Evaluating the contributions of archaeologists: from the 19th century to the 1960s
THE FIRST SECTION OF THE TABLE FOCUSES ON DESCRIBING THE TECHNIQUE OR FEATURE OF THE
WORK, THE NEXT STEP IS TO EXPLAIN WHY YOU CONSIDER THAT TECHNIQUE ETC A PLUS OR A
MINUS, I.E. TO EVALUATE. THE FINAL STEP IS TO PUT THESE FEATURES/TECHNIQUES IN ORDER OF
IMPORTANCE. WHEN A TECHNIQUE/FEATURE HAS BOTH POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ASPECTS, THAT
SHOULD BE NOTED AND FACTORED INTO THE FINAL EVALUATION.
Some points to consider:
Did the method last?
Was it applied in a range of circumstances?
Is the method intrusive?
What did it contribute to our understanding of Pompeii and/or Herculaneum?
Did the research lead to other fruitful areas of research?
PLUS
MINUS
Karl Weber – Herculaneum. Weber is an archaeologist who worked in the 18th century but because
of his significance to 1. The development of archaeology and 2. The excavation of Herculaneum, he
is included here.
Prior to Weber’s involvement excavated ruins
were often reburied so that visitors could
experience their discovery in situ. Weber tried to
put a stop to this practice.
His excavations followed the line of streets and
This is more systematic than earlier methods and
he entered through front doors.
appears to be an improvement, however
Fiorelli’s practice of digging from the top down
will be better still as it ensures all levels can be
carefully excavated.
PLUS Weber documented all finds and located them on site plans. This is important not only
because it shows an understanding of the importance of context and would become standard
practice for archaeologists, but also because without his plans of the Villa of the Papyri, we would
not know the location of its library.
PLUS Publication of findings:
Weber recognised the importance of publication and planned monographs with descriptions of the
sites plus drawings and plans, and descriptions of all works of art found. However, his work fell into
private hands after his death and wasn’t published.
GUISEPPE FIORELLI 1860-75
Method: plaster casts
A plus because it preserves the human remains
A minus inasmuch as these plaster casts have
in the position in which they died, enabling the
been used in the staged tableaux providing
archaeologist to gather information about the
entertainment for tourists. They are a vital
eruption.
element in the ‘theatre of the dead’ which is
This technique will be used again in other
more to do with entertainment than
contexts to add to our knowledge of the
archaeology.
Vesuvian cities e.g. Prof Jashemski’s use of
plaster casts of root systems to discover what
sorts of trees grew in Pompeii.
Method: mapping regions and insulae, naming
streets PLUS
Fiorelli recognised the importance of context and thus the necessity for correctly identifying the
location of all finds. The practice of giving houses colourful names not only led to confusion if one
house was given a number of names but some titles were misleading e.g. the House of the Surgeon
is called this because of the discovery of a surgeon’s tools. Although these names still persist, even in
the academic literature, Fiorelli’s system has also lasted and brings an essential scientific accuracy to
the study of Pompeii.
Excavation from the top down PLUS
Fiorelli also changed the way in which the site was excavated. Before he took charge, excavators had
dug straight down to the AD 79 level, moving aside any debris. The site itself had been excavated in
a piecemeal fashion and Fiorelli set about correcting this by clearing the unexcavated areas and then
beginning a systematic excavation, collecting data so that the houses could be restored. This is not
the stratigraphic method used by modern archaeologists but it is the important first step.
Finds left in situ
Fiorelli insisted that where possible all objects,
While the idea of preserving finds in the context
including wall paintings, should be left in situ
in which they are found is sound, in practice
rather than removed from their context and
some of these finds, particularly wall paintings
placed in museums. This became standard
have been damaged through their exposure to
practice.
the elements.
Introduced day books to record finds PLUS
Fiorelli introduced day books in which a meticulous and detailed record was kept of all finds.
Method: publication of findings PLUS
Fiorelli’s publication of findings is an essential part of good archaeology (or good science). It is not
only a vital record of discoveries but it also allows others to access the research and then pose new
questions. It has become standard practice for modern archaeologists.
A new approach to archaeology PLUS
Under Fiorelli, the focus shifted from antiquities to the attempt to discover history by investigating
the archaeological record. This, along with his pioneering work to make excavation more scientific, is
the beginning of modern archaeology.
FINAL EVALUATION: ASSIGN A NUMBER TO SHOW WHICH IS MOST IMPORTANT.
1. Publication of findings
2. A new approach to archaeology. Mapping regions and insulae. Excavation from the top
down. Introduced day books to record finds.
3. Plaster casts. Finds left in situ.
SUMMARY: Fiorelli played a key role not only in the excavation of Pompeii but also in the
development of archaeology. He shifted the focus from antiquities to the attempt to discover
history by investigating the archaeological record. This, along with his pioneering work to make
excavation more scientific, is the beginning of modern archaeology. Through his mapping of the
city and its insulae and his subsequent division into regions, he brought a vital scientific rigor to
the recording of all finds and instituted a system which is still in place today.
Equally significant, Fiorelli recognised the importance of the publication of all research, an aspect
of archaeology which some have neglected, for example, in Mauri’s time the rate of excavation in
the last decade was sometimes so great that inadequate records were kept and there was no
publication of results. In the last few decades, Fiorelli’s practice of publication has been diligently
followed by archaeologists working in Pompeii or Herculaneum who have used computer
technology and the internet to publish their findings.
Fiorelli’s practice of preserving finds in the location in which they are found is another important
achievement. Prior to this, artefacts were often removed with no record kept of context. Not only
that, but wall paintings were often damaged in the process. Unfortunately, however, those wall
paintings left in place are themselves now being damaged as a result of their exposure to the
elements.
Fiorelli also changed the ways in which the site was excavated; his method of slowly working from
the top down, uncovering all the areas between excavated spots and recording data as he went
was the precursor of the modern practice of stratigraphic excavation.
Finally, Fiorelli’s name will always be associated with his use of plaster to make casts of human
remains and yet this is arguably the least of his achievements. Although it preserves the remains
in the position in which they died and can thus give information about the eruption, this needs to
be weighed against the later use of plaster casts to create tableaux e.g. the House of the
Menander which are misleading. Even when the casts are accurately placed, some have argued
that this display of human remains is not ethical. On the other hand, Fiorelli’s use of plaster casts
has been adapted by Prof. Jashemski who applied the technique to tree roots in her research into
gardens and agriculture in Pompeii.
AUGUST MAU 1873 - 1909
Method: classification of wall paintings
Mau devised a sequential system of
classification of the wall paintings in Pompeian
houses which is still in use today, although with
some modifications. Like Fiorelli’s mapping of
the city, this contributed to a greater sense of
scientific accuracy in recording and classifying
frescoes. He also shows the development of
these styles over time and thus this system can
be of some use in dating the decoration of a
house.
Mau published his findings in a major work, The
History of Decorative Wall Paintings in Pompeii.
Consider the usefulness of this research – it
helps to classify art from the houses of the wellto-do but how much does it tell us about life in
Pompeii.
It could be argued that Mau’s classification of
wall painting implies an accuracy that is not
necessarily there; a houseowner might choose to
have a wall painted in an older style because he
prefers a more traditional approach.
Mau’s research focuses on art and the houses of
the wealthy; this was a trend in research prior to
the 60’s and Mau typifies it. He tells us nothing
about the lives of the inhabitants of the houses,
and nothing about those who don’t live in
wealthy villas.
Certainly, Mau’s work contributes to our
understanding and appreciation of Pompeian art
but, if we compare it to the much more farranging research into Pompeian houses of
Andrew Wallace-Hadrill, one might ask just how
far his research has advanced our understanding
of life in Pompeii.
SPINAZZOLA 1911 - 1924
Focus on the Via dell’Abbondanza
PLUS Like Fiorelli, Spinazzola maintained the focus on investigating the town of Pompeii rather than
uncovering valuable antiquities. In his case, though, his area of interest was town planning. He
moved excavations to the Via dell’Abbondanza, the main street of Pompeii, and uncovered a new
side to Pompeii – political graffiti, shops, workshops and popular paintings.
Method: reconstructing streetscapes and
second storeys
Careful excavation allowed Spinazzola to
Because of his focus on the facades of buildings,
reconstruct the facades of buildings, their upper he often had to shore up the frontage to
storeys, balconies and roofs. This added to
prevent them collapsing. Further, while shops
understanding of Roman houses which proved to were identified, Spinazzola was unable to
be better lit and ventilated than had been
ascertain their function.
realised.
Method: : publication of findings
Spinazzola continued Fiorelli’s practice of publication; his was a monumental work including
photographs and drawings of his excavation work.
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1.
i.
2.
ii.
3.
iii.
AMEDEO MAIURI 1924-61: Pompeii
Method: stratigraphy
PLUS Maiuri began a series of stratigraphic
studies to discover the sequence of the eruption
and historical developments in Pompeii prior to
the Romans.
Research: pre-Roman and pre-Samnite Pompeii
PLUS Maiuri added considerably to our
understanding of Pompeii in pre-Roman and
pre-Samnite times; he uncovered pre-Roman
remains near the Doric Temple and the Temple
of Apollo. He also investigated pre-Roman levels
in the area of the forum. He showed that the city
wall incorporated elements of the pre-Samnite
wall.
Achievements: extensive excavation of the site
Maiuri was director for close to thirty years and
oversaw a great number of excavations including
the amphitheatre and the palaestra. The Villa of
the Mysteries and the House of Julia Felix were
uncovered as a result of his work. He also
expanded on Spinazzola’s work along the Via
dell’Abondannza, uncovering the insulae beyond
to give a greater view of the site.
These were vital discoveries, adding to our
understanding in many ways; the frescoes at the
Vila of the House of the Mysteries, for example,
have been the subject of much study as they are
believed to depict aspect of the Cult of Dionysus.
The House of Julia Felix is possibly one of the
largest houses in Pompeii and it was thoroughly
documented; it has been cited as evidence of the
decline in prosperity after the earthquake of AD
62 as sections had been subdivided into flats for
rent.
Publication of findings
Maiuri published extensively but the findings of
the last decade were barely recorded and not
published. He developed an argument about
great social and economic changes beginning in
the early empire and achieving crisis point in
the aftermath of the earthquake of AD 62. He
believed that the patricians left the city and a
commercial middle class of merchants and
freedmen – social upstarts, took their place. In
his excavations e.g. the House of Julia Felix, he
looked for evidence to demonstrate this thesis.
He applied this interpretation to Herculaneum,
as well as Pompeii.
In the period after the war money was short and
excavations suffered as a result. Maiuri’s rapid
rate of excavation became an issue as many
buildings were excavated without restoration or
protection to guard against damage from the
elements. There was very little documentation
of finds in the last decade and no publication.
Maiuri had also done much to publicise the site
and the increase in tourists added to the
problems.
This view of the Vesuvian cities was widely
accepted for many years; it has since been
challenged by a number of scholars. WallaceHadrill argues that Maiuri’s interpretation is
based on anecdotal rather than statistical
evidence; he further claims that it is grounded
on false assumptions about the elite, trade and
the use of property; and the way in which
commercial and residential buildings were
mixed. He accepts the earthquake caused some
level of disruption but not the extreme case
Mauiri posits.
Penelope Allison focuses on private housing; she
argues that “these final years and the
abandonment process were more complex and
involved more piecemeal change than has been
widely assumed.” She notes that the evidence of
her study shows that on more than one occasion
householders had to move sculpture, furniture
and possibly other valuables and to rearrange
their living space, arguably because of further
seismic activity.
John Dobbin, director of the Pompeii Forum
Project, has argued that a large and elaborate
programme of restoration was under way,
possibly helped out by imperial funding. The
condition of the forum is considered important
in assessing how well the townships were
functioning, especially with regard to the
economy. Dobbin argues that not only is there
evidence of restoration but that facades were
being remodelled to present a unified
appearance.
MINUS: Maiuri’s publication on the House of the
Menander has been criticised as being
descriptive rather than analytical, a long and
lavish text about the treasure found therein,
lacking scientific precision and detail.
MINUS: The tableau of ‘looters’ at the House of
the Menander’ – there is no evidence of an
attempt to deceive in the composition of this
tableau but it is misleading, as Estelle Lazer has
shown; not only have some of the remains been
moved, but the skeletons had been
reconstructed and not always accurately. Mauri
may not have been directly responsible but this
occurred on his watch.
AMEDEO MAIURI – Herculaneum
“The Herculaneum we see today is essentially the result of Amedeo Maiuri’s work. A man of
astonishing energy, he combined a deep knowledge of classical antiquity and an exceptional
capacity to communicate with the ability to organise with military precision a massive project of
engineering and complex reconstruction…”
– Andrew Wallace-Hadrill
Major excavations; reawakened interest in the
site
PLUS The site of Herculaneum had been
neglected for many years, overshadowed by the
much bigger and much more accessible Pompeii.
Maiuri was the one who relaunched excavations
and uncovered much of what we see today.
Through this and his publications he did much to
awaken interest in the site.
This is of great importance because, in spite of a
tendency to regard the two towns as essentially
Roman towns and thus of a piece, there are
important differences. Because Pompeii is the
one we know so much about, it has shaped our
perception of the Roman town. Discoveries
made at Herculaneum have made it necessary to
rethink this. As Wallace-Hadrill points out, we
cannot see sexy, political Pompeii as the
exemplar any more.
Restorations
Maiuri recognised the importance of prompt
Maiuri may have taken reconstruction too far in
restoration of buildings and much of what we
see in Herculaneum is the result of his extensive
reconstruction. In the House of the Telephus
Relief, for example, it is estimated some 50% is
reconstruction. The practice of conservation
immediately following excavation is becoming
standard practice.
some places. The shop in the House of Neptune
and Amphitrite has extensive woodwork but
little is original. What’s more disturbing is the
use of artefacts removed from other locations.
This runs counter to that important principle
which guided Fiorelli – that, if at all possible, the
find should be displayed in context. The end
result may well be a realistic portrayal of a
Roman shop but it is not strictly accurate.
Another instance of a created tableau – the little
weaving girl whose skeleton was found on a bed
in a flat along with a stool, loom and
candelabrum. The excavation diaries show this is
incorrect – the artefacts weren’t found in the
room and the skeleton originally found was
male.
Maiuri’s writings show he did not intend to
deceive the public but to make the experience
more accessible however his assemblies took on
the aura of truth.
More on reconstruction…
Maiuri also rebuilt the roofs – 70% of the roofed
spaces have modern flat roofs in poured
concrete. These protected the walls and floors
below; it was the abandonment of Maiuri’s
maintenance program that led to the decay of
the site.
Paola Pesaresi (Herculaneum Conservation
Project) acknowledges that Maiuri did not
display a truly scientific approach,
understandable as conservation issues were not
fully appreciated in his time. However, she
salutes an impressive achievement which
“respected the archaeological evidence and...
was effective in protecting the features below”.
Documentation of excavation
Maiuri systematically recorded each aspect of
Wallace-Hadrill both praises and criticises
the process, including photographs and even film Maiuri. He claims that the records kept were
footage.
inadequate and sometimes weren’t consulted
when Maiuri came to publish.
Publications
Maiuri not only published his findings, but he
also wrote many popular works and guidebooks.
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1)
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2)
ii.
3)
iii.
Evaluating the contributions of archaeologists: from the 1960s to the present.
Some points to bear in mind about archaeological practice, attitudes and areas of interest in this
period:
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Prior to this period, the principal work in Pompeii has been done by Italians appointed to
the directorship of the site but the latter part of the 20th century has seen international
teams working on site. The site of Herculaneum was more complicated; Sarah Bisel
worked there in the 80s but later it was only available to Italian archaeologists. In 2001 the
Herculaneum Conservation Project was begun to rescue the site from its state of decay.
The importance of preserving what has been excavated through documentation,
protection and conservation.
The importance of using a more selective and less intrusive approach and investigating
material already uncovered; posing new questions.
A shift in areas of interest from art and architectural history to an interest in the lives of
ordinary people, the economy, everyday life etc.
A shift away from belief in the so-called ‘Pompeii premise’ – the idea that the site of
Pompeii is a moment frozen in time and should be studied as such - to an interest in its
history, going right back to pre-Roman times.
Study of human remains plus a growing awareness of ethical issues.
Increased use of technology to investigate sources.
Increased use of computer technology to document sources and publish findings; use of
3D laser scanner technology to survey sites and to create 3D models.
The multidisciplinary team.
PLUS
SARAH BISEL AND CARPASSO – HERCULANEUM
MINUS
Research area: study of human remains - diet, health, occupations, status
The work of Bisel, Carpasso, Lazer et alia is
generally a plus as it is an advance on the
prevailing attitude to human remains in Pompeii
i.e. that they are not much more than artefacts
to be used in displays for the entertainment of
tourists, an attitude that is still current. The
study of human remains from Pompeii and
Herculaneum has resulted in the collection of a
range of valuable data about the nature of the
eruption, diet, health, genetic continuity. Their
usefulness has by no means been exhausted.
The skeletons of Herculaneum were a much later
discovery than those of Pompeii; Bisel was the
first to make a systematic study of them and the
first to attempt to integrate physical
anthropological and archaeological research.
Study showed that there was regional continuity
between modern Neapolitans and Campanians.
It also showed a satisfactory diet plus general
good health during the period of bone growth.
Bisel’s study of teeth showed little sugar was
present in their diet; she also considered that
fluoride found in seafood contributed to dental
health (a high concentration of fluoride is
present in the water of Herculaneum). She also
found that protein was chiefly provided by
Bisel and Carpasso both attached occupations
and social status to the skeletons on the basis of
unreliable indicators such as artefacts found
with the remains e.g. Bisel’s ‘soldier’ was found
with a sword and tools; other indicators are the
condition of the musculature e.g. ‘Pretty Lady’
had well-developed arm muscles and was
identified as a middle class weaver.
Other markers that are unreliable – good teeth,
height were read as signs of high status.
seafood and vegetables. Later analysis has
confirmed this.
Carpasso also found evidence suggesting some
11% of skeletons suffered from respiratory
disease, not surprising given the use of oils in
lamps and wood for heating in often poorly
ventilated houses.
Publication of findings:
Sarah Bisel published her findings in a number of
articles 1. In National Geographic 2. Scholarly
articles although she died prematurely and
would undoubtedly have published more. Some
of her work was published posthumously.
Publication in the National Geographic may have
prompted the more ‘inventive’ aspects of her
research e.g. the attribution of names like ‘Pretty
Lady’ and the ‘Soldier’. The articles were
accompanied by three illustrations by an artist
from the magazine which supposedly showed
what the individuals would have looked like.
Evaluation:
ESTELLE LAZER
Research area: human remains
Methodology/techniques: forensic medicine and physical anthropology
PLUS
Estelle Lazer has made a positive contribution in a number of ways; she made the first systematic
study of the human remains at Pompeii. Demographics: her study of some 300 remains has shown
that a roughly even spread of gender is to be found among the victims. Further, all age groups are
included. Lazer found that, contrary to previous thinking, Pompeii’s victims were not mainly the
infirm, women, children and the aged.
Lazer found that, although the Pompeian sample was compromised (disarticulated skeletons), her
findings corroborated findings at Herculaneum. She made an important discovery – a substantial
number of cases of HFI (Hyperostosis frontalis interna) – this has not been observed in the
Herculaneum sample. The levels found in Pompeii are comparable to a modern Western population.
As this disease is age-related, it suggests the average lifespan was much longer than previously
thought. The lack of observed cases of HFI in the Herculaneum sample is a subject worth
investigation.
Lazer’s study of non-metric traits compared to other populations produced a surprising result. It is
usually though that Pompeii had a heterogenous population but the results suggest homogeneity,
which may be due to shared genes or a common environment in the period of growth and
development. She also found significant differences between her sample and the Herculaneum
sample for cranial and post-cranial non-metric traits. Again, this is a subject that merits further
research.
Lazer has also made an important contribution in her exposure of such errors as the tableau at the
House of the Menander, and her exposition of the ‘culture of bodies’. Although this may not
immediately alter our understanding of life in Pompeii, it corrects false impressions and may well
lead to a better understanding in the future as further research reveals more about the inhabitants.
Evaluation:
POMPEII FORUM PROJECT, DIR. JOHN DOBBIN
Made extensive use of computer science.
Multidisciplinary team of experts.
Some key objectives:
To produce more accurate plans and elevations of the forum plus large black and white photos of
archival quality and computer models. This was seen as particularly important because those
remains still in place were deteriorating rapidly.
To investigate Pompeii’s response to the earthquake.
To study ‘civic aspirations, buildings techniques and urban design schemes’ in the latter part of the
1st century AD.
To use analysis of the architectural data to stimulate discussion about Pompeian urbanism.
The Project found evidence not only of restoration of many buildings and features but even of an
extensive remodelling, possibly made with the assistance of imperial funds.
Because of the importance of the forum as an indicator of the town’s prosperity and confidence, this
lead to a serious challenge to the traditional view that Pompeii had suffered a decline after the
earthquake.
Evaluation:
the Pompeii Forum Project represents some of the innovative features of modern archaeology in its
use of cutting edge technology and a multidisciplinary team. Through its use of computer science –
specifically the ‘total station’, an electronic recording device that interfaces with AutoCAD – the
Project has documented Pompeii’s forum, an act of conservation as well as investigation, given that
the forum itself is deteriorating. In this context, it is worth noting the non-intrusive nature of this
technology.
This research has also challenged traditional thinking about the impact of the earthquake AD 65
and opened a discussion on the nature of urbanism in Pompeii. Further, it has led to a deeper
understanding of how the forum in 79 AD acutely reflected the Romanisation of Pompeii.
ANGLO-AMERICAN PROJECT
The AAP investigated Reg. VI, Insula I, Pompeii.
The AAP use an educational and conservation model of archaeology; this is a combination of
traditional techniques e.g. systematic removal, recording on site, and conservation techniques
aimed to preserve organic and inorganic remains. This model of archaeology reflects the lessons that
have been learnt from the past about the deterioration of sources.
Tourists are welcomed on site and AAP use this as an opportunity to educate the public.
Maiuri made some stratigraphic studies of Pompeii but the AAP have taken this much further and
their findings have significantly changed understanding of Pompeii. They have uncovered a changing
pattern of occupation going back four centuries, identifying the earliest houses, the first
commercial structures, the first displays of decoration, the supply water from the aqueduct, changes
to commercial properties and to water supply.
The AAP also uncovered many ecofacts and artefacts, providing vital information about diet and the
economy. They have explored the gap between rich and poor and found increasing social inequality
from the first century BC on, which is demonstrated in many ways including differences in diet, the
level of decoration on the walls of the houses of the wealthy, the availability of water for use in
water features to display wealth, the expansion of larger houses to take over smaller ones..
AAP team member - Jaye Mckenzie Clark (Pont)
Mckenzie Clark’s study of red slip pottery in Pompeii has overturned the belief that this pottery was
imported. Study of the pottery has shown the clay comes from the Bay of Naples region. This has led
to a rethinking of ideas about trade and suggested the existence of a local pottery industry.
Myles McCallum writing later has argued that, while a pottery industry existed in Pompeii, it was
part of a larger, generally well-organised regional system. Only two pottery production facilities,
have been found in Pompeii although other facilities may have existed beyond the city walls. He
further claims that pottery generated small revenues and occupied a “relatively marginal economic
position in comparison to other productive and commercial activities such as metalworking, baking
or even prostitution” McCallum
Evaluation:
PROF. WILHELMINA JASHEMSKI
“The pioneering studies of Pompeian gardens by Wilhelmina Jashemski, perhaps the outstanding
research achievement of the past half-century, showing the value of scientific analyses of botanical
and zoological evidence. Microscopic examination of seeds, pollen and animal bones, by enabling
the identification of flora and fauna, has added a whole new dimension to our understanding of life
in Pompeii.”
Jashemski’s study of agriculture and gardens in Pompeii and the surrounding area has been very
influential; a success in its own terms, it has also inspired others to pursue related topics. Jashemski
used a variety of techniques to investigate plant remains e.g. plaster casts of root systems, study of
carbonised remains of such substances as hay. She was particularly interested in establishing
context. She was able to identify the crops, fruits, plants and trees grown within Pompeii. This led to
the discovery of large market gardens and vineyards within the city walls, adding to our
understanding of the local economy. Evidence also indicated smaller plots cultivated by
householders. 9.7% of the town was given over to cultivation, indicating the importance of
agriculture within the town.
Jashemski’s work has influenced others Michael Fulford and Wallace-Hadrill studied remains from the House of Amarantus to find evidence
of a range of food plants.
Dimbleby and Gruger attempted pollen analysis in the Vesuvian region but this was not very
successful.
Prof. Robinson, dir. of the Environmental Archaeology Unit, Oxford, has studied the gardens and
waste of some houses in Pompeii. He has since worked on waste from the sewers of Herculaneum.
Environmental archaeology
Evaluation:
ANDREW WALLACE-HADRILL is an important figure in research into the Vesuvian cities. As director
of the British School at Rome, he led investigations into insula 1.9 and later published an
important study of private houses in Pompeii. he also became director of the Herculaneum
Conservation Project, recently publishing a major text on their work.
BRITISH SCHOOL AT ROME:
Investigation of insula 1.9 Pompeii
The team found evidence of habitation going back to the 6th century BC. A construction history of
the houses of the insula was established showing development over time. From this it became
apparent that ideas about a standardised Roman house have been incorrectly applied to Pompeii as
there is evidence of significant changes over time as houses were remodeled, rebuilt, extended or
subdivided, according to changing needs. Further, the atrium house is seen to give way to the
peristyle as larger and more impressive dwellings are built.
Wallace-Hadrill used his study of domestic architecture to explore the disparate lives of rich and
poor in Pompeii. He showed how these buildings reveal the marginalized lives of the slaves whose
living quarters are contained within the building but differentiated from the householder’s quarters
by features like room decoration, size and location.
Foreign influence: He also argued that features of these houses such as the peristyle and columns,
which show the Greek influence, are borrowed from public architecture and are another way of
representing the power and status of the householder
Usage of gardens: The team also found evidence of changes occurring in the gardens of houses; in
one they found a cist with remains of domestic sacrifices – bones of at least three lambs and 17
cockerels - buried beneath the garden; at lower levels other features were found - a series of
demolished walls indicating previous structures beneath the garden, several cesspits linked to
latrines of the first century AD, and a series of other pits dug to recover building sand for the
construction of mortared walls. These pits contained broken vessels, lamps, loom-weights etc. plus
organic materials revealing the changing diet of the inhabitants.
HERCULANEUM CONSERVATION PROJECT:
In the course of ten years this project has made many important discoveries. Their work is
consistently informed with the principle of conservation. Herculaneum is a much smaller site than
Pompeii and much less has been excavated, nevertheless deterioration of the site was a major issue
when the Project commenced work.
Private buildings: the argument that houses are not standardised and thus neither are insulae is also
supported by what has been found in Herculaneum. Analysis of a region has shown a wide variation
in the pattern of ownership as some householders have sold off sections of land while others have
added to their property. The practice of incorporating commercial premises into residential areas,
once thought to be the result of a downturn in the economy following the earthquake, has been
shown to be a deliberate and common feature.
Public buildings: it has been commonly believed that Herculaneum’s forum has yet to be uncovered.
Wallace-Hadrill makes a persuasive case that it lies along the Decumanus Maximus. He also points to
the deliberate imitation of Imperial Roman architecture.
Excavation of the major sewer beneath the Insula Orientalis II: Discoveries about diet and the
economy - a great range of artefacts and ecofacts have been found as household rubbish, kitchen
waste and human waste have all collected in the sewer. Together with artefacts found in the
buildings themselves, this gives a greater understanding of life in Herculaneum. One of the main
buildings that fed the sewer was the palaestra block of flats; one would expect this to be inhabited
by a poorer class but the kitchen and human waste indicates they had a varied and healthy diet.
Further, the household rubbish e.g. bronze vessels, jewellery, glass perfume jars plus the objects
found above ground e.g. marble busts, gemstones suggest the rich did not live only in the large
houses; perhaps the social inequality so marked in Pompeii in the 1st century AD is not to be found in
Herculaneum.
Research into social organisation: Wallace-Hadrill makes a convincing case that the marble list of
names found in Herculaneum may well be Roman citizens and one particular category may be
‘Junian Latins’. Up to now little has been found about this group; the Herculaneum material, which
includes the archive of Venidius Ennychus, seems to indicate they formed a significant section of the
citizenry.
Achievements: one of the great discoveries of the HCP is the head of an Amazon. Although partly
damaged, the eyes, eyebrows and hair are in a marvellous state of preservation, with the paint still
visible. Only the presence of an experienced conservator made such a find possible as usually the
paint is scrubbed clean. Although the trend has long been towards a better understanding of history,
society economy etc. there is no doubt that a find of such artistry will always be valued.
Evaluation:
PHILODEMUS PROJECT
The project aims to translate into English the
Pressure to excavate the Villa of the Papyri has
scrolls found in the Greek library at the Villa of
been countered by those who argue that those
the Papyri. They also hope to excavate the
parts of the site already excavated are in such a
Roman library which they believe should
state of decay that it would be irresponsible to
accompany the Greek one. They have had
excavate any further at this stage.
success with MSI in reading the manuscripts as
the writing is isolated from the charred
background.
Two volumes of the writings of Greek philosopher Philodemus and an extract from Aristotle have
already been printed in English and more are promised. Philodemus is virtually the only source on
poetry and literary criticism from 300 B.C. to the time of Christ. The documents have been described
as comparable to the Dead Sea Scrolls in the insight they give into the ancient world.
Evaluation:
SIGURDSSON
PENELOPE ALLISON
PORTA STABIA PARP