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Attitude toward the advertising music: An overlooked potential pitfall in
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Article in Journal of Consumer Marketing · September 2011
DOI: 10.1108/07363761111165912
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Attitude toward the advertising music:
an overlooked potential pitfall in commercials
Lincoln G. Craton and Geoffrey P. Lantos
Stonehill College, North Easton, Massachusetts, USA
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to identify the causes and implications of potential negative consumer response to music in broadcast
commercials. It aims to accomplish this by introducing a new consumer response variable, attitude toward the advertising music (Aam) and relating
Aam’s components to advertising goals. It also aims to propose that Aam is a significant component of attitude toward the ad (Aad).
Design/methodology/approach – The paper takes the form of an integrative review of the relevant literatures in the psychology of music, consumer
marketing, and advertising to formulate Aam.
Findings – Favorable Aam is a necessary but insufficient condition for favorable Aad in ads employing music. Furthermore, a negative Aam might cause a
negative Aad. Given the numerous possible negative responses to music in a TV or radio commercial, achieving a favorable Aam among most target
audience members is very challenging, especially when music-message fit is lacking.
Practical implications – The paper offers cautionary advice for advertisers using music and directions for future research.
Originality/value – The paper provides a novel integration of literatures in psychology and marketing/advertising. Whereas most scholars and
practitioners assume that music adds value to commercials, the authors demonstrate key ways in which music can cause adverse listener reactions.
Keywords Music, Music appeal, Music-message fit, Attitudes, Radio commercials, Television commercials
Paper type Conceptual paper
than words to communicate (McEwen and Leavitt, 1976;
Dunbar, 1990).
Importantly, most discussions of music in advertising assume
that music adds value to and enhances the commercial’s
effectiveness (Stout et al., 1990; but see Hunt, 1988; Englis
and Pennell, 1994; Olsen, 1994). While popular culturalists
often speak negatively of popular music in advertising as a
“bankruptcy of culture,” advertisers typically describe it in
glowing terms such as the “marriage of art and commerce”
(Allan, 2005, p. 1) and the “catalyst of advertising” (Hecker,
1984, p. 7). Businesses risk millions of dollars in the belief that
music enhances brand attitudes and consequent sales.
Is this belief empirically supported? We believe the evidence
is equivocal. Although scientific investigation of response to
music has a long and complex history, our literature review
suggests that interest in the subject among consumer and
advertising researchers arose only about 25 years ago. Today a
rich literature investigates the impact of music in the fields of
cognitive psychology, the psychology of music, music theory,
music education, and, more recently, advertising and
consumer behavior (Allan, 2007; North and Hargreaves,
2008; Rentfrow and Gosling, 2003; Stout and Leckenby,
1988). The marketing contexts that have been studied include
advertising, retailing, and music as an aesthetic product for
sale (Kellaris and Rice, 1993).
This article attempts to overcome three important
limitations with this academic research on advertising
music. First, it addresses the common assumption that the
mere presence of music can reliably enhance the presentation
of almost any product message – what we call the “music as
garnish assumption.” Some empirical results cast doubt on
this assumption. For instance, research investigating the effect
of music on attitude toward the ad (Aad) has yielded
conflicting results (Allan, 2007). Kellaris et al. (1993) cite
studies reporting that the presence of music enhanced
(Galizio and Hendrick, 1972; Hoyer et al. 1984), inhibited
An executive summary for managers and executive
readers can be found at the end of this article.
Introduction
William Congreve famously wrote in his 1697 epic tragedy, The
Mourning Bride, “Music has charms to soothe a savage beast, to
soften rocks, or bend a knotted oak.” Longfellow poetically
hyped music as the “universal language of mankind” (Stout
and Rust, 1986). Today, music surrounds our daily lives – both
voluntarily (on car radios, home stereos, and portable music
devices) and involuntarily (on hold on the telephone; in
workplaces; in stores, bars, restaurants, and virtually every
other public space). Approximately 40-50 percent of our
waking hours are spent either passively or actively listening to
music (Sloboda et al., 2001; North et al., 2004a).
Much of our involuntary musical exposure occurs through
mass media consumer advertising (North and Hargreaves,
1997). Music in commercials dates to the early days of radio
broadcasting (Brooker and Wheatley, 1994; Kellaris et al.,
1993), and it is the commonly used advertising executional
element (including characters, colors, animation, setting, and
pace) employed to affect consumer response to commercials
(Stewart et al., 1990; Yalch, 1991). Music pervades radio and
television advertising, with estimates of the proportion of TV
commercials incorporating music ranging from about 42
percent (Stewart and Furse, 1986) to over 90 percent
(Kellaris et al., 1993). Many commercials rely more on music
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/0736-3761.htm
Journal of Consumer Marketing
28/6 (2011) 396– 411
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited [ISSN 0736-3761]
[DOI 10.1108/07363761111165912]
396
Attitude toward the advertising music
Journal of Consumer Marketing
Lincoln G. Craton and Geoffrey P. Lantos
Volume 28 · Number 6 · 2011 · 396 –411
(Haley et al., 1984; Macklin, 1988; Sewall and Sarel, 1986),
or had no effect (McEwen and Leavitt, 1976; Ogilvy and
Raphaelson, 1982; Stewart and Furse, 1986) on ad
performance. Stout and Rust (1986), finding that a
commercial lacking music was preferred to one with it,
concluded that
to stimulate a positive response [emphasis ours] for the brand
and/or the ad with the ultimate goal of branding and
purchase” (p. 28).
This paper is intended to heed Allan’s (2007) and others’
(Dunbar, 1990; North and Hargreaves, 1997) call for research
on the factors that determine whether music has a positive,
negative, or no effect on consumer response to advertising. We
propose that future research and brand advertising be guided
by a more complete theoretical framework that incorporates
both cognitive and affective listener responses. Our new
variable, Aam, provides such a framework. In so doing, it
highlights the many ways in which music might lead to
responses hindering advertising objectives.
Specifically, in light of the possible hazards of using music
in advertising, this article has three main purposes:
1 to review and clarify the implications of current theory
and research in the relevant literatures in consumer
marketing, advertising, and psychology for an
understanding of both positive and negative responses to
music in commercials;
2 to introduce and describe the components of a new
consumer advertising response variable, attitude toward
the advertising music (Aam), which we propose is a
significant component of Aad that can help guide an
analysis of potential consumer responses to advertising
music; and
3 to offer practical recommendations to advertisers for
selecting music wisely.
[. . .] these results indicate the possibility that music in a commercial may
actually be detrimental to the objectives of an advertiser. At the very least, it
[sic ] shows that considerable care should be taken in the selection of music
for a commercial. It is not known yet whether music generally has negative
effects, or whether the music in this particular ad was unfortunately chosen
(p. 84).
Similarly, Alpert and Alpert (1991) observed:
In some instances music appears to increase communication effectiveness in
the context of advertisements. In other circumstances, music may decrease
effectiveness, for reasons that are not self-evident (p. 232).
A second problem taken up in this article, then, is the paucity
of research on the factors that might cause music to be
ineffective or even detrimental to an ad’s success, notably the
effect of disliked music. In his thorough, up-to-date literature
review on advertising and music, Allan (2007) cited only four
studies that included “music appeal” as an independent
variable, defined simply as “liking or disliking” the music
(Allan, 2007, p. 11; Allen and Madden, 1985; Gorn, 1982;
Kellaris and Cox, 1989; Pitt and Abratt, 1988). Using a
classical conditioning paradigm, Gorn (1982) found that music
appeal influences product preferences, but his findings have
failed to be replicated and have been challenged on conceptual
and methodological grounds (Kellaris and Cox, 1989;
Middlestadt et al., 1994). We also found a fifth study
(Simpkins and Smith, 1974) concluding that people disliking
a commercial’s background music will evaluate the sponsor’s
credibility lower than persons hearing the message sans music.
The third significant shortcoming this article considers is
that research has typically characterized advertising music
solely as an affective stimulus, thereby overlooking its ability
to arouse in listeners cognitive involvement – thoughtful
information acquisition (Scott, 1990) – and to enrich the
advertising message (Morris and Boone, 1998) by
communicating cognitively about attributes and benefits or
a brand image or personality (Hecker, 1984, Woods, 2007). A
fruitful exception has been cognitively-oriented research on
music’s potential to interfere with consumers’ attention to and
processing of the advertising brand message due to distraction
(MacInnis and Park, 1991; Olsen, 2002; Park and Young,
1986; Stout and Leckenby, 1988; Wheatley and Brooker,
1994). This work points to the importance of “fit” between ad
music and ad message, and we will argue that careful
consideration of music-message fit is the most effective
strategy identified to date for avoiding many of the potential
pitfalls of using music in advertising.
Given these three limitations, one wonders about music in
commercials that some targeted consumers might respond to
negatively for reasons such as finding it inappropriate for their
listening situation (e.g. too peppy for workplace
concentration, too sad for their happy mood, etc),
unsuitable for the commercial (upbeat music for a mortuary
service), annoying, boring, overplayed, inconsistent with a
preferred brand’s image, or performed by a disliked musician.
Might this not erode Aad and/or attitude toward the brand
(Ab)? If so, Allan’s (2007) admonition applies: “It [music]
should be carefully chosen and tested to predict its potential
We begin by reviewing the reasons why most advertisers
incorporate music into their commercials, building a list of
advertising objectives that each relate to a specific cognitive or
affective response component in our new variable, Aam. After
summarizing relevant aspects of the well-researched construct
Aad, we introduce Aam and its constituents. We continue with
managerial cautions, addressing the many possible negative
consumer responses to music suggested by Aam and the
difficulty of achieving universal appeal of advertising music
amongst a given target audience. Throughout, we highlight
the need for a comprehensive model of consumer response to
advertising music for guiding future research. A follow-up
article will build such a model by further describing the
variables, which influence Aam.
The traditional case for using music in advertising
It is no mystery why music dominates commercials. Hecker
(1984) concluded that “music may well be the single most
stimulating component of advertising” (p. 3) and that “when
used appropriately, it is the catalyst of advertising” (p. 7). The
case for music’s inclusion is convincing due to the potential
for positive audience reaction. We now discuss key cognitive
and affective responses to advertising music, stating them in
terms of typical advertising objectives. In each case, we cite
examples of relevant research findings. These desired
responses are listed in Table I, alongside corresponding
components of Aam that we will introduce later in this paper.
Cognitive effects
As already noted, advertising music’s cognitive effects have
been underemphasized. Yet, music has conveyed consumer
information since the early days when traveling merchants
trolled through town streets singing about their wares and
when roving salespeople’s troupes of entertainers and singers
397
Attitude toward the advertising music
Journal of Consumer Marketing
Lincoln G. Craton and Geoffrey P. Lantos
Volume 28 · Number 6 · 2011 · 396 –411
Table I Components of attitude toward the advertising music (Aam) and corresponding advertising objectives
Aam
Objectives
Cognitive component
Level and persistence of attention to music
Depth of processing of music
Perceived features of music available for association
Remembered features of music available for association
Image suggested by music
Music perceived as distinctive or not
Perceived music-message fit
Desired cognitive response
Attract attention
Enhance memory of ad content
Create new music-brand associations
Tap prior associations with familiar music
Create a brand image
Differentiate the brand
Reinforce ad message with music-message fit
Affective component
Emotions (feelings) evoked by music
Mood induced by music
Emotional memories activated by music
Emotional arousal response to music
Hedonic response to music
Desired affective response
Evoke emotions (feelings)
Create a mood
Tap into emotion-laden memories
Alter emotional arousal level
Provide a positive hedonic experience
attracted crowds in the town square. Listeners who liked the
music or found it intriguing were held captive, ready to
receive the marketer’s message.
Researchers have explored the ability of music to achieve
seven cognitive effects that relate to cognitive advertising
objectives: attract attention, enhance memory of ad content,
create new music-brand associations, tap prior associations
that consumers have formed with familiar music, create a
brand image, competitively differentiate the brand, and
reinforce the ad message via music-message fit.
2
Attract attention
Music in broadcast commercials serves to attract and hold
attention to the commercial and the brand because it can
intrusively gain and maintain the interest of otherwise
disengaged audience members (Hecker, 1984; Kellaris et al.,
1993; Macklin, 1988). This is important for getting noticed in
today’s cluttered media environments (Hunt, 1988).
Especially attention attracting is music that is novel, i.e.
“interesting,” “surprising,” etc. (Brooker and Wheatley, 1994)
and that makes people feel good (Isen et al., 1978).
3
Enhance memory of ad content
Marketers believe that music is more memorable than words.
The literature suggests four factors enhancing memory
through music:
1 Well-learned music promotes verbal recall. Empirical
evidence indicates that words are better learned and
recalled when set to music than when spoken if the music
is simple, repeated, or well learned (Bartlett and Snelus,
1980; Rubin, 1977; Wallace, 1994; Yalch, 1991). For
instance, Rubin (1977) discovered that verbal recall was
improved when cued with the melody of a well-known
tune.
This effect has clear implications for commercial lyrics
involving the product or ad message. Wallace (1994) cites
prior studies showing that hearing a melody can cue the
text of a song and, conversely, that seeing or hearing the
text can cue the melody over very long time delays:
4
Music is a rich structure that chunks words and phrases, identifies
line lengths, identifies stress patterns, and adds emphasis as well as
focuses listeners on surface characteristics. The musical structure
can assist in learning, in retrieving, and if necessary, in
reconstructing a text (p. 1471).
398
Rhyming in music is another effective memory cue,
working by constraining the memory search to the to-beremembered word (Bower and Bolton, 1969).
Music promotes rehearsal of the ad message in lyrics.
Rehearsal is the silent, mental repetition of a piece of
information in short-term memory. Music provides a
means for rehearsal of ad content; as a listener hums or
sings an ad song, he/she rehearses it and hence better
remembers it (Macklin, 1988). Music supports rehearsal
by making it pleasurable (Zuckerkandl, 1956, cited in
Scott, 1990) and because it is inherently repetitive.
Music leads to the formation and cueing of memory
associations with ad content. Even when audience
members cannot remember the message argument, ad
music creates an auditory memory that can assist recall of
an ad’s visual and emotional elements (Clow and Baack,
2003, p. 320), including the sponsor. Sometimes musical
cues elicit images associated with a product (Stewart et al.,
1990). Edell and Keller (cited in Stewart et al., 1990)
suggest that music can serve as an effective retrieval cue in
an integrated marketing communication campaign, such
as when a radio commercial’s music reminds listeners of
images stored during previous exposure to that music in a
television commercial.
A final factor promoting ad recall through music strikes
us as particularly important:
Music can enhance brand recall via music-message fit.
“Musical fit,” “music-message fit,” or “music-message
congruency” (Kellaris et al., 1993) is the perceived
appropriateness of the music’s meaning and feelings to the
commercial’s message. Music-message fit means that
music is integrated with the brand message (e.g. a
commercial for a real estate company targeted to Baby
Boomers featured the classic rock tune “Our House”).
Brand recall can be enhanced through personally relevant
music that “fits” the message (Allan, 2006; Brooker and
Wheatley, 1994; Heckler and Childers, 1992; Kellaris
et al., 1993; Macklin, 1988; MacInnis and Park, 1991;
North et al., 2004b; Olsen, 1995; Roehm, 2001; Shen and
Chen, 2006; Shen and Chen, 2006; Stout and Leckenby,
1988; Wallace, 1994; Wheatley and Brooker, 1994; Yalch,
1991).
Attitude toward the advertising music
Journal of Consumer Marketing
Lincoln G. Craton and Geoffrey P. Lantos
Volume 28 · Number 6 · 2011 · 396 –411
Create new associations between music and brand
Music creates meaning when it becomes linked to the brand
(Zhu and Meyers-Levy, 2005). This increases the likelihood
that consumers will think of the brand whenever they hear the
music, much like associating the Lone Ranger with the
William Tell Overture (Sutherland and Sylvester, 2000).
Familiar examples include “Like a Rock” for Chevrolet trucks
(Clow and Baack, 2003) and the Rolling Stones’ “Start Me
Up” for Microsoft (Sutherland and Sylvester, 2000).
Reinforce ad message with perceived music-message fit
We noted above that music-message fit can influence brand
message recall. Other empirical work suggests that how
positively a listener responds to a commercial’s music also
depends on whether the ad’s musical meaning and style are
consistent (fit) with the ad’s meaning and brand image
(MacInnis and Park, 1991; North et al., 2004b; Stout and
Leckenby, 1988). For instance, Oakes (2007) discovered that
high congruity between advertising message and the music’s
mood, genre, score, image, and tempo all contributed to
communication effectiveness by enhancing recall, brand
attitude, affective response, and purchase intention. It has
been previously demonstrated that purchase probability is
boosted when music is used to generate emotions congruent
with the brand’s symbolic meaning. North et al. (2004b)
discovered that musical fit resulted in enhanced recall of
products, brands, and ad claims, and it boosted Aad and
purchase intention. A “fitting fit” can thus enhance the brand
message as well as enhance recall of it (Alpert and Alpert,
1991). Trendy, upbeat music in Starbucks commercials is
appropriate since Starbucks sells an uplifting coffee-drinking
experience in stores featuring comfy furniture, funky décor,
and way-cool ambience.
Tap prior associations with familiar music
According to classical conditioning theory, the new mental
associations that are fashioned between a brand and its
advertising music can draw on previous associations
consumers have formed with the music, such as information
about location (Caribbean, Wild West), period of time
(eighteenth century), or environment (relaxing on the beach)
(Dunbar, 1990). Similarly, familiar music can imbue the
brand with symbolic associations. For instance, Christmas
carols featured in retail ads could link the merchandise to
seasonal thoughts of goodwill and benevolence. Patriotic
music played in the background of a commercial for a political
candidate might trigger thoughts about a sense of duty to
one’s country. And music from a particular era can tap into
autobiographical memories (e.g. 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s
tunes mine Baby Boomers’ memories of growing up).
Affective effects
Although music can affect consumers’ cognitive responses,
reactions to music are usually conceptualized as being emotional
or affective (Chebat et al., 2001; Meyer, 1956, as cited in
Kellaris and Kent, 2001; Morris and Boone, 1998). Music has
the potential to arouse listener affect (Gorn, 1982; Park and
Young, 1986; Stout and Leckenby, 1988), conveying meaning
in terms of feelings and moods, ranging from sheer horror or
revulsion through excitement to an extremely gentle or romantic
ambiance (Dunbar, 1990). “From Plato to the most recent
discussion of aesthetics and the meaning of music, psychologists
have been fascinated by music and its ability to create emotional
responses in listeners” (Stout and Rust, 1986, p. R86).
Research on affective responses to music is rooted in the
psychology of music literature, which consistently finds links
between music and affect (Clynes and Nettheim, 1982 cited
in Stewart et al., 1990; Juslin and Sloboda, 2001, Juslin and
Västfjäll, 2008). In the marketing literature, the affective
influence of ad music has focused on both advertising and
retail contexts (Alpert and Alpert, 1990; Fried and Berkowitz,
1979; Morris and Boone, 1998; North and Hargreaves,
1996). Unfortunately, the emotion terminology found in both
the marketing and psychology literatures varies significantly.
We use the inclusive term “affective response” to refer to the
full range of possible emotion-like reactions.
There are five aspects of affective response that researchers
have explored and that can be stated as advertising objectives:
music’s ability to evoke emotions, create a mood, activate
emotion-laden memories, alter emotional arousal levels, and
provide a hedonic experience (see Table I).
Create a brand image
The formation of associations suggests that music can be used
to help craft a brand image – a set of associations reflecting a
brand’s personality (Kassarjian, 1971; Onkvisit and Shaw,
1987; Sirgy, 1982; Wells and Beard, 1973). For example, jazz
and classical music connote sophistication, country suggests
down to earth, and rock indicates active, rebellious, and hip.
In fact, musicians working in the advertising profession
unanimously want a clear, simple creative brief outlining the
brand personality (Dunbar, 1990), which is understandable in
light of several studies linking personality and social identity
to music preferences (for a discussion, see Rentfrow and
Gosling, 2003, 2006). Advertisers seek the right chemistry
between brand image and music, such as Target’s use of
“Hello Goodbuy”, a pun version of the Beatles’ “Hello
Goodbye” (Howard, 2008), or the use of dissonant music in
anti-drug ads (Kellaris and Kent, 1991).
Differentiate the brand
Most advertising creates clear-cut, positive competitive brand
distinctions. A seller must “differentiate or die!” both via
tangible physical differences (Subway healthy sandwiches)
and through intangible psychological distinctions. Consider
how Subway is psychologically positioned through its unique
brand name, positioning (healthy fast food), trade character
(Jared Fogel), brand image (for fit, healthy folks), catchy
packaging and graphics (distinct white-and-yellow arrowed
logo), slogan (“Eat fresh”), and most importantly for the
present discussion, music (perky “five-dollar foot-long”
jingle). When a brand lacks objective advantages and is
relatively simple in nature, persuasion can occur through
distinguishing ad elements, including music (Batra and Ray,
1983). As legendary adman David Ogilvy famously quipped,
“If you have nothing to say, sing it” (Ogilvy, 1984, p. 111). In
fact, jingles are known as “audio brands” and “audio logos”
since they identify and distinguish brands.
Evoke emotions (feelings)
Bruner’s (1990) review of both marketing and non-marketing
uses of music revealed that music conveys emotional meaning
and stimulates feelings, which might positively affect Ab,
leading to brand purchase (Rossiter and Percy, 1991). For
instance, advertisers such as Hallmark and Kodak use music
suggesting their brands contribute to warm and loving feelings
(Hunt, 1988).
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Attitude toward the advertising music
Journal of Consumer Marketing
Lincoln G. Craton and Geoffrey P. Lantos
Volume 28 · Number 6 · 2011 · 396 –411
Create a mood
Gardner (1985b) defined mood as a fleeting, temporary feeling
state, positive or negative, usually not intense, and not tied to a
specifiable behavior. Along with other advertising executional
elements, music can be an especially powerful stimulus to help
craft a mood, atmosphere, or tone of voice for the commercial
(Bruner, 1990; Simpkins and Smith, 1974). For example,
music sets a commercial’s pace, thereby contributing to its
mood (e.g. hurried and harried versus easy going and relaxed).
A large and varied literature in social, clinical, and
personality psychology has documented music’s ability to
alter people’s moods (for a review, see Västfjäll, 2002). Many
marketing studies demonstrate that mood affects attitudes
and behavior (Alpert and Alpert, 1991), and mood state
might enhance recall (Gardner, 1985b). However, little
marketing research has examined the influence of music in
changing people’s moods (Wheeler, 1985). Mitchell (1988,
cited in Stewart et al., 1990) and Alpert and Alpert (1990)
were able to manipulate consumers’ moods via music. Galizio
and Hendrick (1972) found that students who heard lyrics
with guitar accompaniment checked off more mood adjectives
than did those hearing identical lyrics without
accompaniment. Lively music can enhance mood, thereby
positively affecting purchase intention (Alpert and Alpert,
1990; Kellaris and Mantel, 1996; Morris and Boone, 1998).
Mood is usually conceptualized as an affective state
(MacKenzie and Lutz, 1989), and some theorists believe that
music can associate moods with the brand without any
intervening cognitions or conscious information processing
(Alpert and Alpert, 1989, 1990, 1991). Others believe that the
induced mood entails some cognitive activity on the listener’s
part, resulting in recall of positive (negative) thoughts
associated with the positive (negative) mood (Isen et al.,
1978; Wheatley and Brooker, 1994). For instance, under high
cognitive involvement, music can influence the nature and
amount of issue-relevant thinking by making “mood-congruent
thoughts” more accessible in memory (Gardner, 1985b).
between the degree of emotion experienced when listening to
a tune and the preference for it, regardless of the nature of the
emotion (e.g. cheerful pieces were not rated as more pleasant
than sad ones). Galizio and Hendrick (1972) found greater
emotional arousal and more persuasion with the presence of
guitar accompaniment to a folk song. Music can also be
relaxing, decreasing emotional arousal, which is important for
products that relax consumers, such as pain relievers, resorts,
and beer (Hecker, 1984).
Provide a positive hedonic experience
Affective responses may give rise to a valenced hedonic
experience, i.e. they may be experienced as positive
(relaxation) or negative (anxiety), although unvalenced
emotions are also possible (surprise or alertness). Melodies
can affect the favorableness of people’s feelings. For example,
moderately energetic music and moderately novel music can
both heighten stimulation, thereby providing positive hedonic
value (Zhu and Meyers-Levy, 2005).
Music can be used purely as entertainment, thereby creating
a pleasant hedonic experience and softening up consumers for
the sale. Instead of hard selling audience members with words,
advertising lyrics “tend to wash over us rather than invite us to
intellectualize [. . .] Setting the words to music somehow takes
the edge off what might otherwise be a strident message”
because we process lyrics and music in terms of “enjoy/don’t
enjoy” rather than in terms of “true” or “false” (Sutherland
and Sylvester, 2000, p. 105). And, music in commercials is
processed more as an experience full of fantasy and feelings
than as a faithful representation of reality, resulting in less
likelihood of audience members counter-arguing with the
message (Sutherland and Sylvester, 2000, pp. 105-6).
The seven cognitive and five affective advertising objectives
(effects) described above correspond to the seven cognitive and
five affective components constituting our new response
variable, Aam (see Table I). Because Aam is proposed as an
important component of Aad, before describing Aam and its
constituents, we first briefly summarize relevant aspects of what
is known about the well-researched response variable Aad.
Tap into emotion-laden memories
Music also makes people more aware of emotions they have
previously experienced when listening to that music (Dunbar,
1990), and it can become associated with either positive or
negative emotion-laden memories (MacInnis and Park,
1991). Melodies become affiliated with pivotal emotional
life events such as birthdays, first dates, and family vacations,
thereby evoking nostalgic feelings. The cognitive associations
that are tapped by familiar music (as discussed above)
typically will be “tagged” with emotions: Christmas carols
lead to both thoughts and feelings of goodwill because they
draw on emotionally charged memories.
Attitude toward the ad (Aad)
Attitudes are typically conceptualized as predispositions to
respond in a consistently favorable or unfavorable manner
toward an attitude object (AO), where responses can be
cognitive, affective, and/or behavioral (Zanna et al., 1970). As
relatively stable and enduring predispositions to think, feel, and
behave, attitudes are considered useful predictors of behavioral
intentions (Mitchell and Olson, 1981). At root, brand
advertising concerns shaping the customer brand attitudes that
guide buyers’ decision making, and advertising’s effectiveness is
often evaluated based on how large and favorable a brand
attitude modification it induces in targeted customers.
Aad, a widely used consumer attitudinal response construct,
is defined as a “predisposition to respond in a favorable or
unfavorable manner to a particular advertising stimulus
during a particular exposure occasion” (Lutz, 1985), or as
“an individual’s evaluation of and/or affective feelings about
an advertisement” (Park and Young, 1986). “A strong
managerial relevance to advertisers, coupled with the welldefined theoretical background of multiattribute attitude
models (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975), has generated
considerable research into Aad” (Biehal et al., 1992, p. 19).
Aad is conceptualized as a situationally bound construct that
Alter emotional arousal level
Researchers typically associate emotional arousal, or intensity
of felt emotion, with physiological responses (e.g. changes in
heart and breathing rate, galvanic skin response or “sweaty
palms,” pupil dilation, etc), suggesting that a pop song that
makes the heart race might do likewise for a brand (Dunbar,
1990). Thus, music not only evokes particular emotions but
can influence how strongly we experience those emotions, as
when a slow tune elicits a relaxed, happy feeling (low or
moderate arousal) but the same tune at an upbeat tempo
creates a pumped-up, euphoric feeling (high arousal).
Two early studies (Gatewood, 1927; Shoen and Gatewood,
1927, both cited in Finnäs, 1989) show a positive correlation
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Volume 28 · Number 6 · 2011 · 396 –411
Attitude toward the advertising music (Aam)
occurs during a particular exposure to an ad rather than at
another point in time, such as following repeated exposure to
it (Lutz, 1985; MacKenzie and Lutz, 1989). As a time-bound
construct, Aad should have its maximum impact on other
response variables such as Aad and buying intentions at or
immediately following ad exposure and is likely to be less
enduring than other attitudes like Ab and attitude toward
advertising in general (Lutz, 1985).
Aad is considered by some researchers as solely evaluative or
affective, not entailing cognitive or behavioral reactions
(MacKenzie and Lutz, 1989). However, Shimp (1981) and
Lutz (1985) conceptualized Aad as having both cognitive
components (e.g. the presentation is perceived as humorous
or the endorser as attractive) and affective components
(e.g. triggering an emotional response such as a particular
mood or feeling like love, joy, or irritation). Other researchers
have also adopted Shimp’s (1981) and Lutz’s (1985)
viewpoint that A ad has both cognitive and affective
dimensions (Biehal et al., 1992; Edell and Burke, 1987,
cited in Burke and Edell, 1989; Gresham and Shimp, 1985;
MacKenzie and Lutz, 1989) and, based on the weight of the
evidence, we concur. According to the dual-mediation
hypothesis, consumers can have a positive Aad either because:
.
they have a favorable cognitive response (e.g. the ad
provides them with useful information); or
.
they have a positive affective response (e.g. they gain good
feelings from the ad) (Brown and Stayman, 1992; Homer,
1990; MacKenzie et al., 1986).
Interest in music and consumer behavior grew significantly
during the 1980s as a result of the above research on Aad
(Gorn, 1982; North and Hargreaves, 2008; North et al.,
2004b). The finding that emotions influence Aad and the
intuition that such emotions can be created by music led to a
number of studies of music’s influence on purchase decisions
and other variables. However, the direct effect of ad music on
Aad per se received little attention, and the studies that do exist
have generated mixed results. For instance, Brooker and
Wheatley (1994) reported a marginally significant effect of
music placement on Aad, with music-as-introduction causing
more favorable Aad than music-as-background. Macklin (1988)
found that the presence of music did not affect Aad in children.
In the next section, we elaborate on our view that consumer
response to advertising music is an important component of
Aad, and that it is itself an amalgam of many cognitive and
affective components.
Overview of Aam
Although a number of researchers have studied music’s
influence on Ab (Allen and Madden, 1985; Brooker and
Wheatley, 1994; Gorn, 1982; Kellaris and Cox, 1989; Macklin,
1988; Middlestadt et al., 1994; Morris and Boone, 1998; Park
and Young, 1986; Pitt and Abratt, 1988), our literature review
failed to find a variable capturing listeners’ complex attitudes
toward the advertising music itself and how such a variable
could be a part of Aad and thereby influence Ab. Therefore, we
propose the new variable Aam, depicted in Table I.
Paralleling Lutz’s (1985) definition of Aad, we define Aam as
a predisposition to respond in a favorable or unfavorable
manner to an ad’s music during a particular exposure
occasion. Following Park and Young’s (1986) conception of
Aad, Aam includes cognitive and affective components. In its
most simple form, Aam can be construed as synonymous with
“music appeal.” Thus, a researcher looking for a “rough and
ready” measure of Aam might simply employ a single Likertscale item ranging from “dislike very much” to “like very
much,” as is often done in measuring Aad. However, we
believe that a more powerful approach would be to
incorporate the cognitive and affective variables shown in
Table I, each of which corresponds to one of the advertising
effects discussed in the previous section. Because each of
these components can be either positive or negative – that is,
they each can contribute to a favorable or unfavorable Aam –
using a multi-item measure of Aam would allow researchers to
capture the multi-faceted and sometimes contradictory nature
of consumer attitudes toward a given piece of ad music.
Moreover, operationalizing Aam in this way may help
marketers and researchers characterize, study, and weigh the
trade-offs involved in selecting particular candidates for
advertising music.
Aad has been used as an independent variable in a number of
studies (Babin and Burns, 1997; Lee and Mason, 1999;
McQuarrie and Mick, 2003; Pope et al., 2004). Aad was
introduced conceptually as an important mediator of Ab,
purchase intention, and eventual brand choice by Shimp
(1981), and this was confirmed empirically by Mitchell and
Olson (1981) and Moore and Hutchinson (1985). It is now
generally believed that Aad affects Ab. If thoughts and/or
feelings created by the ad are favorable (unfavorable), the
consumer’s attitude toward the advertised brand might also
become favorable (unfavorable). Aad’s mediating effect on Ab
has been reported in a number of studies (Burke and Edell,
1989; Brown and Stayman, 1992; Gardner, 1985a; Gorn,
1982; Homer, 1990; MacKenzie et al., 1986; Mitchell, 1986;
Mitchell and Olson, 1981; Muehling and Laczniak, 1988;
Stayman and Aaker, 1988). Aad’s influence has also been
confirmed on purchase intention, both indirectly via Aad’s
impact on Ab (Homer, 1990; MacKenzie and Lutz, 1989;
MacKenzie et al., 1986; Mitchell, 1986; Mitchell and Olson,
1981; Shimp, 1981) and directly (Gresham and Shimp, 1985;
MacKenzie et al., 1986). Aad also affects brand choice directly
as well as indirectly through Ab (Biehal et al., 1992).
Researchers have also examined Aad as a dependent variable
and have confirmed the direct effect of emotional feelings on
Aad (Batra and Ray, 1986; Edell and Burke, 1987, all cited in
Machleit and Wilson, 1988). MacKenzie and Lutz (1989)
incorporated this and other work into a detailed structural
model of the determinants of Aad.
Taken together, studies of Aad show that it influences and is
influenced by key consumer variables and is a complex
function of consumer attitudes toward the advertiser, the
message, emotions aroused by the ad, the medium in which
the ad appears, and the creative execution (MacKenzie and
Lutz, 1989).
The components of Aam
The following are the key elements of Aam, as outlined in
Table I. We briefly define each one and relate it to its
corresponding advertising objective discussed above. In the
remainder of the article, we discuss how each element can
contribute to a favorable/unfavorable Aam and the difficulty of
achieving favorable Aam among most target audience
members.
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Lincoln G. Craton and Geoffrey P. Lantos
Volume 28 · Number 6 · 2011 · 396 –411
Cognitive components
.
Level and persistence of attention to music. This component
of Aam refers to whether the ad music has contributed to
the long-standing advertising goal of gaining and holding
the consumer’s attention. This will in turn affect whether
and how much the consumer attends to the ad as a whole.
.
Depth of processing of music. This construct from cognitive
psychology (Craik and Lockhart, 1972; Craik and
Tulving, 1975) relates to the enhance memory of ad
content advertising objective. Building on the previous
component, it refers to what aspects of the ad music draw
the consumer’s attention and specifically, the “level” of
processing of the music in which he/she engages. Deep- or
semantic-level processing focuses on the meaning of the
music while shallow-level processing focuses on surface
features of the music such as the sung melody, the timbre
of one of the instruments, or the physical appearance of a
performer. As we will elaborate in the next section, the
link between this response component and memory for ad
content appears to be quite complex.
.
Perceived features of music available for association. This is
relevant to the create new music-brand associations
objective. It captures elements of the ad music the
consumer has detected from among the wide range of
features present (structural features of the music such as
rhythm or melody, its expressed emotion, the musical
style, etc.) and especially whether these are positive,
negative, or neutral from the consumer’s point of view.
.
Remembered features of music available for association. This
ties in with the tap prior associations with familiar music
advertising goal. Similar to the previous cognitive element,
this captures what these prior associations are (especially
perhaps, how common to most people or idiosyncratic to
the consumer they might be) and whether the consumer
views these associations as positive, negative, or neutral.
.
Image suggested by music. This refers to the “personality” of
the music as perceived by the consumer, such as whether
it is sophisticated, sexy, or lighthearted. In discussing the
create a brand image goal, we noted that a brand
personality can be molded either as music creates new
associations or as it piggybacks off of existing associations.
.
Music perceived as distinctive or not. This concerns the
differentiate the brand objective. We propose that the
consumer makes a distinctiveness judgment, representing
how unique versus prototypical he/she considers the music
to be and the extent to which he/she views this level of
uniqueness as favorable or unfavorable. Distinctive music
that is viewed favorably (unfavorably) will help to
positively (negatively) differentiate the brand.
.
Perceived music-message fit. Linked with the reinforce ad
message with music-message fit objective, this captures
the consumer’s judgment of how well the music suits the
message, with high fit leading to a more favorable attitude
and low fit creating possible dissonance and/or confusion.
For instance, an upbeat tune could be used for a brand
positioned as “fun.” Given the importance of
communicating about the brand as an overarching
advertising objective, we believe this component is crucial.
.
.
.
.
intense they are, and how favorably or unfavorably the
consumer views those emotional experiences.
Mood induced by music. Related to the ad objective to
create a mood, this component of Aam captures whether
the ad music leads to mood induction, how favorable/
unfavorable the mood is, and whether the mood is
consonant with the brand’s message and image, all from
the consumer’s point of view.
Emotional memories activated by music. Related to the tap
into emotion-laden memories ad objective, this factor
reflects whether such memories occur and how favorably
the consumer views them.
Emotional arousal response to music. One advertising goal is
to alter emotional arousal level. This element concerns
whether any changes in emotional arousal occur as a result
of exposure to the ad music, and whether or not these
changes are viewed favorably by the consumer.
Hedonic response to music. A final ad objective is to provide
a positive hedonic experience. This variable captures how
pleasant/unpleasant the consumer finds the ad music to
be.
Implications and directions for managers
Based on the components of Aam, we now provide a more
detailed and comprehensive set of cautions for advertisers
considering using music and explain why achieving universal
music appeal is an elusive advertising goal. This contributes
significantly to the literature since, to date, the primary
negative influence of music considered in the academic
marketing literature is the work mentioned above exploring
how music can be an attention-grabber that is irrelevant to the
message and therefore detracts from the processing of
message content.
Every component of Aam provides a challenge
Here, we offer suggestions for advertisers regarding wise
selection of music and warnings based on each of the
elements of Aam. Poor performance on one or more of these
dimensions can defeat the purpose of using music in
commercials or at least lessen its positive impact.
Cognitive components
Level and persistence of attention to music. People rarely enjoy
listening to music involuntarily (North et al., 2004b), which is
the case with most ad music. We are not aware of any research
exploring listeners’ ability to “tune out” music they would
rather not listen to; anecdotally, this is very difficult for many
kinds of common musical stimuli. The ability of attentiongaining music to distract listeners from the message and
negatively affect brand recall (Park and Young, 1986; Wallace,
1994; Wheatley and Brooker, 1994) is a huge issue. We
believe that not just brand recall, but Aam and thus Aad, can
be negatively affected when ad music commands an
undesirable level of the consumer’s attention.
Somewhat paradoxically, a favorable consumer attitude
toward the amount of attention elicited by ad music may in
some cases be achieved when that music is easily ignored. For
instance, high-involvement consumers might regard their low
level of attention toward unobtrusive background music in an
ad favorably if they are motivated to attend to other features
of the ad (say, the ad message) and appreciate that the music
is not interfering. Similarly, the negative effect of disliked
music might be reduced if the music is presented at low
Affective components
.
Emotions (feelings) evoked by music. Related to the evoke
emotions (feelings) goal, this element concerns whether
feeling states are actually evoked by the music, how
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volume. However, research is required to determine whether
this is effective in achieving other advertising objectives.
Of course, a favorable attitude toward the amount of
attention elicited by ad music might occur if the consumer
enjoys and chooses to attend to it. A challenge is to find music
that can have this effect on a significant number of consumers
in the target market.
Attention alone is not sufficient – on balance, the cognitive
and affective impacts following from attention must not be
negative. And, perhaps above all else, music must not attract
attention solely to itself but to the brand and brand message.
Depth of processing of music. Despite the claim that music
enhances memory of the ad’s content, research evidence is
mixed (Kellaris et al., 1993), with some studies showing
positive effects (Hoyer et al., 1984; Hunt, 1988; MacInnis and
Park, 1991; Olsen, 1995; North et al., 2004b; Roehm, 2001;
Wallace, 1991; Wallace, 1994, Experiments 1 and 2; Yalch,
1991), others demonstrating negative results (Galizio and
Hendrick, 1972; Haley et al., 1984; Sewall and Sarel, 1986;
Wallace, 1994, Experiment 3; Wheatley and Brooker, 1994),
and still others yielding neutral findings (Brooker and
Wheatley, 1994; Macklin, 1988; Stewart and Furse, 1986;
Wallace, 1994, Experiment 4). We speculate that music that
does not aid ad memorability fails on one or more of the four
criteria for enhancing memory through music outlined above
(notably music-message fit), but subsequent research should
verify this. In particular, future research exploring the depth
of processing component of Aam may help to disentangle these
mixed findings.
Consider the case of ad music with lyrics containing the ad
message. A large body of research on memory for verbal
materials indicates that deep or semantic-level processing
(e.g. of the meaning of a printed word) leads to better recall
than does shallow-level processing of the same material
(e.g. the font that the word is presented in). When it comes
to the role of music in enhancing memory for ad lyrics,
however, deeper is not necessarily better. For instance, a
consumer might engage in deep processing of lyrics by
focusing on their meaning or shallow processing by focusing
on the sung melody. As Wallace (1994) points out, the
reason that music sometimes facilitates recall of verbal
material is that it draws attention to linked surface properties
of both the melody and of the lyrics, such as their
corresponding rhythmical properties, line length, intonation
patterns, and so on:
original music – written, scored, and recorded specifically for
the commercial – rather than relying on or adapting existing
music, might be defeating their cognitive goals if consumers
use cognitive capacity to learn the new music instead of the ad
message.
Of course, repetition – either within the ad or through
multiple exposures to the ad – can promote learning of the
music and thus help to achieve recall of ad content. But
advertisers should monitor for “wearout.” Burke and Edell
(1986) found that Aad declined with repeated exposures, and
so it would seem reasonable to suppose that, because music
can wear out, it might contribute to a decline in Aad with too
much repeated exposure. Similarly, familiar music might have
already induced wearout. Indeed, a good deal of research
supports the view that listeners prefer music of moderate
complexity and that the subjective complexity of a given piece
of music decreases with repeated exposure (Hargreaves, 1984;
Hargreaves et al., 2006; Tan et al., 2006). Thus, subjectively
complex ad music will initially be disliked but become more
liked with repeated exposure as it is learned. Ad music that is
initially of moderate subjective complexity will be liked at
first, but with repeated exposure it will become overly
familiar, subjectively simple, and hence disliked. Finally, ad
music that starts out as too simple will tend to be disliked and
will remain so with repeated exposure.
To summarize, music can enhance memory of ad content in
lyrics if it helps the consumer focus on surface characteristics
of the lyrics and is simple/repetitive/well-learned. However,
when the latter applies, the music may be disliked. What
should a marketer to do? Research measuring both memory
effects and liking (from the music cognition literature, see
Peretz et al., 1998) seems to be called for to determine the
tradeoffs between – and the ideal combinations of – depth of
processing, musical complexity, and repetition. On balance,
in the case of ad music with lyrics, it would seem that the best
musical stimulus for achieving long-term recall is an original
jingle that is simple to learn and that fits the ad message. It
should be catchy, memorable, and likeable enough so that
listeners will play it back mentally. This will promote rehearsal
and cueing of memory associations with ad content, especially
if this cuing is enhanced by striking congruent visual and
emotional elements. In short, original, somewhat simple but
involving music with lyrics that are relevant to the ad message
will best enhance message recall. This harks back to the
commercial jingles of yesteryear and suggests that the current
trend to incorporate the use of new music by promising
upstart bands might be misguided.
Now consider the case of instrumental music. Segalowitz
et al.(2001) suggest that one can distinguish between deepand shallow-level processing of music per se, as opposed to
the verbal material contained in lyrics. They propose that in
this case, deep-level processing of the “meaning” of the
music involves focusing on the aesthetic intentions of the
performer. This can be contrasted with processing that
focuses on the surface features of the music, such as the
individual notes, the timbre of one of the instruments, or the
physical appearance of a performer without regard to the
aesthetic dimension of the music. Although research is
lacking in this area, a reasonable working hypothesis is that
memory for the ad music will be enhanced if it is processed
at a deep rather than a shallow level, but deep processing of
ad music will have the opposite effect on memory for the ad
message.
Often, focusing on the deep-meaning structures of a text facilitates recall
more than focusing on the surface properties. However, when the surface
properties are well structured, abundant, and interconnected, and when
music or some other mechanism draws attention to the surface properties,
then those same properties may facilitate recall [. . .] Furthermore, music,
unlike text, may be one stimulus for which listeners are particularly adept at
identifying and recognizing surface characteristics (p. 1,482).
Surprisingly, some amount of shallow-level processing of both
music and text seems to be necessary to reap the memory
benefits of presenting the ad message in song! Future research
might test this more directly by manipulating listeners’ level of
processing of music and lyrics in ad stimuli.
A related point, noted earlier, is that music enhances
memory for ad content contained in lyrics only if that music is
simple, repetitive, or well-learned (Wallace, 1994).
Presumably, these are the conditions that make it possible
for a consumer to compare the surface properties of music
and text, as discussed above. Therefore, advertisers using
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Volume 28 · Number 6 · 2011 · 396 –411
Perceived features of music available for association. As a
creative director for a music agency observed, “The music
‘brandscape’ is incredibly cluttered at first glance, but when
you try and name the brands who really have a residual value
from music, there are very few” (Woods, 2007). Building new
music-brand associations is challenging for two reasons. First,
such music-brand linkages take time to build, and so
repetition is important (e.g. the playing weekly of the
William Tell Overture to open The Lone Ranger).
Unfortunately, however, repetition of music eventually leads
to wearout. Second, the ability to condition such associations
is not guaranteed: while some researchers report that
consumers can be classically conditioned to prefer a product
by pairing it with well-liked music (e.g. music that is perceived
as pleasant can create a pleasing feeling toward the brand),
others have failed to obtain this effect (e.g. Gorn, 1982;
Zander, 2006). Research on music-message fit (Alpert and
Alpert, 1991; Kellaris et al., 1993; MacInnis and Park, 1991)
suggests that creating new associations between music and
brand should be easiest with a strong fit of the music to the
message and brand image. Of course, even if new musicbrand associations are not formed, associations between the
ad music and other ad content might still build, with the effect
that the music becomes a retrieval cue for elements of the ad
other than the brand per se.
Finally, and perhaps most importantly, if the perceived
features of the music are negatively viewed, this obviously
creates an undesirable music-brand association. A given
consumer in a particular context may react negatively to any
number of features of the ad music. Disliking the genre or
musical style appears to be a particularly serious risk, since
musical style is more important than musical piece in
determining listeners’ responses (North and Hargreaves,
1999), musical styles preferences vary widely among
individuals and contexts (Hargreaves et al., 2006; Rentfrow
and Gosling, 2003), and attitudes toward musical styles are
closely tied to personal identity and to lifestyle (North and
Hargreaves, 2007a,b,c). In fact, a recently conducted survey
which asked respondents about their “most hated” style of
music found that negative attitudes toward disliked musical
styles are as intense as positive attitudes toward favorite
musical styles (Craton et al., 2008). The effect of such
musical “pet peaves” on response to ads with music is an
important topic for future research. Given the above
arguments in favor of including music in advertising
summarized at the beginning of this article, such research is
needed to help determine whether the potential problem of
running music that is liked by most but disliked by some
members of the target market is serious enough to suggest
using a “sound-of-silence” strategy (Olsen, 1994).
Remembered features of music available for association. As with
new associations, previously learned associations can work
against an advertiser if they are negative (e.g. German military
music activating images of Nazis) or conjure up a disfavored
or inappropriate brand image or symbolism. Unfortunately,
existing associations, be they informational, symbolic, or
autobiographical, can be negative for some targeted
consumers, even when they are neutral or positive for most
consumers.
Image suggested by music. Research on the effect of music on
brand image associations is lacking (Allan, 2007; Stout and
Leckenby, 1988). Such research would be difficult since the
formation of brand images through music is a complex
process, being a function of musical genre, artist, lyrics, and
structural characteristics. Damage to an existing brand image
would likely occur if the wrong music is selected or if it is
vague enough to suggest different brand images to different
people.
Music perceived as distinctive or not. To achieve brand
distinctiveness, original music would seem to be preferred, all
else equal. Unique jingles better achieve distinctiveness than
do public domain music or licensed tunes (and, as already
noted, if simple and congruent with the message, unique
jingles enhance relevant recall). Unfortunately, the same
features that make ad music distinctive may in some cases
make it subjectively complex for many consumers and, as we
have seen, subjectively complex music tends to be disliked.
Conversely, a consumer might adopt an unfavorable view of
bland, non-distinctive pop music in a commercial because it is
too predictable. Advertisers seem to be faced with the
challenge of selecting music that is both distinct and optimally
(i.e. only moderately) complex.
In fact, negative distinctiveness might arise due to any of the
musical considerations that could harm a brand as outlined in
Table I. Thus, distinction for the sake of being different is
insufficient – distinctions are only potentially helpful if they
are viewed favorably and meaningfully distinguish the brand.
The latter notion points to the importance of music-message
fit, which we discuss next.
Perceived music-message fit. Music appears to work best when
it is an integral part of the selling message (Dunbar, 1990;
Kellaris et al., 1993), and an appropriate fit can enhance the
brand image (Alpert and Alpert, 1991). Some researchers
suggest that music that fits the advertisement enhances recall
by priming relevant beliefs about the brand, activating related
information in memory and evoking message-congruent
thoughts (Kellaris et al., 1993). Direct empirical evidence
for this mechanism is limited, however (North et al., 2004b).
An inappropriate fit can have a distracting effect (Macklin,
1988). Indeed, perhaps the strongest argument against using
music in advertising is that it can serve as a distraction – an
attention-grabber that is irrelevant to the message (Brooker and
Wheatley, 1994; Macklin, 1988). For instance, Park and Young
(1986) found that under high cognitive involvement,
preselected popular and liked music was a distraction from
the message, lowering response variable scores because it was
unrelated to brand-attribute message contents. Park and Young
(1986) and MacInnis and Park (1991) suggested and found
that low-fit musical stimuli can disrupt high cognitively involved
consumers’ efforts to process product information. Shen and
Chen (2006) reported that when there was lack of music
congruency, Aad was negatively impacted. Similarly, MacInnis
and Park (1991), Meyers-Levy and Tybout (1989), and Shen
and Chen (2006) all found that low perceived fit triggered
negative emotions such as frustration and helplessness, leading
to negative Aad. Indeed, some evidence suggests that the
absence of music is no worse and often more effective than
music that is a poor fit with the brand (Kellaris et al., 1993;
North et al., 2004b). Consequently, musical fit is perhaps the
most influential of all aspects of the musical stimulus.
Although the importance of perceived music-message fit is
often acknowledged (Alpert and Alpert, 1991; Dunbar,
1990), surprisingly little empirical research has explored it.
Three important challenges remain. One central challenge for
both practitioners and researchers is to operationally define
“perceived music-message fit” so that it can be employed as a
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Volume 28 · Number 6 · 2011 · 396 –411
dependent variable. Strictly speaking, fit is a subjective, not
objective, property of commercial music and varies between
individuals depending on the content of their memories
(Englis and Pennell, 1994), again suggesting the difficulty of
achieving uniform appeal and relevance through music.
A second challenge is to systematically identify the musical
variables that influence consumers’ perception of fit.
Logically, music can convey meaning in two ways that merit
further empirical testing:
1 nonverbally by instrumental music; and
2 verbally by lyrics.
the fact that a consumer perceives a particular emotional
expression in a piece of music does not guarantee that the
he/she will experience the same emotion or any emotion
(Gabrielsson, 2002; cited in Västfjäll, 2002). Indeed, the
cognitive priming (memories, associations, or thoughts)
caused by the perception of emotion in music may be as
important as the feelings that are evoked (North et al.,
2004a,b).
Mood induced by music. Advertisers who are unaware of the
mood evoked by music could inadvertently induce the wrong
mood – one that is either unfavorable or inappropriate to the
brand message and image. This is possible since the effect of
music on mood as a response variable has been shown to
depend on mood as an antecedent condition, suggesting that
different consumers will have different mood reactions to the
same musical piece as might the same consumer on different
occasions. Interestingly, Wheeler (1985) found that for people
in good moods, music they enjoy will not make them feel
better, but music they dislike will make them feel worse.
However, people in bad moods will not feel worse if they hear
music they dislike, but they might feel better if they hear
music they enjoy. Research must demonstrate that most
listeners will perceive a similar and desirable mood from a
commercial’s music.
Emotional memories activated by music. Even the most
pleasant music can evoke negative emotional memories for
some (e.g. a wedding processional might bring back memories
of a bad marriage for a divorced person). Also, Englis and
Pennell (1994) note that fans might resent advertisers who
use “their” music commercially, perhaps because they do not
wish for its positive associations to be sullied by commercial
associations. This possibility should be tested empirically. It
argues for the use of original music, as has the discussion of
several other Aam components above.
Emotional arousal response to music. Advertisers must be
careful to select music that creates a desirable level of arousal.
Music that is either overly or insufficiently arousing for a
particular consumer in a specific context will be regarded
unfavorably. A good rule of thumb might be to match or
gauge the level of stimulation evoked by the music with that of
the programming content that precedes it. Since the latter is
often (though not always) chosen by the consumer, this
reduces the risk of unfavorable response.
Hedonic experience. A major premise of psychologists has
been that music produces a pleasurable sensation (Stout and
Rust, 1986). However, music that is disfavored for any of the
above reasons could evoke feelings of displeasure and perhaps
thereby increase counter argumentation. Unfortunately, as
already discussed, musical tastes and distastes vary widely
(Rentfrow and Gosling, 2003). This leads to our second
general managerial challenge.
Nonverbal transfer of meaning by instrumental music can
occur through conveying images, thoughts, feelings (Kellaris
et al., 1993), and associations (Zhu and Meyers-Levy, 2005).
Hence, energetic music tends to evoke thoughts related to
excited frivolity, while sedate music recalls thoughts about
calm, contemplative activity (Gabrielsson and Lindstrom,
2001). Alpert et al. (2003) found that the use of music
congruent with the symbolic meaning of product purchase
(such as to convey status) enhanced purchase probability.
Lyrics in ad music convey meaning by being relevant to a
commercial’s message (MacInnis and Park, 1991). For
example, a Kingsford charcoal commercial used a tune called
“Grillin’ and Chillin”, conveying a mood of a lazy summer
barbecue in the afternoon, creating a desire for kicking back
(Ask the Ad Team, 2009). Or, the romantic, nostalgic song
“I’ll be Seeing You” could be effective as background for an
FTD florist commercial (Alpert and Alpert, 1991).
A third challenge for future research is to determine the
conditions under which high (low) music-message fit has its
beneficial (negative) effects. Some work suggests that fit music
is especially important for high cognitive-involvement
consumers because it enhances and guides their motivated
thinking about the ad message music, such as happens using
sophisticated classical music in a perfume commercial
(MacInnis and Park, 1991). According to this view, high fit
may be less effective for low-involvement consumers, whose
responses are primarily affective. However, findings to date on
this topic are mixed. First, sometimes congruity is also
important for low involvement consumers, and in some cases
incongruity assists memory, perhaps because it increases
liking for the ad (North et al., 2004b). Second, incongruity
can sometimes aid learning. Srull and Lichtenstein (1985)
suggested, and Heckler and Childers (1992) empirically
verified that an incongruity of information causes highly
involved audience members to process the message with more
cognitive effort. Furthermore, music with an inappropriate fit
that interferes with message recall and other cognitive
processes can enhance the affective state through
mechanisms such as mood elevation and affect transfer
(Kellaris et al., 1993).
Finally, we suggest that this element of Aam probably
influences each of the other elements and thus has the potential
to mitigate many of the potential pitfalls in using advertising
music. We believe that understanding of music in advertising
can be significantly advanced through programmatic research
investigating the issues discussed above.
Achieving universal “high Aam” is unlikely
Allan (2007) concluded that, while “the research suggests that
music is more likely to positively than negatively affect the
consumer’s response to your advertising [. . .] the type of music
in particular, must be carefully chosen with the target audience
and the desired outcome driving the selection” (p. 27). The
numerous potential pitfalls listed above suggest that in so
saying, Allan (2007) was too bullish on music in commercials.
Achieving universal appeal within any particular target
audience is challenging. Moreover, since there is always some
Affective components
Emotions (feelings) evoked by music. Care must be taken as a
given piece of music can arouse different emotional
responses both between individuals and for the same
individual at different times (Sloboda, 2005). In addition,
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Journal of Consumer Marketing
Lincoln G. Craton and Geoffrey P. Lantos
Volume 28 · Number 6 · 2011 · 396 –411
degree of heterogeneity within a target market, music that
appeals to most target market members might nonetheless
turn off a distinct minority of those audience members. In
fact, as noted for several reasons above, music that is effective
in a particular commercial in a given listening situation for a
given member of the target market might be ineffectual for
that same consumer in a different context or advertisement.
Herein lies a major problem: music can help target a
particular audience. Just as radio stations pursue a particular
demographic and lifestyle group through musical genres
ranging from Top 40, Urban, and Adult Contemporary to
Christian, Tropical Latin, and Active Rock (America’s Music
Charts Powered by Media Base, 2008), so can a commercial’s
music attract and appeal to a particular target audience.
Nonetheless, target market members might to varying degrees
differ in their music preferences. Sociologist Herbert Gans’s
research demonstrates great heterogeneity regarding music
preferences (Fox and Wince, 1975), and “popular music is
arguably one of the most polarizing forms of mass
communication” (Allan, 2006, p. 435).
Despite the useful purposes that music in advertising can
serve, not all music garnishes are created equal. In light of the
increased fractionalization of the musical marketplace into
niches (e.g. rock and roll charts now feature at least four
genres: rock, active rock, adult rock, and alternative (http://a
mericasmusiccharts.com)), as well as the recent trend to
blend different musical genres, such as fusing active rock with
hip hop (www.snsmix.com) or with country music, or
blending folk, rock, bluegrass, R&B, blues, pop, and
“outlaw” country into so-called Americana music, the
likelihood of a widespread, strong favorable response to any
particular musical stimulus is vanishingly small. On the other
hand, music’s potential to repel a significant number of
consumers – to elicit disgust by many, while perhaps
appealing to a plurality or slim majority – is significant. For
example, casual observation and survey data show that while
rap music has a significant following, it is also repulsive to
many people (Craton et al., 2008; North and Hargreaves,
2004a). Consequently, marketers employ music stimuli at
their peril because music used in a commercial that appeals to
a majority of target audience members could lead to negative
cognitive or affective outcomes for many targeted consumers.
Given all of the possible causes of negative consumer
response to music, a favorable Aam among most target audience
members is very challenging to achieve when foreground music
is used in a TV or radio commercial, especially when musicmessage fit is lacking. The watchword for advertisers: be very
cautious, and be sure to pretest consumer cognitive and
affective responses to not just the ad itself, but also to the ad’s
music, taking into consideration both the findings and the
limitations of the research conducted to date.
Also important to determine is the relative importance of
music visà-vis other factors affecting Aad and how this varies
with the foreground versus background role of music as well
as the use versus nonuse of lyrics and the extent of musicmessage fit. In fact, most advertising research has focused
only on music in a background role (e.g. instrumental music);
more should be learned about foreground music (e.g. the
contribution of a jingle’s lyrics). And, given that there are
multiple cognitive and affective musical responses, some of
which might be positive while others are negative, it would be
instructive to learn how these various responses amplify or
counterbalance one another.
We are not the first to suggest that music might not be
appropriate in all advertising situations (Hunt, 1988), and
that music might in certain cases be less appropriate than
silence (Olsen, 1994). Indeed, at this point, one might be
tempted to conclude that the safest strategy is to refrain from
incorporating music into a commercial campaign altogether.
We believe the following observation serves as a more fitting
conclusion: “Certainly, it is easier to align a brand with music
badly – or at least ineffectually – th than to do it well . . . ”
(Woods, 2007). Advertiser: Beware! And, as David Ogilvy
famously cautioned, “The most important word in the
vocabulary of advertising is test” (Ogilvy, 1963, p. 86).
Consumer response to music is too idiosyncratic and
unpredictable not to do so.
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Attitude toward the advertising music
Journal of Consumer Marketing
Lincoln G. Craton and Geoffrey P. Lantos
Volume 28 · Number 6 · 2011 · 396 –411
Executive summary and implications for
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This summary has been provided to allow managers and executives
a rapid appreciation of the content of the article. Those with a
particular interest in the topic covered may then read the article in
toto to take advantage of the more comprehensive description of the
research undertaken and its results to get the full benefit of the
material present.
Music today plays a significant part in most people’s everyday
lives and much of the exposure is involuntary. Radio and
television commercials are responsible for much involuntary
listening.
Many studies view music in advertising positively and believe
that it increases the effectiveness of a commercial. Others are
less complimentary, arguing that using popular music in
advertising is culturally damaging. Despite such contradictions,
companies have kept faith in the musical aspect of their ads and
continue to back up this belief with huge resources.
Craton and Lantos argue that some important limitations
have risen as a result of studies into advertising music. There
is the widespread assumption that virtually any product
advertisement is enriched by the presence of music. Much
empirical evidence casts doubt on this and suggests that music
can have a neutral or detrimental effect as well as a positive
one. Some observers concede that reasons for this varied
impact are not readily apparent and the scarcity of research
into this issue is another limitation. Its importance is
emphasized by the existing belief in some quarters that
aversion to music in a commercial can have a negative effect
on advertiser and brand credibility.
The final limitation concerns tendency in the literature to
regard advertising music as an “affective stimulus” only. This
view fails to consider its aptitude to engage people cognitively
as well. It has been noted though that music can distract
consumers and impede their processing of the brand message
contained in the ad. Consumers who respond negatively to a
commercial could perceive the ad music as inappropriate,
unsuitable for purpose or lacking in congruence with brand
message. They might also dislike the musician or find the tune
annoying or boring.
Some argue that music can help achieve cognitive effects
that are perceived as advertising objectives. They can:
.
attract attention with music that is inspiring or interesting;
.
enhance the memory of ad content – it is claimed that
music aids associations and recall;
.
create new associations between music and brand;
.
recall previous associations with such as location, time
period or environment;
.
help develop a brand image, for instance, through use of a
particular music genre;
.
differentiate the brand using distinctive music; and
.
reinforce the ad message through fit between music, ad
meaning and brand image.
Further reading
Scratch ‘N Sniff (2009), “Station affiliates”, available at:
www.snsmix.com (accessed July 10, 2009).
About the authors
Lincoln G. Craton is Associate Professor of Psychology,
Stonehill College, Easton, Massachusetts, USA. A
developmental psychologist, Craton has previously
published in and served as reviewer for such journals as
Child Development, Developmental Psychology, Evolutionary
Psychology, and Perception and Psychophysics. His current
research interests include own-age bias in face recognition
and topics in music perception/cognition, particularly the
cognitive basis of musical preferences and explicit and implicit
knowledge of harmony in listeners without musical training.
He enjoys playing jazz guitar with his trio, Linc Cray and the
CrayTones.
Geoffrey P. Lantos is Professor of Business Administration
and Marketing Major Program Director, Stonehill College,
Easton, Massachusetts, USA. Lantos is the author of
Consumer Behavior in Action: Real-life Applications for
Marketing Managers (2011, M.E. Sharpe). He has previously
published in such journals as Journal of Consumer Marketing,
Strategic Direction, Journal of Biblical Integration in Business,
Marketing Education Review, Journal of Product & Brand
Management, Journal of Public Policy and Marketing, Journal of
the Academy of Marketing Science, and Journal of the Market
Research Society. Lantos serves as Book Reviews Editor at
Journal of Consumer Marketing and Journal of Product & Brand
Management and is on several editorial review boards. His
research interests include ethics, corporate social
responsibility, and educational pedagogy. Geoffrey P. Lantos
is the corresponding author and can be contacted at:
glantos@stonehill.edu
Research has likewise identified five elements of the affective
responses that are also considered advertising objectives:
1 evoke feelings that might prompt positive affect towards
the ad and lead to purchase;
2 create a mood in the commercial that subsequently
becomes associated with the brand;
3 tap into positive or negative emotion-laden memories;
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4
5
Attitude toward the advertising music
Journal of Consumer Marketing
Lincoln G. Craton and Geoffrey P. Lantos
Volume 28 · Number 6 · 2011 · 396 –411
influence the intensity of emotions which are evoked; and
provide a positive hedonic experience reflecting such as
feelings and fantasy.
Much attention has been afforded to attitude, which is widely
considered a useful predictor of future behavior. In this
context, attitude toward an advertisement reflects an
individual’s evaluation and/or emotional response to the
stimulus. Attitude might have the greatest impact on future
purchase intentions immediately following exposure to the ad.
But in comparison to attitude towards the brand and towards
advertising in general, this effect will probably be less
enduring. Different researchers claim that attitude towards an
ad mediates attitude towards the brand and this is supported
by empirical evidence.
The impact of music on attitude towards the brand has
been widely addressed. But the few studies exploring how ad
music impacts on attitude towards the ad have produced
inconclusive findings. Attitude towards ad music incorporates
cognitive and affective components, each of which
corresponds with one of the advertising objects detailed
earlier. Cognitive elements are:
.
level and persistence of attention to music – it is
important to know which aspects of the music entice the
consumer;
.
musical components the consumer will use to create brand
associations;
.
remembered features of music in these associations and
whether they are common or idiosyncratic;
.
image suggested by music or the music’s perceived
personality;
.
whether music is distinctive enough to differentiate the
brand; and
.
fit level between music and message, with high fit
prompting a more favorable attitude.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Affective components include:
.
feelings evoked by music and their intensity;
.
mood induced by music and its accord with the brand’s
message;
.
emotional memories activated by music and how the
consumer views them;
.
whether emotional arousal is changed positively or
negatively following exposure to ad music; and
.
how pleasant or unpleasant the consumer finds ad music.
fits the ad message could best facilitate long-term recall.
Repetition within the ad or through multiple exposures
can help reinforce the ad message. Overkill can produce a
negative effect though.
With instrumental music, advertisers should aim to build
music-brand associations. This takes time and repetition,
which risks overkill. It can also be difficult to “condition”
consumers to these associations. Musical style is
important but preferences in this respect widely differ
between individuals and contexts.
Be aware that previously learned associations might be
negative for some consumers within a target group.
Note that choosing inappropriate music could harm a
brand’s image or suggest different ones.
Try to positively differentiate the brand through music
containing the right blend of distinctiveness and
complexity.
Recognize the crucial importance of music-ad fit and that
fit is subjective. Marketers might ascertain which musical
variables most determine consumer perception of fit and
identify conditions where high or low fit is most beneficial
or harmful. This component of attitude towards
advertising music arguably influences all other elements
in the construct.
Realize that emotional responses to the same music can
vary between individuals and at different times for the
same person. The same sentiments apply to mood.
Understand that emotional memories are idiosyncratic
and even pleasant music can evoke negative or painful
recollections for some people. This substantiates the
argument for using original music rather than established
tunes.
Select music that prompts an optimum state of arousal.
Too much or too little arousal for certain people in certain
contexts will be viewed negatively.
Various authors note the difficulty of creating universal appeal
through music. Although the right music can help target a
particular audience, some heterogeneity will always prevail
within each segment. The number of musical genres is
increasing further through hybrids of different types, making
it even more difficult to achieve the desired widespread
response.
Caution is therefore essential and marketers should
thoroughly test out consumer response to both ad and ad
music. Tests might consider foreground and background
music with and without lyrics, and how it relates to other
factors that influence attitude towards the advertisement.
Further examination of relationships between the various
cognitive and affective musical responses is additionally
recommended.
The authors suggest that marketers should pay close attention
to the cognitive and affective components contained within
the attitude to ad music construct. In their opinion,
advertisers should:
.
Secure an appropriate level of consumer attention with
music that attracts attention to ad message and brand as
well as itself.
.
Aim for on optimum blend of depth of processing,
musical complexity and repetition. For ad music
containing lyrics, using an original yet simple jingle that
(A précis of the article “Attitude toward the advertising music: an
overlooked potential pitfall in commercials”. Supplied by
Marketing Consultants for Emerald.)
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