
bark without diagnostic significance.
eye marks
eye-shaped marks on trunks and branches
of smooth-barked trees (Thrower 1988*)
(Fig. 23).
Syn.: hoops (Rt).
Cf: III.d: hoops.
Comments:
Roth (1981), referring to eye marks as
hoops, mentions that they mainly correspond
to leaf scars or scars of lateral branches. As a
result of expanding dilatation growth they
partly or completely surround the stem. She
considers that complete "hoops", i.e. eye
marks, originate from decussate phyllotaxis,
or from very broad leaf bases. Thrower
(1988) follows this explanation. Whitmore
(1962a) has a definition comparable with that
by Thrower, but he suggests that the origin
of eye marks is by the distortion of hoop
marks formed on the stem. He adds that their
distribution is too irregular for leaf scars, but
they may sometimes be formed from branch
scars.
hoops
(1) raised transverse rings which partially
or completely encircle the stem (Cf. Fig.
24).
Syn.: hooped bark (WS, Ro, Ry),
horizontal rings (Po), hoop marks
(Whl), ring-like marks (Ro).
Inc!.: hoop-rings (Th), hooped bark
(Ji), ring-hooped bark (Ji), horizontal
folds (Le).
Cf: IILd: ring-grooves.
(2) ~ III.d: eye marks.
Comments:
Jimenez-Saa (1973) applies hooped bark
to partial hoops and ring-hooped bark to
complete hoops. Rollet (1980) does not distinguish hooped and ring-grooved bark in the
text, although in his glossary he mentions
two separate terms, viz. hooped and ring-like
marks. Wyatt-Smith (1954) gives Sindora
spp. as an example of hooped bark.
These hoops usually occur on smoothbarked trees. Their origin is obscure, but, according to Thrower (1988), they are associated with eye-marks. Jimenez-Saa (1973)
regards them as scars left by fused deciduous
stipules. Whitmore (1962a) considers their
distribution too irregular for leaf scars.
mussel-shell markings
parallel, sinuous, concentric ridges on
the bark left after shedding of the rhytidome (Fig. 17).
Syn.: parallel, sinuous ridges (Le).
Cf: III.d: bark, dippled.
Comments:
This is a very conspicuous and diagnostic
feature in some barks. Voorhoeve (1965)
published a fine photograph of mussel-shell
markings on the stem of Afzelia bracteata.
Polak (1992) has found the character in Inga
alba, and mentions it in the identification key
on bark and slash characters, but he uses another term ('oyster shell markings') in the
text, which is incorrect.
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Macroscopic bark tenninology
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prickles
(1) sharp outgrowths from the bark, detachable without tearing the wood (Voorhoeve
1965*) (Fig. 25).
Syn.: cork prickle (Rt).
Cf.: m.d: spine.
(2) ~ IILd: spine.
See comments under spines.
ring-grooves
transverse grooves which partially or
completely encircle the stem (Fig. 24).
Syn.: ring-grooved bark (WS), rill
(Ku).
Cf.: IILd: hoops.
Comments:
The definition is similar to those of Kunkel
(1965) and Radford et al. (1974).
In one African tree, Myrica salicifolia,
about 8 m tall, I found curious-looking ringgrooves, the bark exfoliating by small, irregular scales. Ring-grooves were densely distributed from the tree base up to the crown
and branches. These grooves were fonned in
the phloem, as the blaze did not show any
grooves in the sapwood. I have not found
any reports of this feature in literature about
Myrica species. Wyatt-Smith (1954) mentions
Shorea parvifolia as an example of ring-grooved bark.
scroll marks
raised sinuous marks between depressions which are formed when scollopshaped scales are detached (Whitmore
1962a) (Fig. 22).
Syn.: scroll-marked bark (Wh2).
Cf.: m.d: bark, dippled.
Comments:
The term 'scroll marks' is close to the
tenn dippled bark. Whitmore (1962a) uses
the tenn scroll-marked (bark) or scroll marks
when speaking of smooth barks. This bark
type is close to dippled bark.
spines
sharp hardened outgrowths of the bark
and wood, usually modified branches or
leaves; tearing the wood, if detached.
29
Syn.: thorn (Le!, Ro, Ja, Dr, RDMB,
REC, Ti), prickle (WS).
Cf.: m.d: prickle (1); excrescence,
pointed (rejected tenn).
Spines may be (Letouzey 1986):
simple (vs. branched).
straight (vs. curved).
hard (vs. supple).
tapering.
conical.
Comments:
The distinction between non-woody 'prickles' and woody 'spincs' is followed by many
authors. Defined in this way, they may have
diagnostic value. Prickles occur in such species as Ceiba pentandra, Fagara macrophylla
(= Zanthoxylum), Hura crepitans, and Jacaratia. Spines can be found for instance in Balanites wilsoniana, Bridelia grandis, Flacourtia rukam, and Cratoxylum formosum (Rollet
1980). Some authors do not make any difference between prickles and spines (Bor 1953).
Roth (1981) describes pure cork fonnations or cork prickles originating from phellogen. Their appearance is variable, i. e. a
roundish ring-like base with sharp-pointed
end, or flattened. They may occur on the
base of stem, on the upper side of twigs,
sometimes densely crowded (Hura crepitans).
Roth regards these as an excellent diagnostic
character. However, De Rosayro (1953) does
not rate occurrence of prickles or spines, although a notable character in trees of Ceylon,
very highly, because this is mainly a juvenile
feature.
Wyatt-Smith (1954) defines prickles as
similar to spines (stiff, sharp, woody, narrow,
long processes), but thicker and wide-based.
Besides 'thorn' Timberlake (1980) uses the
tenn 'knob' for raised woody protuberances
on a trunk, often with a thorn on top (Acacia).
'Pointed excrescences' (Letouzey 1986)
resemble structures known as root spines!
spine roots, which gradually develop into
aerial roots with a sharply pointed apex, for
instance in Bridelia micrantha and some
palms (Jenik & Harris 1969). These spine
formations are uncommon in dicotyledons,
providing useful diagnostic infonnation, however, in certain cases.
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IAWA Journal, Vo1.15 (1),1994
warts
hard or firm excrescences other than lenticels, spines, prickles, or burls which
are formed on the stem.
Syn.: bumpy excrescence (Le), cankered bark (WS), verrucose bark (Ja!,
HJC!, Vol).
Cf: III.d: burls; III.d: bark, lenticellate.
Comments:
The definition is more or less similar to that
by Jackson (1928) and Voorhoeve (1965).
Warts may be, for instance, adventitious root
buds which are just appearing on the main
stem. Warts are distinctly smaller than burls
which are usually formed by a cluster of adventitious buds.
W. Exudation
blaze, dry
the surface of the blaze is not exuding,
feels dry when touched.
Syn.: dry live bark (Ji).
blaze, wet
the surface of the blaze slightly exuding,
feels moistened when touched (Rollet
1980).
Syn.: succulent live bark (Ji).
Comments:
When a blaze is wet, the exudate is usually
a watery ooze from sieve elements. Note! The
degree of wetness of the blaze depends partly
on the season in which the bark is slashed.
exudate
moisture or liquid of the living tissue,
which seep or flows after slashing, usually from the inner bark.
Purely physically an exudate may be:
clear: transparent (vs. opaque) (WyattSmith 1954).
Examples (clear): Myristicaceae, certain
Calophyllum spp. (Wyatt-Smith 1954).
Examples (opaque): Artocarpus elasticus,
certain Anacardiaceae (Wyatt-Smith 1954).
coloured: may be white, yellow, golden, brownish, red, blackish.
discoloured: the colour changes within
a few minutes.
frothy: forms foam when rubbed between fingers (Rollet 1980).
liquid: flows readily, often transparent.
Syn.: sappy exudate (Ku, Le, REC,
Ja), watery exudate (WS,Ji).
viscous: flows slowly, not necessarily
sticky.
Syn.: thick exudate (Ji).
sticky: adhesive and sticks to the fingers
(vs. non-sticky).
Example (sticky): Hevea brasiliensis
(Wyatt-Smith 1954*).
odorous: smells pleasantly, for instance
like incense or wintergreen (Rollet 1982).
smelly: smells more or less unpleasantly,
for instance like garlic, pepper, sulphur,
excrement (Rollet 1982, Letouzey 1986).
abundant: exudation is profuse for a
while (vs. scanty).
Cf: IV. blaze, wet.
Comments:
The definition more or less closely follows Wood (1952), Wyatt-Smith (1954), Den
Outer (1972), Jimenez-Saa (1973), Rollet
(1980), and Letouzey (1986).
Certain families are characterised by their
exudates (such as resin in Burseraceae). In
other families different species may have
their own type of exudate, or even certain
species may show more than one type of exudate (Wood 1952). De Rosayro (1953) regards the nature and type of exudation "the
most important single character of diagnostic
value in identification." Some authors, e. g.
Wood (1952), Rollet (1980, 1982), Letouzey
(1986), have recommended that such diagnostic characters as a colour, discoloration,
coagulation (both after few minutes exposure), smell, taste, speed with which it is
oozed (in a continuous stream or in droplets),
and how it is distributed in layers, should be
noted in the description of exudates. However, Rollet (1980) values the colour of exudation most. Discoloration may also give
useful hints for identification.
De Rosayro (1953) has reserved the term
'watery exudate' for thin, clear or coloured
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~
Macroscopic bark terminology
31
--------------------------------------------~
exudates (see rejected terms). He gives examples of the red or reddish type, for instance
Myristicaceae, and of the colourless type, for
instance Campnosperma zeylanicum and Mangifera zeylanica. Wyatt-Smith (1954) defined
the same term as an exudate resembling water
(Antiaris toxicaria, Melanorrhoea = Cluta).
I am inclined to refer to the exudate by its
physical properties, e. g. colour, quality, etc.,
instead of using "traditional" terms like latex,
resin, ctc. For instance latex is not always
whitish, or resin brownish, and both include
colourless types as well as gums. The chemical nature of exudates does not correspond
well with the visual characterisation of traditional terms (cf. Hillis 1987). However, I
accept some "traditional terms" because they
are widely used, and, if defined properly, are
descriptive to a certain degree.
gum
(I) viscid secretions, exuding naturally or on
incision or infection, generally colourless,
nontoxic, odourless, and usually tasteless;
and on desiccation, or exposure to air,
they become hard, clear, glassy masses
(Hillis 1987*).
Syn.: mucilaginous exudate (Ss, Ja),
gelatinous exudate (Ja).
(2) a comprehensive term for non-volatile,
viscous exudates from many plants and
trees, which either dissolve or swell up
in contact with water; of complex chemical structure, they may be considered to
be highly polymerised carbohydrates
(BCFT2 1957*).
Comments:
The definition is similar to those given by
Jackson (1928), Voorhoeve (1965), Den
Outer (1972) and Rollet (1980). Hillis (1987)
gives examples like Acacia and Sterculia.
kino
newly formed kino is usually of a thick
consistency similar to that of honey,
ranging from straw to blood-red in colour; ... and dries to a brittle, semi-transparent solid (Hillis 1987*).
Comments:
AHDE (1980) and BCFT2 (1957), when
dealing with several Old World tropical trees,
refer to kino as reddish resin. However, Hall
et al. (1970) include it in gums which develop
in the cambial region of Eucalyptus, often as
a result of injury. The terms 'gum' and 'kino'
are used indiscriminately in the literature as
Hillis (1987) has pointed out. According to
Hillis (1987), kino-bearing species are, for
example, Butea frondosa (= B. monosperma), Pterocarpus marsupium, and some
Eucalyptus species. He also mentions that
appearance of kino may be characteristic of
the species, and remarks that during spring
and early summer it changes increasingly toward red.
latex
(1) latex is a colloidal suspension or emulsion of water-insoluble substances, suspended in an aqueous phase. It is typically white (milky), but may be yellow to
red, or colourless (Hillis 1987).
Syn.: lactiferous exudate (Ry).
(2) the milky juice or exudate of certain plants:
it is always opaque and of a white or yellow colour (Wyatt-Smith 1954*).
Cf: exudate creamy (rejected term).
Comments:
Definition (1) is more or less similar to
those given by Eames & MacDaniels (1947),
Esau (1960), Jimenez-Saa (1973), and Comer
(1988). Latex is found in a considerable number of angiosperm families, and is a source of
many economic products. The suspensions
may be of teipenoids (e.g. rubber), proteins,
essential oils, mucilage, and other components (Hillis 1987, Eames & Mac Daniels
1947, Esau 1960). Comer (1988) regards it
as very useful in the identification of many
plants; it may change colour on exposure, its
consistency being generally sticky, rubbery,
resinous or gummy, but in some cases it is
watery and even brown in colour. De Rosayro
(1953) employs the term lactiferous exudate
for an opaque and milky consistency. He
distinguishes three categories of colour:
(i) creamy or dirty white on exposure (for
example Artocarpus spp.), (ii) pure white
(majority of Sapotaceae), or (iii) coloured
(Carcinia).
Definition (2) is more or less similar to
that used by Jackson (1928), SAF (1950),
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32
IAWA Journal, Vol. 15 (1), 1994
BCFT2 (1957), .Kunkel (1965), Voorhoeve
(1965), Den Outer (1967), Rollet (1980),
Thrower (1988), and Tailfer (1989). According to Wyatt-Smith (1954), 'creamy exudate'
(see rejected terms) occurs in Alstonia spp.
and Sapotaceae.
resin
(1) colourless exudate or light brown glossy
solids, which are stable, inert and amorphous and become sticky when heated
(Hillis 1987).
Hillis (1987) divides resins broadly into
two main types:
oleoresins: a solution of resin acids in
turpentine; oleoresin is a pale yellow,
clear and sticky mass, which upon evaporation of volatile compounds becomes
brittle.
Oleoresins exudes from the resin canals
of wood and bark when exposed in conifers and Canarium luzonicum.
'natural resins': they can be colourless, as with dammars, or light brown
glossy solids; they are stable, inert and
amorphous, become sticky when heated
and are fusible (above lOODC) with no
sharp melting points.
Resins or resin exudates that are stored
on the hark or in cavities. They arc found
in several genera of Dipterocarpaceae
and Leguminosae/Caesalpiniaceae. Wellknown resins are dammars, copals (hard,
from different genera, for example Copaifera spp.), elemis (soft, a numher of gen-
era in Burseraceae), mastics (Pistacia lentiscus var. chios), and lacquer (Rhus
vernicifera =R. verniciflua).
(2) an exudate which is adhesive, clear and
colourless, or pale yellow to dark brown
or black in colour (dammar) (Wyatt-Smith
1954*).
Syn.: resinous exudate (WS).
IneZ.: resinous exudation (Ry), tarry
exudate (Ry) (see rejected terms).
(3) a thick, syrupy or gummy exudate of the
bark, generally clear or slightly coloured:
(i) yellow (Calophyllum), (ii) whitish or
colourless (Canarium zeylanicum); both
types are always accompanied by a strong
aromatic scent (De Rosayro 1953).
Cf: exudate tarry (rejected term).
(4) very sticky sap, usually solidifying on
exposure (Kunkel 1965*).
Comments:
The definition of oleoresin is more or less
similar to that used by Jackson (1928) and
BCFT2 (1957). Definition (2) is followed
more or less closely by Den Outer (1972) and
Rollet (1980), definition (3) by Iimenez-Saa
(1973), and definition (4) by Storrs (1979)
and Tailfer (1989).
The main difference between these definitions is found in colour. De Rosayro (1953)
distinguished also a 'tarry exudate' which
is related to the definition (2) (see rejected
terms). It is characteristic of the genus Semecmpus. Wyatt-Smith (1954) includes the tarry
exudate in resin and gives Dipterocarpus spp.
as an example.
V. Bark cutting
blaze
(I) = slash
a shallow Cllt removing a portion of'the
bark and wood so as to aid ill species
identification (Figs. 2 & 3).
Syn.: slash (Vo. Ou2. Ku. Wh I, Wh2!,
Le, WS, Woo Ry!, Ro!, BCFTI!.
Bo!, Po!), cut (WS', Wh2', Ry', Ro',
Bo!. Po').
q: IV: hlaze, dry/wet.
(2) -'> I: hark, inner (3).
Comments:
The term has heen used in the first sense
by SAF (1950), BCFTI (1953). De Rosayro
(1953), and Rollet (1982). Originally 'slash'
was used for "the bark slashed off by a cut",
and the wound on a trunk, and especially the
light coloured exposed sapwood was known
as 'hlaze' (Wood 1952).
A slash or hlaze reveals the eolour of the
inner layers of hark, sapwood (hardwood)
and exudate, a possihle discoloration when
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Junikka -
Macroscopic bark terminology
exposed to the air, texture, smell, taste, etc.
(Letouzey 1986). De Rosayro (1953), evaluating the nature of exudation as the most important and specific character of the blaze,
points out that a blaze should be made on the
stem and not on a buttress because of tissue
differences. Letouzey (1986) mentions some
other precautions to be observed when noting
the appearance of bark: age of the tree, habitat of the tree, exposure of the bark, and the
height at which the sample is taken.
33
slash
(1) = blaze.
(2) residual logging debris (SAF 1950,
HeFTI 1953).
Comments:
Slash is accepted here as an alternative
term for blaze. The term slash is commonly
used also in this second sense. However, there
is no danger of confusion.
List of rejected terms
bark, alligator
bark, blocky
IILc: bark, scaly.
-7
-7
IILb: bark, tessellated.
bark, blotched
-7
IILc: bark, patchy.
bark, cankered
-7
m.d: warts.
bark, chunky inner
bark, close
-7
-7
II: texture granular.
m.d: bark, smooth (1).
bark, coarse fissured
fissures wavy.
-7
III. b: bark, fissured,
bark, cracked -7 IILb: bark fissured, fissures
shallow; -7 m.c: bark, tessellated.
bark, crumbly
-7
-7
IILc: bark, tessel-
II: texture granular.
bark, crustaceous -7 II: texture brittle.
bark, dead -7 I: rhytidome (2).
- laminated, see I: periderm.
bark, deep fissured - fissures are coarse and
close; the size and section of fissures are
very variable, but fissures do not penetrate into inner bark; ridges are flat-topped; sloughing occurs continually; chunky small scales (few cm) are adherent
(abridged from Whitmore 1962a). See
IILb: bark, fissured.
bark, deeply cracked
fissures deep.
bark, deeply furrowed
fissures deep.
bark, dippled-scaly
bark,
-
-7
-7
IILb: bark, fissured,
III.b: bark, fissured,
IILd: bark, dippled.
-7
exfoliating
horizontal -7 lILc: bark, flaky.
vertical -7 lILc: bark, flaky.
patchy -7 lILc: bark, patchy.
bark, eye-marked
marked.
bark, fibrous inner
bark, compact -7 II: texture hard.
bark, crocodile-skin
lated.
bark, dimpled -7 m.d: bark, pock-marked.
IILd: bark, pock-
-7
-7
bark, fibrous peeling
II: texture fibrous.
-7
m.c: bark, stringy.
bark, fine fissured -7 III. b: bark, fissured,
fissures shallow.
bark, firm
-7
IILd: bark, rugose (2).
bark, fluted - deep, continuous, round-bottomed longitudinal grooves with rounded
ridges between them; width of ridge and
width of groove approximately equal and
total width more than 2.5 cm (Wyatt-Smith
1954*). See m.b: bark, fissured.
bark, furrowed
sures deep.
-7
IILb: bark, fissured, fis-
bark, granular outer
bark, grid-cracked
ed.
bark, gritty
-7
-7
-7
II: texture granular.
IILc: bark, tessellat-
lILc: bark, tessellated.
bark, gritty inner
-7
lILa: streaks reticulate.
bark, hard -7 II: texture, hard; -7 I: phloem
(with) sc1erenchymatic elements.
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IAWA Journal, Vol. 15 (1),1994
34
bark, hard inner --t II: texture hard.
bark, hooped
--t
m.d: hoops.
bark, inner
- inner --t I: phloem, non-collapsed secondary phloem.
- outer --t I: phloem, collapsed secondary phloem.
bark, laminate - named after slash appearance; bark is scaly fissured; ridges are 2-6
cm wide with several unevenly overlapping flat layers; fissures are usually irregular in section, short; bark looks as though
rotting from surface inwards; tissues loose,
soft; in this type a sclerosis plays a role
in which tangential sheets of sclerified tissues (close compound laminae) are formed
to varying extent in the phloem proliferation tissue; layers can be seen in cross
section (abridged from Whitmore 1962a).
See II: texture laminate.
bark, little rough
-7
m.d: bark, rugose (1).
bark, live
- dry --t IV: blaze, dry.
- fibrous-breakable -7 II: texture brittle.
- glass-breakable -7 II: texture brittle.
- inner layer (of the live bark) -7 I: phloem,
non-collapsed secondary phloem.
- laminated --t II: texture laminate.
phloem contains very thin, flexible laminae of less than 1 mm; one can separate
wide and and long laminae with fingers
(Jimenez-Saa 1973).
- (with) long strings -7 II: texture laminate.
refers to laminae of live bark, which do
not break easily and which can be pulled
out as long strings, for instance in some
species of Annonaceae and Lecythidaceae
(Jimenez-Saa 1973).
- (with) several layers --t II: texture laminate.
laminae, which are not easily separable,
and are in some cases about 2 mm thick
(Jimenez-Saa 1973).
- outer layer (of the live bark) -7 I: phloem,
collapsed secondary phloem.
- succulent --t IV: blaze, wet.
bark, living - (1) the part of the bark outside
the vascular cambium up to and including
the last-formed periderm (Chan 1985*).
See I: bark, inner.
- (2) -7 I: bark, inner (3).
bark, mealy
-7
II: texture mealy.
bark, middle - (1) in the phloem between inncr and outer bark, sometimes visible; it is
the place where the division and differentiation of cells occur, and its relative thickness varies in the live bark depending on a
species (Roth 1981 *).
- (2) -7 I: phelloderm.
bark, minniritchi
scrolled.
bark, mottled
--t
--t
III.c: bark, flaky, flakes
III.c: bark, patchy.
bark, non-fissured - (1) bark is not fissured,
but may still be cracked, flaky or pockmarked and not really smooth (Meijer &
Wood 1964*). See m.d: bark, rugose.
- (2) Totally smooth or scaly, or covered
with lenticels (Meijer 1974*). Sce III.d:
bark, rugose.
bark, peeling - (1) all species with successive
periderm layers show more or less peeling,
from time to timc, of one or more cork
layers; this may be haphazard, scasonal or
controlled by external conditions such as
frost, fire or insolation; ... form of peeling
is directly related to mode of laying down
of periderms (Wood 1952*). See scale
bark (rejected terms); IILc: ring bark.
- (2) -7 IILc: bark, flaky, flakes scrolled.
bark, pimpled (pimply)
cell ate.
bark, pitted
-7
bark, plated
-7
-7
m.d: bark, lenti-
IILd: bark, pock-marked.
IILh: bark, fissured (1).
bark, pock-pitted
marked.
-) IILd: bark, pock-
bark, pustulate -) m.d: bark, lenticellate.
hark, reticulately scaly -) IILc: bark, tessellated.
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35
Macroscopic bark terminology
------
bark, ridged - (I) deep continuous, longitudinal grooves often with flat-topped
ridges between them: width of the ridge
and width of the furrow approximately
equal, and total width more than 2.5 cm;
e.g. Shorea curtisii (Wyatt-Smith 1954*).
See m.b: bark, fissured.
- (2) -) IILb: bark, fissured, fissures
deep.
bark, spotted -) IILc: bark, patchy; -) IILd:
bark, pock-marked.
bark, ringed -) IILc: bark, flaky; -) IILc:
bark, scaly
split or cracked bark with circular fissures
(Radford et al. 1974*).
bark, striated inner -) I: phloem, phloem
rays; -) III.a: streaks longitudinal.
bark, rugged -) IILb: bark, fissured, fissures,
deep.
bark, stone -) II: texture hard.
bark, streaked inner -) lILa: streaks longitudinal.
bark, striated -) m.b: bark, fissured (1).
bark, stripping -) m.c: bark, stringy.
bark, true -) I: rhytidome (1), (2).
bark, verrucose -) III.d: warts.
bark, sculptured -) III.d: bark, rugose (1).
bark, secondary -) I: rhytidome (1).
bark, winged - bark with one or more thin,
flat longitudinal expansions or elongate
plates (Radford et al. 1974*). See m.c:
bark, scaly.
bark, shaggy -) IILc: bark, flaky; -) IILc:
bark, flaky, flakes shaggy; -) IILc: bark,
scaly, scales shaggy.
bark, wrinkled -) m.d: bark, rugose (1).
bark, shallow-cracked -) lII.b: bark, fissured,
fissures shallow.
bass -) I: bast (1); -) I: phloem fibre; -) I:
phloem.
bark, shallow-fissured - named after bole appearance from a distance; outer bark is a
coherent mass united by periderms; V-section fissures are long and often penetrating into the inner bark; ridges are 25-50
mm wide and fissures about one-third of
this; sloughing is infrequent, scales are to
5 x 15 cm in size, ridge-wide, layer-thick
or chunky, and adherent (abridged from
Whitmore 1962a). See IILb: bark, fissured.
bast -) I: phloem fibre.
- hard -) I: phloem, sclerenchymatic
elements; -) I: phloem fibre.
- primary -) I: phloem, primary phloem.
- secondary -) I: phloem, secondary
phloem.
- soft, see I: phloem (note under sc1erenchymatic elements).
bark, shallow-furrowed -) m.b: bark, fissured, fissures shallow.
bast fibre -) I: bark fibre; -) I: phloem fibre.
blaze -) bark, inner (3).
bark, shreddy -) II: texture fibrous.
bole
- scaly-fissured -) IILb: bark, fissured,
fissures shallow.
- shaggy-scaly -) IILc: bark, flaky, flakes
shaggy; -) m.c: bark, scaly, scales
shaggy.
bark, soft -) II: texture soft; see I: phloem
(note under sc1erenchymatic elements).
burrs - (1) lar$e excrescences on a tree trunk
or major bnanch, and to the enlarged root
bark, sheet -) IILc: bark, flaky.
bark, shell -) I: rhytidome (1).
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36
IAWA Journal, Vol. 15 (1), 1994
stock found in certain trees; the grain is
highly contorted and presents a characteristic type of figure (SAF 1950, BeFTI
1953, and Ford-Robertson 1971). See
m.d: burl.
- (2) ~ III.d: burl.
cambium
- bark ~
- cork ~
- main ~
bium.
:... wood ~
bium.
I: phellogen.
I: phellogen.
I: cambium, vascular camI: cambium, vascular cam-
cork
- secondary ~ I: periderm (1).
- spongy ~ I: phellem.
cork prickle
~
cork skin
I: phelloderm.
~
m.d: prickles (1).
cortex
- cork ~ I: phellem.
- primary ~ I: cortex (1); ~ I: phloem,
primary phloem.
- secondary ~ I: phloem, secondary
phloem; ~ I: phelloderm.
cracks, boat-shaped ~ III.b: bark, fissured,
fissures boat-shaped.
crevices, vertical ~ III.b: bark, fissured, fissures boat-shaped.
cut
~
V: blaze
=slash.
edge
- inner: thin and often inconspicuous layer, which is the very young phloem and
cambium of the current growing season
(Wood 1952*). See I: cambium; I: phloem, non-collapsed secondary phloem.
- outer ~ I: phelloderm.
excrescences
- bumpy ~ m.d: warts.
- pointed: long, thick, woody outgrowth
from the trunk (Letouzey 1986). See
m.d: spines.
expansion tissue
~
I: dilatation tissue.
exudate
- creamy - latex which is thick in consistency and opaque but not sticky (WyattSmith 1954*). See IV: latex (1), (2).
- gelatinous ~ IV: gum (1).
- lactiferous ~ IV: latex (1).
- mucilaginous ~ IV: gum (1).
- resinous ~ IV: resin (2).
- sappy ~ IV: exudate, liquid.
- tarry: black, tarry, acrid exudation,
which is usually slow and appears initially as black dots or streaks which later
coagulate; the stem often shows black,
tar-like blotches on its exterior (De Rosayro 1953). See IV: resin (3).
- thick ~ IV: exudate viscous.
- watery:
(1) thin, usually clean or resembling a solution of colouring matter in water which
is subdivided into (i) red or reddish exudate, (ii) colourless exudation (De Rosayro
1953). See IV: exudate.
(2) ~ IV: exudate liquid.
fissures
- acute ~ m.b: bark, fissured, fissures
V-shaped.
fissuring
- slitted
deep.
- slotted
deep.
~
m.b: bark, fissured, fissures
~
III. b: bark, fissured, fissures
flakes
- fibrous ~ II: texture fibrous.
- granular ~ II: texture loose.
folds, horizontal
~
gnaur ~ m.d: burl;
hoop marks
hoop-rings
~
~
III.d: hoops.
~
burr (rejected terms).
m.d: hoops.
m.d: hoops.
inclusions
- fibrous ~ I: phloem, scIerenchymatic
elements.
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Junikka -
Macroscopic bark terminology
----------------------
- grid-fibrous --7 III. a: streaks reticulate; --7 I: phloem, sclerenchymatic
elements.
- radial --7 I: dilatation tissue.
- sandy --7 I: phloem, sclerenchymatic
elements.
- conducting --7 I: phloem, non-collapsed secondary phloem.
- non-active --7 I: phloem, collapsed
secondary phloem.
- non-functional --7 I: phloem, collapsed
secondary phloem.
- non-functioning --7 I: phloem, collapsed secondary phloem.
- non-conducting --7 I: phloem, collapsed secondary phloem.
knob, see III.d: spines.
layer
- corky --7 I: periderm (1).
- inner: corresponds to the younger phloem and rays without youngest phloem,
which is a thin and often inconspicuous
layer (Wood 1952). See I: phloem, noncollapsed secondary phloem.
- outer: corresponds to the older phloem
and rays with remnants of cortex and pericycle according to the age and species
(Wood 1952). See I: phloem, collapsed
secondary phloem.
plates --7 IILc: bark, scaly, scales scollopshaped.
- superposed --7 II: texture laminate.
proliferation tissue, intercalary
tion tissue.
liber --7 I: phloem.
- secondary --7 I: phloem, secondary
phloem.
--7
--7
rind --7 I: bark (1); --7 I: rhytidome (1).
- inner --7 I: phloem.
- outer --7 J: rhytidome (1)
- primary --7 I: rhytidome (1).
marks, ring-like
--7
--7
m.d: bark, dip-
II!.d: hoops.
meristem
- cork --7 I: phellogen.
- lateral --7 I: cambium.
pitting
--7
--7
--7
m.d: hoops.
I: phloem fibre.
markings, oyster-shell
pled.
periblem
I: dilata-
m.d: ring-grooves.
rings, horizontal
liber fibre
--7
ridges, parallel, sinuous, concentrical --7 m.d:
mussel-shell-markings.
rill
leptome, see I: phloem (note under sclerenchymatic elements).
37
I: cortex (1).
scale bark
(1) a type of rhytidome in which the subsequent periderms develop as restricted
overlapping strata, each cutting out a
scale-like mass of tissue (Esau 1960*).
See IILc: ring bark; II!.c: bark, flaky;
IILc: bark, scaly; bark, peeling (rejected
terms).
(2) --7 I: rhytidome (1).
stereome --7 I: phloem, sclerenchymatic elements.
m.d: bark, pock-marked.
phloem
- functional --7 I: phloem, non-collapsed secondary phloem.
- functioning --7 I: phloem, non-collapsed secondary phloem.
structure, striped
nal.
thorn
--7
wedges
--7
lILa: streaks longitudi-
m.d: spines.
--7
I: dilatation tissue.
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38
IAWA Journal, Vol. 15 (l), 1994
GLOSSARY OF THE SUGGESTED MACROSCOPICAL BARK TERMS
I. Bark and its component tissues (Fig. 1)
bark - all tissue outside the vascular cambium regardless of its composition.
bark, inner
= phloem.
bark, outer
=
rhytidome.
bark fibre - fibre in the bark.
bast - any fibres of the outer part of the
plant, though mostly obtained from the
secondary phloem.
cambium - a meristem with products of divisions arranged orderly in parallel files;
consists of one layer of initials and their
undifferentiated products, or derivatives.
Applied only to the two lateral meristems:
- vascular cambium: the meristematic
cell layer responsible for the development
of the wood and/or the phloem.
- phellogen: the meristematic cell layer
responsible for the development of the
periderm.
There are also other meristems which form
additional tissues:
- dilatation meristem: a radially oriented meristematic cell layer in the phloem ray
of some plants; responsible for a distinctly
funnel-shaped phloem ray dilatation.
cork - a trade product which is mainly extracted from the cork oak tree (Quercus
suber).
cortex - the tissue of primary origin that belongs neither to the epidermis, the periderm, or the phloem; between epidermis
(periderm) and the vascular system.
dilatation tissue - all tissue affected by dilatation growth (Fig. 2).
periderm - the secondarily developed protective bark tissue replacing the epidermis,
or built during rhytidome formation; consists of phellem, phellogen, and phelloderm.
ph ell em - a secondarily formed protective
tissue in sterns and roots consisting of
dead cells with chiefly suberised walls;
developed outward from the phellogen and
forming a part of periderm.
phelloderm - a secondarily formed living
tissfle developed inward from the phellogen, forming a part of periderm and resembling cortical parenchyma.
phellogen, see under cambium.
phloem = inner bark - a principal assimilate conducting tissue· composed of different tissues and usually located outward
of the xylem and inward of the periderm.
Phloem can be divided into:
- primary phloem: phloem of primary
origin.
- secondary phloem: all bark tissues
derived from the vascular cambium during
secondary growth.
Secondary phloem can be subdivided into
two layers that are sometimes visible to
the unaided eye:
- non-collapsed secondary phloem:
part of the secondary phloem with open
and non-collapsed sieve-elements.
- collapsed secondary phloem: part
of secondary phloem where sieve elements, companion or Strasburger cells,
and sometimes axial phloem parenchyma
cells are collapsed
Other structures in the secondary phloem
that can sometimes be distinguished with
the unaided eye:
- sclerenchymatic elements: fibres,
sclereids, and their intermediates forming
various structures in the secondary phloem. Patterns thus formed may be seen in
cross and tangential section.
- phloem rays: rays traversing the phloem.
phloem fibre - bark fibre of the phloem.
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Junikka -
Macroscopic bark tenninology
rhytidome = outer bark - the dead outer
part of bark including the last-formed
39
periderm, cut off by this periderm from
still living secondary phloem.
II. Bark texture (consistency)
texture - composition of the bark largely
determined by the character of the cells
composing the tissue, but also affected by
the progress of decay of the rhytidome.
The texture may be described as follows:
- corky: outer bark with the texture and
quality of cork.
- fibrous: outer and/or inner bark mainly composed offibres.
- brittle: outer and/or inner bark is hard,
breakable. Outer bark may emit a metallic
sound on cutting, inner bark may be fibrous but still brittle.
-loose: outer and/or inner bark breaks
up on cutting into coarse or fine grains
(vs. firm).
- granular: usually referring to inner
bark which is mainly composed of sclereids.
- mealy: outer bark falls off like powder.
- homogeneous: either fibres or sclereids occur (vs. heterogeneous).
- soft: outer and/or inner bark is soft
and easy to cut (vs. hard).
- laminate: concentric, cylindrical or interrupted layers in the phloem formed by
sclerenchymatic elements.
III. Bark patterns
lILa: Bark patterns in cross and tangential
section
streaks - striations on the sUrface of the
blaze usually formed by phloem rays and
sclerenchymatic tissues.
corrugations - the inner surface of the bark
is corrugated matching the similar pattern
on sapwood.
Streaks may be:
- longitudinal: longitudinal strzatlOns
against different-coloured background.
- reticulate: regular or wavy, net-like
striations against different-coloured background.
dilatation (growth) - the process ensuring
the tangential widening of the bark during
growth (Fig. 2).
flame-marks - a pattern resembling flames
formed by phloem rays seen in the cross
section of phloem.
phloem, mottled - phloem which is marked
with spots of various colours or shades in
tangential section.
phloem, scalariform - a pattern formed by
phloem rays in the cross section of phloem resembling ladder-like structure with
radial 'rungs'.
ripple marks - fine, parallel, horizontal
lines in the tangential section of wood or
bark, caused by the storied structure of all
the wood and bark elements, or by the
distribution in horizontal layers of the
wood rays and bark rays only (Fig. 3).
IILb:
Fissuring
bark, fissured - bark cracked lengthwise
into fissures separated by ridges.
fissures: more or less longitudinal grooves
between ridges in the rhytidome.
They may be classified according to depth
and length as follows:
- deep: at least as deep as half of the total
thickness of the bark (Fig. 4).
- shallow: less than half as deep as the
total bark thickness (Fig. 5, see also Figs.
6,8, and 9).
- boat-shaped: oval or elliptical fissures
which are not continuous (Fig. 10).
- short: less than 15 cm long.
-long, elongated: more than 15 em long.
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40
IAWA Journal, Vol. 15 (1),1994
In addition, fissures can be classified into
different morphological types:
- V-shaped: more or less acute fissures
sometimes penetrating inner bark, lined by
special associated periderm(s) (See Fig. 4).
- round: the outer surface is concave in
cross section.
- square-shaped: flat bottom fissures,
always restricted to the dead outer bark
(Fig. 6).
- irregular: different-sized gaps or furrows in the bark surface (Fig. 5).
- compound: anastomosing shallow fissures which are formed in the bottoms of
existing fissures (Fig. 7).
- wavy: longitudinal grooves that are
coarse with wavy, more or less irregular
faces difficult to define clearly (Fig. 11).
Fissures may be:
- parallel: grooves are parallel, long, usually regular. The resulting, long ridges may
crack transversally (Fig. 12).
- oblique: grooves are short or long,
anastomosing but not so regular and distinct as in reticulate fissured barks. The
resulting ridges may crack transversally.
- reticulate: grooves join each other and
divide again irregularly leaving non-continuous and sometimes obscure ridges.
ridges: more or less continuous raised parts
of the rhytidome between fissures.
Flakes may be:
- rectangular.
- irregular.
- circular.
- papery: thin and very flexible flakes
(vs. slab-like flakes).
- scrolled: long, thin flakes which are
rolled up by their edges (Fig. 16).
- shaggy: loosened, usually slightly curved rectangular or irregular flakes which
may hang for a time on the stem (Cf. Fig.
12).
bark, heterogeneous - more than one type
of bark is encountered in the same stem
(Fig. 13).
bark, patchy -lighter blotches on the outer
surface of the rhytidome resulting from
the irregular dehiscence of old rhytidome
plates, usually two colours dominate on
the bark (Fig. 18).
bark, powdery - bark covered with a fine
powder-like crust which usually rubs off
easily. It is mostly associated with smooth
barks.
bark, scaly; scales - bark which has small
more or less irregular patches or scales of
rhytidome, less than 7.5 cm long, which
become detached.
Ridges may be:
Scales:
- flattened: the outer surface is plane in
cross section (Fig. 8).
- hollow: the outer surface is concave in
cross section (Fig. 9).
- rounded: the outer sUrface is convex in
cross section (Fig. 4).
- V-shaped: the outer surface is sharp in
cross section.
- reticulate: ridges join each other and
irregularly divide again enclosing noncontinuous fissures (Fig. 14).
According to persistence one may roughly
divide them as follows:
- adherent: retained some time on the
stem.
-loose-hanged: shed seasonally (Fig.
19, see also Fig. 13).
IIl.c: Scaling
bark, flaky; flakes - bark which has large
and variable patches or flakes of rhytidome, more than 7.5 cm long, which become detached.
Scales may be roughly divided according
to density as follows:
- close.
- distant.
Scales may be roughly divided according
to shape as follows:
-
rectangular.
irregular.
circular.
papery: thin and very flexible.
flat-sided: one or several layers thick.
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Junikka -
Macroscopic bark terminology
- chunky: usually with irregular rough
faces and irregularly chunky shaped.
- scollop-shaped: thickest in the middle, tapering to the edges, and leaving a
scollop-shaped depression on the bole on
sloughing (Cf. Fig. 22).
- scrolled: thin scales which are rolled
up by their edges.
- shaggy: loose and usually slightly curved, rectangular or irregular scales which
may hang for a time on the stem (Fig. 19).
bark, stringy - thick, loose, long-fibred
bark, never deciduous.
bark, surface rotten - bark is shortly fissured (with fissures varying in depth and
cross section), scaly, rugose or smooth;
sloughing is very variable scales being
small, adherent, chunky or flat-sided; in
a transverse section the inner edge of the
outer bark is following sUrface configurations, not parallel to cambium.
bark, tessellated - surface marked by more
or less regular, square or oblong plates or
blocks remaining for a long time on the
stem (Fig. 15).
ring bark - a type of rhytidome in which
periderms may be formed parallel to the
first one. The concentric cylinders of bark
thus formed result in a rhytidome which
detaches annually with large sheets.
III.d: External markings
bark, dippled - bark covered with shallow,
usually circular depressions, more than
1 em in diameter. These are scars of the
scaled-off old bark (Fig. 22).
bark, lenticellate; lenticels - barks which
have on the surface more or less raised,
often somewhat corky spots or lenticels
41
- round: (usually small).
- stellate: star-shaped.
- diamond-shaped: rhomboid.
The size of lenticels may be divided according to the greatest diameter:
- large: more than 5 mm in diameter.
- medium: 3-5 mm in diameter.
- small: less than 3 mm in diameter.
Lenticels may occur on bark:
- numerous (vs. scarce) (only when
present in large numbers or only few).
solitary (vs. compound).
in vertical lines (Fig. 21).
-
in horizontal lines.
in oblique lines.
According to their consistency they may be:
- soft.
- powdery.
- compacted.
bark, pock-marked - bark covered with
small shallow circular depressions, less
than 1 em in diameter.
bark, rough - bark which has an uneven
sUrface; the term includes various scaly,
flaky and fissured barks.
bark, rugose - bark which is covered by
wrinkles, depressions, small irregularly
desquamating scales, shallow fissures;
bark appears smooth from a distance (Fig.
20).
bark, scribbly - smooth bark carries characteristic 'scribbles' caused by insect larvae.
bark, smooth - bark is even, thin, unbroken, though it may be bumpy or pimply
from the lenticels (Fig. 21).
Lenticels:
burls - hard woody excrescences on a tree,
more or less rounded in form, usually
resulting from the entwined growth of a
cluster of adventitious buds.
The form of lenticels may be according to
the greatest diameter:
-linear: usually horizontally elongated
like buttonholes (rarely vertical).
cankers - definite, relatively localised, necrotic lesions primarily of the bark and
cambium.
(Fig. 21).
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42
IAWA Journal, Vol. 15 (l), 1994
------------------
eye marks - eye-shaped marks on trunks
and branches of smooth-barked trees
(Fig. 23).
hoops - raised transverse rings which partially or completely encircle the stem (Cf.
Fig. 24).
mussel-shell markings - parallel, sinuous, concentric ridges on the bark left
after shedding of the rhytidome (Fig. 17).
prickles -- sharp outgrowths from the bark,
detachable without tearing the woolf (Fig.
25).
ring-grooves - transverse grooves which
partially or completely encircle the stem
(Fig. 24).
scroll marks - raised sinuous marks between depressions which are formed when
scollop-shaped scales are detached (Fig.
22).
spines - sharp hardened outgrowths of the
bark and wood, usually modified branches
or leaves; tearing the wood, if detached.
Spines may be:
- simple (vs. branched).
- straight (vs. curved).
- hard (vs. supple).
- tapering.
- conical.
warts - hard or firm excrescences other than
lenticels, spines, prickles, or burls which
are formed on the stem.
IV. Exudation
blaze dry - the surface of the blaze is not
exuding, feels dry when touched.
blaze, wet - the surface of the blaze slightly
exuding, feels moistened when touched.
exudate - moisture or liquid of the living
tissue, which seep or flows after slashing,
usually from the inner bark.
Purely physically an exudate may be:
- clear: transparent (vs. opaque).
- coloured: may be white, yellow, golden, brownish, red, blackish.
- discoloured: the colour changes within a few minutes.
- frothy: forms foam when rubbed between fingers.
-liquid: flows readily, often transparent.
- viscous: flows slowly, not necessarily
sticky.
- sticky: adhesive and sticks to the fingers (vs. non-sticky).
- odorous: smells pleasantly, for instance
like incense or wintergreen.
- smelly: smells more or less unpleasantly, for instance like garlic, pepper, sulphur, excrement.
- abundant: exudation is profuse for a
while (vs. scanty).
gum - viscid secretions, exuding naturally or
on incision or infection, generally colourless, nontoxic, odourless, and usually
tasteless; and on desiccation, or exposure
to air, they become hard, clear, glassy
masses.
kino - newly formed kino is usually of a
thick consistency similar to that of honey,
ranging from straw to blood-red in colour;
. .. and dries to a brittle, semi-transparent
solid.
latex - latex is a colloidal suspension or
emulsion of water-insoluble substances,
suspended in an aqueous phase. It is typically white (milky), but may be yellow to
red, or colourless.
resin - colourless exudate or light brown
glossy solids, which are stable, inert
and amorphous and become sticky when
heated.
- oleoresins: a solution of resin acids in
turpentine; oleoresin is a pale yellow, clear
and sticky mass, which upon evaporation
of volatile compounds becomes brittle.
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Junikka -
Macroscopic bark terminology
-'natural resins': they can be colourless, as with dammars, or light brown
glossy solids; they are stable, inert and
amorphous, become sticky when heated
and are fusible (above JOO °C) with no
sharp melting points.
V. Bark cutting
blaze = slash - a shallow cut removing a
portion of the bark and wood so as to aid
in species identification (Figs. 2 & 3).
slash
= blaze.
Acknowledgements
The author is greatly indebted to Jifke
Koek-Noorman for the worthwhile discussions and her valuable advice concerning
the structure of this article. I also thank Tim
Whitmore, Pieter Baas, and an anonymous
referee for their careful reading of the manuscript, and Lubbert Westra for correction of
the English text.
Thanks are due to Marcel Polak in Utrecht
for permission to use his slides (Figs. 2,
3, lO, 12, 21). The author is also grateful to
Henrik Rypkema for a schematic illustration
of Fig. 1 and to Asko Nerg for the rest of the
illustrations (Figs. 4-9, 14-17,25).
Societas Biologica Fennica Vanamo and
the Finnish Cultural Foundation provided
financial support.
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