Journal of Religion and Health, Vol. 24, No. 1, Spring 1985
The Value of Confession and
Forgiveness According to Jung
E L I Z A B E T H TODD
A B S T R A C T : This article represents a broad survey of the views of C. G. J u n g regarding confession and forgiveness. Man, a naturally religious being, has a need to confess his wrong and to
gain forgiveness of one sanctioned to absolve. The curative effect of confession has been known
for centuries. W i t h o u t confession, man remains in moral isolation. Priests, ministers, and rabbis,
as well as psychotherapists, a t t e s t to the universality of this h u m a n phenomenon. Confession is
located in t h a t place where psychology and religion meet--guilt. J u n g ' s views on confession
bridge the chasm between psychology and religion.
Confession is one of those difficult subjects. It is often a painful one as well,
because it infers that one has done something wrong. Connected to the idea of
confession is the idea of forgiveness. Forgiveness i s as comforting and
pleasant as confession is difficult and painful. The process is something like
this: an individual commits a wrong of some kind; guilt emerges; he feels uncomfortable and alienated from self and significant others; he confesses the
wrong and seeks forgiveness in order to achieve reconciliation. As one
theologian stated, "Confessing one's guilt is an archetypal experience, one so
deeply anchored in the very structure of the human psyche that the need for it
will never disappear." i
Confession and forgiveness, then, are twin elements of a process frequently
encountered in basic human relationships. The idea of confession and
forgiveness is located in that place where psychology and religion meet--guilt.
Priests, ministers, and rabbis, as well as psychotherapists and counselors, can
attest to the prevalence and universality of this richly human phenomenon.
Confession is often a part of the psychotherapeutic process. Confession is a
highly visible and formal religious practice. In the Catholic Church confession
is a sacrament and a ritual.
Man has instinctual need to confess that which he perceives to be a wrong or
an offense against himself, against fellowman, or against God. It is believed
that man's sense of wholeness and integrity and his sense of community are
impaired if wrongs are not confessed. The experience of guilt causes man to
use, in some form, the tool of confession. Seen in this light, confession is a
universal practice, arising from human need to de reconciled to significant
others. The above statements represent a belief system of this writer. This
belief arises from this writer's clinical experience and theoretical framework.
The thought of C. G. J u n g has been selected to describe the h u m a n
phenomenon of confession and forgiveness. There are two reasons for this
selection. One reason is that the views of J u n g provide strong support for this
Elizabeth Todd, R.N., C., M.S.N., M.A.Th., is a psychiatric-mental health clinical n u r s e
specialist in independent practice in the P i t t s b u r g h area.
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9 1985 Institutes of Religionand Health
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Journal of Religion and Health
writer's belief. High value is placed on the breadth and depth of Jung's
thought. The second reason is that J u n g is thought to have bridged the chasm
between psychology and religion.
Jung's personal history. 2
Carl G u s t a v J u n g {1875-1961), Swiss psychiatrist and founder of the school of
analytic psychology, was the son of a well-educated scholar and Lutheran
country pastor. His maternal grandfather was a distinguished theologian and
Hebraist. J u n g identified with his brilliant, successful, and romantic paternal
grandfather, Carl G u s t a v Jung, who, it was rumored, was the illegitimate son
of Goethe. J u n g ' s personal life was enriched by the humanistic tradition of his
home town of Basel, one of the hearths of Europe's culture. His was the experience of seeing eminent thinkers of history and philosophy. He was influenced by literature, art, philosophy, theology, mythology, alchemy, and the
classics. J u n g studied medicine at the University of Basel. Later he studied
with J a n e t and Bleuler. J u n g was deeply impressed by the work of Freud; and
as editor of the psychoanalytical and psychopathological journal and as the
first president of the International Psychoanalytic Association, J u n g was second only to Freud in the movement. However, with J u n g ' s 1912 publication of
Wandlungen und Symbole derLibido, important differences became clearly articulated, and a formal break occurred about 1913. Jung's school, founded
following the break with Freud, was a late offshoot of romanticism and
philosophy of nature. His analytic psychology rejected positivism, scientism,
and Darwinism, indicating that his thought confronted and challenged major
ideas and movements of his day. The period between 1913 and 1916 became
the setting for J u n g ' s creative illness, his Nekyia, or journey through his unconscious. This period is the key to understanding his doctrine and was to be
the matrix from which his later works evolved. In 1919 he terminated his
creative illness, emerging a new man with a new teaching. The event was
marked by euphoria, feelings of exhilaration, need for activity, and a sense of
freedom and relief. He was a man no longer burdened.
J u n g was the inheritor of many trends of nineteenth-century thought. He
developed a massive system of thought which drew attention to the spiritual
and psychological needs of modern man. In doing so, J u n g seems to have approached objectivity and annexed to science a realm of the human soul intermediate between psychology and religion. J u n g was credited, by 1930, with
overcoming "the psychology without a soul," popular in the nineteenth century. He continued to develop ideas and elaborate his system until his death.
He was celebrated and eulogized as a prophet who had stayed the overwhelming flow of rationalism. He had given man the courage to have a soul!
Jung' s religious system
"Experience shows that religion is, at the very least, a psychic fact that has
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existed from time immemorial and expresses itself in a thousand different
forms. ''3 One of J u n g ' s favorite assertions is t h a t man is naturally religious. 4
According to Jung, the religious instinct in man is as powerful as the instinct
of sex or aggression. He believed t h a t numerous neuroses spring from a
disregard for the natural religious aspect of the psyche. " A m o n g all m y patients in the second half of l i f e . . , there has not been one whose problem was
not t h a t of finding a religious outlook on life." 5
Religion appears to me to be a peculiar attitude of mind which could be formulated in accordance with the original use of the word religio, which means a
careful consideration and observation of certain dynamic factors that are conceived as "powers": spirits, daemons, gods, laws, ideas, ideals, or whatever name
man has given to such factors in his world as he has found powerful, dangerous,
or helpful enough to be taken into careful consideration, or grand, beautiful and
meaningful enough to be devoutly worshipped and loved. 6
Confession: Jung' s views
It was during the psychoanalytic period {1907-1913} t h a t J u n g became increasingly interested in dogma, symbols, and rituals as practices of religion.
He began to speak of the significant importance of the ritual of confession. He
believed confession had a great beneficial effect; this has been known for centuries and is still valid. 7
Definition
The word confession has a va r i et y of meanings. Simply stated, it is an avowal
of sin, made either to God or to man. In the Catholic Church there is a rite
known as the sacrament of penance. "Confession is a manifestation of personal
sins to the Church in the person of a duly authorized priest for the purpose of
obtaining sacramental absolution by virtue of the power of the keys. ''8 After
Vatican Council II the rite has undergone revisions and is now known as the
rite of reconciliation. 9
The scriptures offer expanded meaning of confession. In I J o h n 1:8, 9 RSV,
confession is seen as a necessary condition for receiving the forgiveness of
God. It represents the necessary link between the sin of the individual and the
forgiveness of God. According to Barton, confession is said to be " t h e accusation t h a t a man makes of his own sins to a priest, with a view to necessary
absolution." 10
This writer unsuccessfully a t t e m p t e d to find J u n g ' s definition of confession.
However, it is possible to construct an acceptable " w o r k i n g " definition from
his thought. Confession is the act of stating one's sin to another person who is
sanctioned to " h e a r " and to supply the reassurance of pardon and forgiveness.
When J u n g is speaking of confession, he is referring to a ritual which has two
parts: the need to confess and the need to be forgiven and reconciled. The
penitent is relieved of strain and tension. He is reconciled and welcomed back
into the arms of humanity. J u n g valued confession as an aid to psychological
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Journal of Religion and Health
health. The chief value of confession lies in the aspect of relief of strain and the
resultant reconciliation.
J u n g stated:
The tremendous feeling of relief which usually follows a confession can be
ascribed to the readmission of the lost sheep into the human community. His
moral isolation and seclusion, which were so difficult to bear, cease. Herein lies
the chief psychological value of confession. 11
We now focus on the second part of confession, the significant other who
forgives. "Confessions made to one's secret self generally have little or no effect, whereas confessions made to another are much more promising. '''2 According to Jung, the presence and the relationship of the person who hears an
individual's confession is crucial. Formally, in the Catholic Church, it is the
priest who hears confession. He is sanctioned by the Church to do so. He is
suitable from the viewpoint of personal virtue, and he, as God's agent, assures
the penitent of God's pardon and forgiveness. Absolution is provided by the
priest, the sanctioned person, whose authority is recognized by the penitent.
In psychotherapy the therapist is the person who is clinically sanctioned to
" h e a r " confessed material of real or fantasied wrongs, to receive the patient
and his confession, and to offer reassurance. J u n g identifies a "transference
relationship" in confession and in psychotherapy:
Through the transference of his secret and all the unconscious fantasies underlying it, a moral bond is formed between the patient and his father confessor.
We call this a "transference relationship." Anyone with psychoanalytic experience knows how much the personal significance of the analyst is enhanced
when the patient is able to confess his secrets to him. 13
It is essential t h a t the confession involves another human being who hears,
accepts, and pardons. The penitent is no longer alone. His burden of shame and
guilt is now shared and lessened. The isolation and alienation are lessened. His
moral exile has ended. The full degree of comfort gained through the catharsis
of confession and the reconciliation of forgiveness makes one feel: "Now we are
there, everything has come out, everything is known, the last terror lived
through and the last tear shed; now everything will be all right."14 J u n g continues, "The goal of the cathartic method is full confession--not merely the intellectual recognition of the facts with the head, but their confirmation by the
heart and the actual release of suppressed emotion." ,5
The psychogenic secret, withheld emotion, and the shadow
In discussions about confession J u n g often included his notion about the
psychogenic secret:
Once the human mind had succeeded in inventing the idea of sin, man had recourse to psychic concealment, or, in analytical parlance, repression arose. Any-
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thing concealed is a secret9 The possession of secrets acts like a psychic poison
that alienates their possessor from the community 916
A secret s h a r e d is as beneficial as a secret held p r i v a t e is d e s t r u c t i v e . A n unconscious secret is m o r e injurious t h a n a conscious one. I t is e s s e n t i a l t h a t a
p s y c h o g e n i c secret be b r o u g h t to t h e conscious level. J u n g a s s e r t e d t h a t all
p e r s o n a l s e c r e t s h a v e the effect of sin or guilt, w h e t h e r or n o t t h e y are m o r a l l y
w r o n g f u l secrets. Confession is a m e a n s of b r i n g i n g p e r s o n a l s e c r e t s to the surface.
C o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e notion of t h e p s y c h o g e n i c s e c r e t is t h e notion of
w i t h h e l d emotion. While it is a c k n o w l e d g e d , of course, t h a t self-restraint is
h e a l t h y , beneficial, a n d v i r t u o u s , it is m o s t effective w h e n p r a c t i c e d as a n und e r t a k i n g s h a r e d b y others. W i t h h e l d e m o t i o n is j u s t as t r o u b l e s o m e as t h e
p s y c h o g e n i c secret.
T h e injurious effect of w i t h h e l d e m o t i o n a n d t h e h e a l i n g of e x p r e s s i n g
e m o t i o n s are p o i g n a n t l y r e v e a l e d in S a i n t A u g u s t i n e ' s Confessions as he
describes his experience of s o r r o w a t t h e t i m e of t h e d e a t h of Monica, his
mother:
But I know, he says, I was suppressing my heart, and I suffered still another
sorrow at my sorrow, and was afflicted with a two-fold grief . . . . It was a relief to
weep on Thy sight about her and for her, about myself and for myself. I gave free
course to the tears which I was still restraining, permitting them to flow as fully
as they wished, spreading them out as a pillow for my heart 9 It rested on them.
9 I wept for my mother during a little part of an hour, the mother who had wept
over me for many years that I might live before Thy eyes. 17
J u n g leaves no d o u b t r e g a r d i n g t h e d a n g e r a n d pitfall of w i t h h e l d emotion:
To cherish secrets and hold back emotion is a psychic misdemeanor for which
nature finally visits us with sickness--that is when we do these things in private.
But when they are done in communion with others they satisfy nature and may
even count as useful virtues. It is only restraint practiced for oneself alone that is
unwholesome . . . . There would appear to be a conscience in mankind which
severely punishes everyone who does not somehow and at sometime, at whatever
cost to his virtuous pride, cease to defend and assert himself, and instead confess
himself fallible and human 9 Until he can do this, an impenetrable wall shuts him
off from the vital feeling that he is a man among other men. This explains the extraordinary significance of genuine, straightforward confession--a truth that
was probably known to all the initiation rites and mystery cults of the ancient
world. There is a saying from the Greek mysteries, "Give up what thou hast, and
then thou wilt receive 9
The s h a d o w is an i m p o r t a n t n o t i o n in J u n g i a n t h o u g h t . I t is s o m e t h i n g like
t h e notion of the p s y c h o g e n i c secret. T h e s h a d o w is u s u a l l y unconscious; t h e
secret m a y be either conscious or unconscious. T h e s h a d o w d e s i g n a t e s t h e
d a r k side of t h e p e r s o n a l i t y , t h e o t h e r side. I t r e p r e s e n t s t h a t which t h e individual r a g e s a g a i n s t a n d c o n d e m n s . W e s a y to t h e b r o t h e r w i t h i n us,
" R a c a . " ( M a t t h e w 5:22, KJV.) I t is t h e p a r t of t h e p e r s o n a l i t y f r o m which t h e
individual wishes to hide a n d which he wishes to hide f r o m t h e world.
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An o th er way to understand the shadow, as J u n g describes it, is to recall t h a t
J u n g believed man evolved from animals.'9 The shadow represents the remnants of the beast. It is t hat which is inferior to the individual and t h a t which
he denies and condemns. Nature works to conceal the shadow, banishing it to
the realm of the unconscious where it is inaccessible for correction. There it
lurks in the dark caves of the psyche, uncorrected and unbridled, yet distorting the performance of the conscious mind.
J u n g stated:
Everyone carries a shadow and the less it is embodied in the individual's conscious life, the blacker and denser it is . . . . The shadow is merely somewhat inferior, primitive, unadapted and awkward, not wholly bad. It even contains
childish or primitive qualities which would, in a way, vitalize and embellish
human existence.2~
J u n g continued:
The inferior and even the worthless belongs to me as my shadow and gives me
substance and mass. How can I be substantial without casting a shadow? I must
have a dark side too if I am to be whole; and by becoming conscious of my
shadow I remember once more that I am a human being like any other. 21
The shadow might also be t hought of as an opposite. " W i t h o u t the experience of the opposites there is no experience of wholeness and hence no inner approach to the sacred figures. ''~2 One m u st have the opposite. It is needed for
psychic wholeness.
J u n g warns t h a t " m e r e suppression of the shadow is as little of a remedy as
beheading would be for headache. ''23 It is necessary to confront the shadow, to
accept it, for change cannot occur without acceptance. The individual must
become conscious of the shadow. He m ust find a way to have his shadow, his
opposites, and his conscious personality live together. 24 Confession is the
bridge t h a t spans the gulf between us and our shadow, our secret self. Confession is a means of confronting the shadow, of bringing the shadow to the
surface, of undergoing the correction necessary for acceptance of one's whole
self, even the least of oneself. Wholeness and integrity of personality are
restored and reconstituted.
Confession and the psychic apparatus
J u n g viewed confession as a highly significant and valuable means of restoring
and maintaining psychological health. In J u n g ' s system confession is a sacral
action t h a t acts like a vessel recovering the contents of the unconscious. As a
ritual, confession is the means of gathering the lower instinctual forces of the
psyche into symbols and integrating them into the hierarchy of the spirit. It
accomplishes this operation by dramatizing the living occurrence of archetypal meaning, making a direct impact on the unconscious. As symbols,
the unconscious forces are integrated and brought into the field of consciousness where they are readily accessible and correctable.
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Pastoral implications
The person who hears the confession is crucial. The penitent feels the need for
a person of authority who can impart absolution. The penitent has two needs
for authority. One is that authority will guarantee that confession will have
the intended effect: deliverance from sin. Also the penitent seeks help and
guidance for the conduct of his future life. Both these needs are found in the
authoritative position of the priest-confessor, a position maintained in part by
the endorsement he gains from the church as an institution and by his personal
virtues. The penitent must be able to believe and trust that the confessor has
the authority and power to pardon and to assure the forgiveness granted b y
God. "The priest, equipped with all the insignia of paternal authority, becomes
the responsible leader and shepherd of his flock. He is the father confessor and
the members of his parish are his penitent children." 25The chief psychological
value of confession is the relief from strain and the end of the penitent's moral
exile. The priest-confessor plays a vital role in the establishment of these two
conditions.
The priest is trained in the "ready-made pastoral technique in the
historically sanctioned form of confession, penance and absolution. ''26 He officiates authoritatively against the background of a rich and palpably
ritualistic symbolism. The tradition of Catholic practice provides the most
favorable milieu for the success of confession.
J u n g places high value on confession for two reasons. One reason is that the
treatment of the soul often begins with voluntary and genuine confession. The
second reason is the curative effect of relief that the patient feels. J u n g
qualifies these two points. He states confession as treatment should be
followed by elucidation, education, and transformation. 27 Another qualification is that confession is not a panacea, and he is not calling for "wholesale" confession of sin. 2s
Protestant loss
J u n g believed that the Protestant tradition lost something valuable when confession was left behind. " P r o t e s t a n t theology, strangely d e l u d e d . . , robs itself
of the most effective means of combatting man's insecurity--the confessional,
which the Catholic Church has wisely appropriated for the benefit of
mankind. ''29 He continued: "The decline of confession and absolution sharpened the moral conflict of the individual and burdened him with problems
which previously the Church had settled for him . . . . -30 J u n g believed
Protestantism incurred major losses. The aura of the symbol was lost; the
ritual and its authority were lost; the dogmatic fences came down. "Protestantism has, in the main, lost all finer shades of traditional Christianity: the
mass, confession, the greater part of the liturgy, and the vicarious function of
the priesthood. ''31 J u n g stated the Protestant pastor without the technique of
confession would turn to analytic psychology as a means to cure the soul. 32
It was stated earlier that man is inherently religious and has a need to confess and receive forgiveness and that when man's need is not provided in one
Journal of Religion and Health
46
place, man will seek to have needs satisfied in another place. The modern
Protestant, being without confession in the church, has developed ways to confess. The best evidence can be found in the Oxford Group movement. "The
safety value of the Oxford Group m o v e m e n t . . , prescribes lay confession as a
substitute, and group experience instead of absolution. ''33 The individual confesses, and the group acts like the confessor by hearing, receiving, pardoning,
and assuring the penitent of restoration to full membership in the community.
Confession and psychotherapy
J u n g stated:
It is usual for psychotherapy.., to begin by eliciting from the patient a more or
less voluntary confession of things he dislikes, is ashamed of, or fears. This is like
the much older confessional in the Church, which in many ways anticipated
modern psychotherapeutic techniques.34
Therapy begins with the act of confession including the patient's conscious
recollections and the recovery of unconscious material that has been repressed,
even concealed. It is through confession t h a t the patient is able to end his
moral isolation and feel restored to the community represented by the
therapist. The psychotherapeutic process includes other steps which follow
confession. As mentioned earlier, these are elucidation, education, and transformation. 3~
The methods of both Freud and J u n g are built on confession. J u n g believed
the techniques of psychoanalysis, in which confessed material leads to wishes
and drives repressed in the unconscious, was the logical development of confession. " M y method, like Freud's, is built upon the practice of confession. ''36
He continued, " I t aims at an artificial introversion for the purpose of making
conscious the unconscious components of the patient." 37
J u n g stated:
The first beginnings of all analytical treatment of the soul are to be found in its
prototype, the confessional. Since, however, the two have no direct causal connection, but rather grow from a common irrational psychic root, it is difficult for
an outsider to see at once the relation between the groundwork of psychoanalysis
and the religious institution of the confessional. 3s
The goal of the cathartic method is full confession in which the patient unburdens himself of his secret and feels cleansed of all guilt and sin and is then
able to feel restored and reconciled in community. In psychotherapy the
psychogenic secret is confronted and accepted. Once confessed, it is no longer
injurious. Man must confess himself fallible and human. If this is not done in
full and honest confession, an impenetrable wall goes up, shutting the individual off from that vital feeling t h a t he is a man among men.
J u n g found t h a t there were neuroses that could not be treated with ordinary
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rational methods. For example, a neurosis that is located entirely in a spiritual
form of suffering could be treated best in a religious setting. The recourse,
then, is to the established religion of the patient. Jung believed this opinion
was based on sound instinct because our religion contains the still living
remains of the mythological age. 39 It is historically justified that all religions,
primitive and advanced, are forms of psychotherapy that treat and heal the
suffering of the soul. Hence, the best results are achieved with patients for
whom the mythological is still alive or for whom the mythological can be
recreated.
The brevity of this manuscript prohibits a full discussion of many areas,
both pertinent and relevant, to a broad discussion and understanding of
Jung's views on confession and religion. These areas include information
regarding the historic background of psychiatry during the formative years of
Jung's thought, Jung's family and national background, Jung's School of
Analytic Psychology, Jung's religious system, the relevance of Jung's views
for modern man, this writer's personal appreciation of Jungian thought, as
well as this writer's personal difficulties with Jungian thought.
I have attempted to present a clear idea of Jung's position on confession.
The thesis here is that Jung's was a positive position believing confession not
only had a beneficial effect but was necessary to psychological health. The
material presented represents approximately 18 months of persistent library
research, using Jung as a primary source. Faithful interpreters and followers
of Jung were cautiously and j udiciously selected to support the basic thesis.
References
1. Monden, L., "Confession: Psychology Is Not E n o u g h . " In Taylor, M.J., ed., The Mystery of
Sin and Forgiveness. New York, Alba House, 1971, p. 167.
2. For details of Jung's personal history this writer relies entirely on Ellenberger, H.,
Discovery of the Unconscious, 2nd printing. New York, Basic Books, 1970.
3. Jung, C.G., "Editorial." In The Collected Works of C.G. Jung, R.F.C. Hull, trans., Bollingen
Series X X {hereafter abridged as CW), vol. 10. New York, P a n t h e o n Books, 1964, p. 549.
4. Ellenberger, op. cit., p. 724.
5. Jung, Psychotherapists or the Clergy, CW, vol. 11. New York, P a n t h e o n Books, 1958, p. 334.
6. - - - ,
Psychology and Religion, CW, vol. 11. New York, P a n t h e o n Books, 1958, p. 8.
7. Ellenberger, op. cit., p. 698.
8. Latko, E.F., "Confession, Auricular." In New Catholic Encyclopedia, vol. 4, 1967, p. 131.
9. Paragraph 72 in the Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy reads: "The rite and formulas for
the sacrament of penance are to be revised so that they give more luminous expression to
both the nature and effect of the sacrament." Documents of Vatican II, Abbot, W., ed. New
York, Guild Press, 1966, p. 161.
10. Barton, J.M.T., Penance and Absolution. New York, H a w t h o r n e Books, 1961, p. 65.
11. Jung, The Theory of Psychoanalysis, CW, vol. 4. New York, P a n t h e o n Books, 1961, p. 192.
12. - - ,
Psychology of the Transference, CW, vol. 16. New York, P a n t h e o n Books, 1954, p.
292.
13. - - ,
The Theory of Psychoanalysis, op. cit., p. 192.
14. - - - ,
Problems of Modern Psychotherapy, CW, vol. 16. New York, P a n t h e o n Books, 1954,
p. 68.
15. Ibid., p. 59.
16. Ibid., p. 55.
17. Moreno, A., Jung, Gods and Modern Man. Notre Dame, University of Notre Dame Press,
1970, pp. 44-45.
18. Jung, Problems of Modern Psychotherapy, op. cit., p. 58.
48
Journal of Religion and Health
19. Moreno, op. cit., p. 41. (This writer is aware of the apparent contradiction between Moreno
here and Ellenberger's reference to J u n g ' s rejection of Darwinism, referred to earlier in this
article.)
20. Jung, Psychology andReligion, op. cit., p. 76.
21. - - ,
Problems o f Modern Psychotherapy, op. cit., p. 59.
22.
, Introduction to the Religious and Psychological Problems of Alchemy, CW, vol. 12.
New York, Pantheon Books, 1953, p. 20.
23. - - ,
Psychology andReligion, o19. cir., p. 77.
24. Ibid.
25. Jung, The Theory ofPsychoanalysis, op. cit., p. 192.
26. - - ,
Psychoanalysis and the Cure o f Souls, CW, vol. 11. New York, Pantheon Books,
1958, p. 353.
27. - - ,
Problems o f Modern Psychotherapy, op. cit., pp. 55-75.
28. Ibid., p. 60.
29. Jung, "Editorial," op. cit., pp. 549-550.
30. - - ,
Yoga and the West, CW, vol. 11. New York, Pantheon Books, 1958, p. 531.
31. Ibid., p. 21.
32. Ibid., p. 351.
33. Jung, Prob/ems of Modern Psychotherapy, op. cir., p. 16.
34. - - ,
Symbols and the Interpretation of Dreams, CW, vol. 18. Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1976, p. 223.
35. - - ,
Problems of Modern Psychotherapy, op. cir., pp. 55-75.
36. - - ,
Yoga and the West, op. cit., p. 536.
37. Ibid.
38. Jung, Problems o f Modern Psychotherapy, op. cit., p. 55.
39. - - , GeneralProblems of Psychotherapy, CW, vol. 16. New York, Pantheon Books, 1954,
p. 16.