E-ISSN:
2147-2971
P-ISSN:
2148-4163
The Journal of Academic Social
Science Studies
JASSS
YEAR: 13 - NUMBER: 81
AUTUMN / 2020
EDITOR
Dr. Serdar YAVUZ
SUBEDITOR
Dr. Serdar BULUT
The Journal of Academic Social Science
Studies
International Journal of Social Science
Academic Social Science Studies dergisi yılda dört dönem yayın yapan uluslararası hakemli bir dergidir.
Academic Social Science Studies dergisinde yayınlanan tüm yazıların, dil, bilim ve hukûki açıdan
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Gönderilen yazılar iade edilmez.
The Journal Of Academic Social Science Studies, Uluslararası hakemli ve indeksli bir dergidir. DOAJ,
SOBİAD, MLA, ASOS, TEİ (Türk Eğitim İndeksi), ARASTIRMAX, Akademik Dizin (Akademik Türk
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Journal Impact Factor, Science Library Index başta olmak üzere onlarca veritabanı ve indeks tarafından
taranmaktadır.
The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies is an international peer-reviewed journal that is
published four terms per annum.
Language, science and the law of liability of all the articles published in the Journal of Academic
Social Science Studies belong to their authors www.jasstudies.com.
The published articles partially or completely in any way cannot be printed, reproduced
without the written permission of the publisher.
Editorial Board is absolutely free whether to publish or not publish all the articles send to
journal.
Submitted papers will not be returned to the authors.
The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies, is an international peer-reviewed and
indexed journal. DOAJ, SOBIAD, MLA, ASOS, TEI (Turkish Education Index), ARASTIRMAX
Academic Index (Turkish Academic Journals Index) Journal Seek, Research Bible, ISAM, Index
Copernicus, Mendeley, Open Academic Journals Index, CiteFactor, Scientific Indexing Services,
Academic Keys, ASI (Advanced Science Index), Sjournals Index, ESJI (Eurasian Scientific Journal
Index), I2OR, MIAR (Information Matrix for the Analysis of Journals) and especially Spark Index,
Infobase Index, Sysmatic Impact Factor, International Innovative Journal Impact Factor, Science
Library Index are scanned by index and dozens database.
e-ISSN: 2147-2971 / p-ISSN: 2148-4163
Firat University Faculty of Education Turkish Education Department ElazigTURKEY
30 / 09 / 2020
Year: 13 - Number: 81 - Autumn 2020
The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies
International Journal of Social Science
The Journal of Academic
Social Science Studies
International Journal of Social Science
Editor
Dr. Serdar Yavuz
Assistant of Editor
Dr. Serdar Bulut
E-mail: info@jasstudies.com
Web: http://www.jasstudies.com/
Adress: Firat University Faculty of Education Turkish Education Department Elazig-TURKEY
JASS Studies
Year: 13 - Number: 81 / Autumn 2020
The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies
Year: 13 - Number: 81 / Autumn 2020
ACADEMIC SOCIAL SCIENCE STUDIES
Uluslararası Hakemli Dergi / International Journal of Academic Social Science Studie
Editör / Editor
Dr. Serdar Yavuz
Editör Yardımcısı / Assistant of Editor
Dr. Serdar Bulut
Alan Editörleri / Field Editors
Dr. Ahmet AĞCA
Accounting and Finance
Dr. Ali M. BAYRAKTAROĞLU
Photography
Dr. Ayça Can KIRGIZ
Product Management/Marketing
Dr. Barış TOPTAŞ
Music
Dr. Bayram TAY
Social Sciences Education
Dr. Erfumiye ERTEKİN
History
Dr. Erkan Turan DEMİREL
Business and Economics
Dr. Fatih ÖZEK
Turkish Language and Literature
Dr. Fatma Ebru İKİZ
Psychological Counseling and Guidance
Dr. Fevzi RENÇBER
Theology
Dr. Gözde EMEKLİ
Geography
Dr. Hanife Nalan GENÇ
French Language and Education
Dr. İbrahim Halil ÇANKAYA
Sociology
Dr. İbrahim ÜNAL
Science Education
Dr. Işıl TANRISEVEN
Primary Education
Dr. Kürşat Yusuf AYTAÇ
Physical Education
Dr. Lütfiye CENGİZHAN
English Language Teaching
Dr. Mahmut ÖZTÜRK
Painting Job Training
Dr. Mehmet KURUDAYIOĞLU
Turkish Language Teaching
Dr. Mümin DAYAN
Marketing
Dr. Murat SUNKAR
Geography
Dr. Mustafa AKDAĞ
Educational Sciences
Dr. Mustafa ŞENEL
Turkish Language
Dr. Sabri SİDEKLİ
Education Classroom Teacher
Dr. Şebnem SOYGÜDER
Radio Television/Broadcasting
Dr. Seda TAŞ
English Language and Literature
Dr. Sedat CERECİ
Radio Television/Broadcasting
Dr. Selim YILMAZ
Linguistics
Dr. Şenay Sezgin NARTGÜN
Educational Sciences
Dr. H. Sibel ÜNALAN
History of Art
Dr. Soyalp TAMÇELİK
International Relations
Dr. Süleyman KARACELİL
Religious Education
Dr. Türkan ERDOĞAN
Sociology
Dr. Yusuf GENÇ
Social Work
The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies
Year: 13 - Number: 81 / Autumn 2020
Dumlupinar University
Trakya University
Yeditepe University
Adiyaman University
Ahi Evran University
Mersin University
Firat University
Firat University
Dokuz Eylül University
Şirnak University
Ege University
Ondokuz Mayıs University
Uşak University
İnönü University
Mersin University
Adiyaman University
Trakya University
A. I. Baysal University
Abant I. Baysal University
U. Arab Emirates University
Firat University
Erciyes University
Kafkas University
M. Sitki Kocman University
Ege University
Trakya University
Mustafa Kemal University
Marmara University
A. Izzet Baysal University
Adnan Menderes University
Gazi University
Mustafa Kemal University
Pamukkale University
Sakarya University
Danışma Kurulu / Board of Advisory
Dr. Ahmet BURAN
Dr. Alexsandre KALACHE
Dr. Erdal ZORBA
Dr. Gloria GUTMAN
Dr. Gürer GÜLSEVİN
Dr. Han-Woo CHOİ
Dr. Hassan ALİ
Dr. Horst UNBEHAUN
Dr. İlhan GENÇ
Dr. İsmail BAKAN
Dr. Jürgen NOWAK
Dr. Kim Hyo JOUNG
Dr. Monika DOHNANSKÁ
Dr. Muammer ÇETİNGÖK
Dr. Nurşen ADAK
Dr. Özden TEZEL
Dr. Remzi OTO
Dr. Ronald A. FELDMAN
Dr. Shannon MELİDEO
Dr. Woo Duck CHAN
Firat University
Oxford University
Gazi University
Simon Fraser University, Vancouver / Kanada
Ege University
Dışişleri Kore Üniversite Araştırmaları / Güney Kore
Maldivler Ulusal University / Maldivler
Robert Gordon University, Nürnberg / Almanya
Düzce University
Kahramanmaraş Sütçü İmam University
Uygulamalı Bilimler Alice Salomon University / Berlin
Dışişleri Busan University Çalışmaları / Güney Kore
Teknoloji, Slovakya Dubnica Enstitut
Tennessee Knoxville, ABD University of
Akdeniz University
Eskişehir Osmangazi University
Dicle University
Columbia University / ABD
Marymount University, Arlington / ABD
Busan University Yabancı Çalışmaları / Güney Kore
Yayın Kurulu / Editorial Board
Dr. Abdullah ŞAHİN
Dr. Bülent Cercis TANRITANIR
Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University
Yuzuncu Yil University
Dr. Çavuş ŞAHİN
Dr. Faruk ÖZTÜRK
Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University
Kilis 7 Aralik University
Dr. Mustafa ÇOLAK
Dr. Nadir İLHAN
Dr. Nazmi ÖZEROL
Dr. Sevil H. MEHDİYEVA
Dr. Tarık ÖZCAN
Dr. Yücel YÜKSEL
Birleşik Arap Emirlikleri University
Ahi Evran University
Adiyaman University
Azerbaycan Milli İlimler Akademisi
Firat University
Istanbul University
İndeks Sorumluları / Personsfor Index Process
Dr. Mehmet BAYANSALDUZ
M. Sitki Kocman University
Hukuk Danışmanı / Legal Counselar
Av. Gürhan CANPOLAT
Istanbul Barosu Baro Sicili: 25490
The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies
Year: 13 - Number: 81 / Autumn 2020
Yabancı Dil Uzmanları / Foreign Language Specialist
Dr. Ozan Deniz YALÇINKAYA
Lect. Hakkı ŞİMŞEK
Lect. Özlem ALADAĞ BAYRAK
Lect. Alize CAN
Lect. Ezgi AYDEMİR
Lect. Hande İSAOĞLU AKBIYIK
Dicle University
Adiyaman University
Trakya University
Trakya University
Yildiz Teknik University
Yildiz Teknik University
Redaktörler / Redactors
Lect. Cihat BIÇAKCI
Lect. Mehmet Akif KARA
Lect. Osman ALBAYRAK
Giresun University
Giresun University
Giresun University
Dış Temsilciler Koordinatörü / General Coordinator of Foreign Editor
Dr. Zafer DANIŞ
Sakarya University
Sosyal Paylaşım Ağları Sorumlusu / Social Sharing Nets Principal
Ress. Assist. Hasan KIZILDAĞ
Ondokuz Mayis University
The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies
Year: 13 - Number: 81 / Autumn 2020
İÇİNDEKİLER / CONTENTS
ARAŞTIRMA MAKALELERİ / RESEARCH ARTICLES
EĞİTİM BİLİMLERİ / EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES
Hatice Güzel, Yasemin Durgut
Lise Öğrencilerinin Öğrenme Stilleri ve Fizik Dersine Yönelik Tutumları - High School Students’
Learning Styles and Attitudes towards Physics Course
1-13
Aslı Avcı Akçalı, Özgür Baş
Sosyal Bilgiler Eğitiminde Teknoloji Kullanımı Konusundaki Araştırmalar - Researches on the Use
of Technology in Social Studies Education
15-30
Hatice Fırat
Çocuk Edebiyatında Otoriter Anlatım: Örnek Metin İncelemesi - Authoritative Expression in
Children's Literature: Sample Text Review
31-47
Nuray Kurtdede Fidan, Filiz Kılıç
Türkçe Öğretmeni Adaylarının Cahit Sıtkı Tarancı’nın Çocukluk Adlı Şiirinin İçeriğine Yönelik
Çözümlemeleri Etkisi - Cartoons Analysis in Terms of Values Included in the Social Studies
Curriculum: The Case of Rafadan Tayfa
49-63
Ayşe Işık Öner, Hatice Kadıoğlu Ateş
Öğretmen Adaylarının Sürdürülebilir Tüketim Davranış Düzeyinin Çeşitli Değişkenler
Açısından İncelenmesi - Investigation of Pre-Service Teachers' Sustainable Consumption Behavior
Levels in Terms of Various Variables
65-86
Oksana Manolova Yalçın, Bilge Kağan Bıkmaz
Kuzey Kıbrıs Türk Cumhuriyeti Eğitim Yaşanan Problemlere İlişkin Emekli Yönetici ve
Denetmen Görüşleri - Perspectıves of the Retired Administrators and Supervisors Related to the Existing
Problems on Education Supervision in Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus
87-114
Pınar Aksoy
Koronavirüs Salgını ile Ortaya Çıkan Sürecin Okul Öncesi Dönem Çocukları Üzerindeki
Etkilerine İlişkin Ebeveyn Algıları - Perceptions of the Parents Regarding the Effects of the Process
Occurring Due to the Coronavirus Pandemic on Preschool Children
115-138
The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies
Year: 13 - Number: 81 / Autumn 2020
Seher Merve Erus, Şerife Gonca Zeren
Danışan ve Psikolojik Danışmanın Penceresinden Terapötik İşbirliği: Çevrimiçi, Yüz Yüze ve
Plasebo Gruplarının Karşılaştırılması - Client’s and Psychological Counselors’ Perspective on
Therapeutic Alliance: Comparison of Online, Face to Face, and Plasebo Groups
139-152
Varol Çiçek, Bahar Güdek
Müzik Performans Kaygısı Envanterinin Türkçeye Uyarlanması: Geçerlik ve Güvenirlik
Çalışması - Adaptation of the Music Performance Anxiety Inventory to Turkish: A Validity and
Reliability Study
153-163
FİLOLOJİ / PHİLOLOGY
Cüneyt Arslan, Hazal Yürüklü
Ahmet Hamdi Tanpınar ve Thomas Bernhard’ın Bakış Açısıyla Modernleşmenin Edebî Eleştirisi Literary Criticism of Modernization From the Perspectives of Ahmet Hamdi Tanpinar and Thomas
Bernhard
165-177
İmran Gür
Aydın Epizmi Kritiği, Türk Edebiyatının İlk Devir Kroniği Okuması Olarak Halit Ziya Romanı:
Üst Okuma Sistemleri Yenilenmesi Olarak Fransız Epique - The Reading Critique of Intelligence
Epique: Halit Ziya’s Novel As the Reading of First Period Cronique [Midterm] of Modern Turkish
Literature, French Epique As the Nomenclature System of Top Reading
179-192
Hanife Nalan Genç, Duygu Aydemir
Sense and Sensibility (Akıl ve Tutku) Adlı Romanı Feminist İmgeler Işığında Okumak - Reading
the Novel Sense and Sensibility (Akıl ve Tutku) in the Light of Feminist Images
193-211
Dilek Tüfekçi Can
Where Angels Fear to Tread: Levinas’in “Etik İlgisellik” ve Layder’in “Önlenemeyen Arzu” Bakış
Açısıyla - Where Angels Fear to Tread: Through the Lenses of Levinasian “Ethical Relatedness” and
Layderian “Uncontrollable Desire”
213-231
Pelin Dimdik Emeksiz
Hüseyin Rahmi Gürpınar’ın Bazı Romanlarının Aşk Açısından Değerlendirilmesi - Evaluation of
Some Novels of Hüseyin Rahmi Gürpınar From the Perspective of Love
233-249
The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies
Year: 13 - Number: 81 / Autumn 2020
GÜZEL SANATLAR / FINE ARTS
Ruhi Konak, Mine Dilber
Derviş Hasan Medhî’nin Tercüme-i Şâhnâme-i Firdevsî Adlı Eserinin Türk Kitap Sanatları
Açısından Değerlendirilmesi - Evaluation of Dervis Hasan Mehdi’s Artwork Titled Tercume-i
Şâhnâme-i Firdevsî on Terms of the Turkish Art Works
251-271
Tuğçem Kar
Akbaba Dergisinde Yayımlanmış Hüseyin Cahit Yalçın Karikatürleri Hakkında Bir Araştırma Analysis of Kodaly Singing-Centered Music Training Method and a Sample Lesson Modeling Study
Supported by Kokas Pedagogy
273-288
Göksen Tosuner, Nazife Oya Levendoğlu
Covid-19 Sürecinde Uzaktan Yürütülen Müzik Öğretimi Uygulamalarının 8-15 Yaş Grubu
Çocuklarındaki Yansımaları Üzerine Bir Durum Çalışması - Impact of Creative Typography Practices
Higher Order Thinking Skills of Students in Graphic Design Education
289-308
Murat Sezgin, Görkem Boran
Basın İşletmelerinin ve Dağıtım Kanallarının Tekelleşmesi Açısından Etik Ethics in Terms of
Monopolization of Press Companies and Distribution Channels
309-322
İLAHİYAT / THEOLOGY
Abdullah Namlı
Nasslar Işığında Ahiret Mükafatları - Hereafter Rewards in the Light of Religious Texts
323-342
Hasan Çetinel
Mısırlı İbn Hacer El-Heytemî’nin Eseri Tahrîru’l-Makâl Üzerinden Dönemin Eğitim
Problemlerine Bakış - A Look at the Educational Problems of the Period Through Egyptian Ibn Hacer AlHaytami's Work “Tahrîru'l-Makâl”
343-362
Muzaffer Barlak
İbn Teymiyye’nin Felsefî Yöntem Eleştirisi ve Müslüman Filozofları Tekfir Etme Gerekçeleri Criticism on the Philosophical Method of Ibn Taymiyya, and His Reasons for the Takfir of Islamic
Philosophers
363-378
Muhyettin Polat
Kur’ân Âyetleri Işığında “Ses” Kavramı ve Ses Anlamını İfade Eden Bazı Kelimelerin Tespiti ve
İncelenmesi - The Concept of “Sound” in the Light of the Qur’an Verses and Determination and
Examination of Some Verses in Which Sound is Mentioned
379-393
The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies
Year: 13 - Number: 81 / Autumn 2020
SOSYAL, BEŞERİ VE İDARİ BİLİMLER /
SOCIAL, HUMAN AND ADMINISTRATIVE SCIENCES
Lütfi Şeyban
Endülüslülerin Fas’a (el-Mağrib) Göçleri ve Bölgedeki Sosyokültürel Etkileri - Migrations of
Andalusians to Morocco (al-Maghrib) and Sociocultural Effects in the Region
395-423
Yusuf Genç, Cengizhan Aynacı, Hanife Doğan, Samet Kulaoğlu
Romanların Sosyal Dışlanmaya Karşı Direnişi - The Opposition of Romani People to Social Exclusion
425-444
Bahattin Keleş
Urfa Haçlı Kontluğuna (1098-1149) Karşı Selçukluların, Zengilerin, Artukluların, Musul ve Halep
Atabeyliklerinin Ortak Mücadelesi - The Joint Struggle of the Seljuks, the Zangid, the Artuqids, the
Mosul and Aleppo Atabegs against the County of Edessa (1098-1149)
445-456
Fuat Uçar
Cumhurbaşkanı İsmet İnönü’nün Meclis Açış Konuşmalarında Sosyal Politikalara Yaklaşımı. Approach of the President Ismet Inonu to Social Policies in the Opening Speeches of Assembly
457-472
Hüseyin Arslan
Modernite ve Küreselleşme Bağlamında Türkiye'de Dini Grupların Radikalleşmesi Meselesi - In the
Context of Modernity and Globalization the Radicalization Issue of Religious Groups in Turkey
473-490
Nicolo Marchetti, Gabriele Bitelli, Francesca Franci, Atila Türker, Federico Zaina
Güneydoğu Türkiye’de Arkeoloji ve Barajlar: Mevcut Belgelemeyi İyileştirmek İçin Su Tutma
Sonrası Hasar Değerlendirme Uygulanması ve Kültürel Mirası Koruma Stratejileri - Archaeology
and Dams in South-Eastern Turkey: Applying Post-Flooding Damage Assessment to Improve Current
Documentation and Safeguarding Strategies on Cultural Heritage
491-504
Özge Gürsoy Atar
Popüler Kültür İkonu Olarak Madonna - Madonna as a Popular Culture Icon
505-532
Sevda Coşkun
Lükse Kavramsal Bir Yaklaşım - Turkophilia in the Context of Claude Farrére’s Visit in 192
533-547
The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies
Year: 13 - Number: 81 / Autumn 2020
Mehmet Emin Yakut, Mehmet Akif Ceylan
Türkiye’de Toplu Konut İdaresi (TOKİ) Konut Uygulamalarının Şehirlerin Yatay Gelişimine
Etkileri - The Effects Of Housing Authority (Tokı) Housing Applications On The Horizontal
Development Of Cities In Turkey
549-572
Mücahit Sami Küçüktığlı
Korona Virüsü Günlerinde İnternet ve Sosyal Medya Kullanımı - Internet and Social Media in
Coronavirus Days
573-593
Sanam Eivazzadeh, Aysel Erciş, Bahar Türk
İlişkisel Pazarlama Boyutlarının Müşteri Bağlılığı Üzerindeki Etkisi: Shammout Modeli
Değerlendirmesi - The Influence of Relationship Marketing on Customer Loyalty: Evaluation of
Shammout’s Model
595-605
Teslime Akgün, Önder Deniz
12 Eylül Askeri Darbesinin Nedenlerinin Cumhuriyet Gazetesi Üzerinden İncelenmesi Investigating the Reasons of the 12 September Military Coup Through the Republic Newspaper
607-628
Sadiye Kayaarslan
Boş Zaman Değerlendirme Olgusu Çerçevesinde Üniversite Gençliği ve Üniversiteli Gençlerde
Boş Zaman Değerlendirmenin Pandemi Döneminde Artan Önemi - During the Pandemic Term the
Rising Importance of Recreation Among the University Youth and University Students Within the Scope
of Recreation Fact
629-649
Recep Demir
Eğlendirici Dijital Aygıtların Olumsuz Etkilerinden Çocukları Korumada İleri Sürülen Yöntemler Methods Suggested for Protecting Children from the Negative Effects of Entertaıning Digital Devices 651-672
Orhan Turan
İngiltere Büyükelçiliği’nin Çukurova Gözlemleri (25-31 Temmuz 1950) - Çukurova Observations of
the British Embassy (25-31 July 1950)
673-689
Zülfükar Aytaç Kişman, Selinnur Gün
Uluslararası Terörizmin Bir Hedefi Olarak Sivil Havacılık - Civil Aviation as a Target of
International Terrorism
691-703
The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies
Year: 13 - Number: 81 / Autumn 2020
FİLOLOJİ / PHİLOLOGY
Yıldız Merve Öztürk
An Overview of Ecofeminism: Women, Nature and Hierarchies - Ekofeminizme Genel Bir Bakış:
Kadınlar, Doğa ve Hiyerarşiler
705-714
Ozan Deniz Yalçınkaya
Philosophy of Language: Early and Late Wittgenstein - Philosophy of Language: Early and Late
Wittgenstein
715-726
SPOR BİLİMLERİ / SPORTS SCIENCES
Kürşad Han Dönmez, Şevki Kolukısa
Masa Tenisi Sporcularının Soysal Öz-Yeterlik ve Problem Çözme Becerileri Arasındaki İlişkinin
İncelenmesi - Examination of the Relationship Between Social Self-Efficacy and Problem Solving Skills of
Table Tennis Athletes
727-736
The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies
Year: 13 - Number: 81 / Autumn 2020
Editörden;
Merhaba;
The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies (JASSS) dergisinin 2020 yılı güz sayısı
ile karşınızda olmanın mutluluğunu yaşadığımızı bilmenizi isteriz. Yoğun bir makale
başvurusu bulunmasına rağmen editöryel ekip ve hakemlerimizin gayretleri sonucunda
makale yayın süreçlerinin çok uzamadığını düşünüyoruz.
Akademide, yapılan çalışmaların görünür olması, topluma katma değer sağlaması ve
yaygın etkisinin artması hem makale yazarlarının hem de makaleyi yayınlayanların ortak
hedefidir. Bu bağlamda JASSS’ta yayınlanan makalelerin indirilme oranlarının yüksekliği
bizleri memnun etmektedir. Ayrıca yayınlanan makalelere yapılan atıflar Sobiad (Sosyal
Bilimler Atıf Dizini) veritabanında gösterilmektedir. Bu vesileyle yazarlarımızın
görünürlüğüne katkı sağlamaktan gurur duymaktayız.
Yayınlanan makalelerin öğrenme ve öğretme sürecinde tüm akademisyenlere faydalı
olmasını umuyoruz. Derginin hem elektronik hem de basılı ortamda yayınlanması sürecinde
katkı sağlayan, yol gösteren, bakış açısı kazandıran herkese teşekkür ediyorum.
Yeni bir sayıda görüşmek dileğiyle…
Doç. Dr. Serdar Yavuz
Editor of JASSS
The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies
Year: 13 - Number: 81 / Autumn 2020
From the Editor;
Hello;
We want you to know that we have the happiness of being with you with a year 2020
autumn issue of The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies (JASSS). Despite the presence
of an intense article application, we think that the editorial team and the referees put great
efforts to shorten the publishing processes.
The fact that the visibility of the work, provide added value to society and the
widespread influences are both the common goals of both the writers of the articles and the
publishers of the articles in academics. In this sense, we are pleased with the high
downloading rates of the articles published in JASSS. References to published articles are also
shown in the Sobiad (Social Sciences Citation Index) database. We are therefore proud to have
contributed to the visibility of our authors.
We hope that the published articles will be useful to all academicians in the process of
learning and teaching. I would like to thank everyone who contributed, guided, and provide
perspective in the process of publishing of the journal in both electronic and printed media.
Hope to see you in a new issue…
Assoc. Dr. Serdar Yavuz
Editor of JASSS
The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies
Year: 13 - Number: 81 / Autumn 2020
YAYIM VE YAZIM KURALLARI
Genel İlkeler
1. Jasss (The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies), uluslararası hakemli bir dergi
olup yayın yeri Elazığ-Türkiye’dir. Yılda 4 (dört) sayı olarak yayımlanır. Gerektiği
durumlarda bu sayıların dışında özel sayılar ve ek sayılar yayımlayabilir.
2. Jasss (The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies), Eğitim Bilimlerinin tüm alanları,
İlahiyat, İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Alanı, Resim, Müzik, Beden Eğitimi, Tarih, Sanat Tarihi,
Coğrafya, Dilbilim, Edebiyat gibi sosyal bilimlerin tüm alanlarıyla ilgili bilimsel makaleler,
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Kelimeler) ve İngilizce
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The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies
Year: 13 - Number: 81 / Autumn 2020
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The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies
Year: 13 - Number: 81 / Autumn 2020
The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies
Yıl: 13 - Sayı: 81 , s. 705-714, Güz 2020
An Overview of Ecofeminism: Women, Nature and Hierarchies
Yıldız Merve Öztürk
ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1052-9536
Kırgızistan Türkiye Manas Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İngiliz Dili ve Edebiyatı Anabilim Dalı Tezli
Yüksek Lisans Öğrencisi, Bişkek – KIRGIZİSTAN
Makale Geçmişi
Geliş: 23.07.2020
Kabul: 08.09.2020
On-line Yayın: 30.09.2020
Anahtar Kelimeler
Ekofeminizm
Kadın
Doğa
Eril-Merkezcilik
Toplumsal Hiyerarşi
Araştırma Makalesi
DOI:
http://dx.doi.org/10.29228/JASSS.45458
Öz
Ekofeminizm, kadınların ve doğanın eril-egemen toplumda nesnelleştirilmelerinden
dolayı çevre ve kadın meselelerinin birbiriyle bağlantılı olduğunu iddia eden
disiplinler arası eleştirel bir teoridir. Bu teoriye göre, sistem eril-merkezli bir
hiyerarşi ve dualiteler oluşturarak toplumda eşitsizlik yaratır ve erkeklere üstünlük
sağlar. Diğer yandan, bu hiyerarşi ve ikilikler eril olmayan varlıkların üzerinde baskı
kurmak ve onları ötekileştirmek için kullanılır. Böylelikle, eril-egemen hiyerarşik
düzende, erkek/kadın, kültür/doğa, insan/doğa, beyaz/siyah, bilinç/bilinçdışı,
mantık/duygu, ruh/beden gibi dualiteler meydana gelir ve birinci olan ikinciye
hükmeder. Yani, bu düzende erkek kadından, kültür doğadan ve mantık duygudan
daha üstündür. Ayrıca, erkek kadından üstün sayıldığı için tüm baskın özellikler
erkeklere atfedilir ve alt özellikler kadınlarla ilişkilendirilir. Bu şekilde, erkek
kültürü, bilinci, mantığı ve ruhu sembolize ederken, kadın doğayı, bilinçsizliği,
duyguyu ve vücudu temsil eder. Bu durumda, eril-egemen toplumda kadın ve doğa
birbirilerine yakın olurlar ve benzer şekilde kavramsallaştırılırlar. Bu yakınlığa sebep
veren temel faktör, hem doğanın hem de kadınların üreyebilme ve yaratabilme
kabiliyetleri olmasıdır. Mesela, kadınlar insanları dünyaya getirirken, doğa da
kaynaklarıyla yeryüzünde yaşamın sürekliliğini sağlar. Bir diğer faktör ise, ikisinin
de toplumda pasif rol alması ve bağımlı olmasıdır. Kadınlar doğurganlıkları
nedeniyle domestik yaşam sürmeye zorlanırlar ve pasifleşirler. Ekonomik
özgürlüklerini elde edemeyen kadınlar erkeklere bağımlı olurlar. Diğer yandan, doğa
da tabiatı gereği aktif bir varlık değildir. Doğa hareket edemediği ve konuşamadığı
için insanlara bağımlı bir pozisyonu olur. Kadın ile doğa arasındaki bu bağ
kadınların doğurganlığını doğallaştırırken, doğanın verimliliğini ise kadınlaştırır.
Örneğin, kadının doğaya daha yakın olması durumu onun üreyebilme özelliğinin
doğal bir durum olarak algılanmasını sağlar ve annelik kadının en doğal vazifesi
olarak resmedilir. Buna ek olarak, kadınların biyolojik yapıları yüzünden domestik
hayat yaşamaları da doğal algılanır. Böylelikle, kadınların toplumsal kimlik
edinememeleri ve erkeğe bağımlı olmaları normalize edilir, kadınlar toplumda obje
olarak var olurlar. Diğer yandan, doğa da eril-merkezli sistemde tıpkı bir anne
üretkenliği ve cömertliğiyle öne çıkar. Doğa yenilenebilir kaynaklarıyla ataerkil
sisteme hizmet eder. Böylelikle, sistem doğayı bolluk, sonsuz kaynak ve gücünü
sağlayan bir obje olarak algılar. Sonuç olarak, hem kadınlar hem de doğa eril-egemen
toplumda nesnelleştirilir ve sömürülür. Sistem kadınların doğa ile yakınlığını onları
toplumdan dışlamak için öne sürer. Bu çalışma, eril-merkezli hiyerarşinin ve
dualitelerin erkekleri yüceltirken eril olmayanları nasıl ezdiğine ışık tutar; kadınlarla
doğanın neden yakın algılandığını açıklar. Ayrıca çalışma bu bağın kadınları ve
doğayı ötekileştirerek onları yakın bir şekilde kavramsallaştırdığını gösterir.
Ardından çalışmada Âdem ile Havva’nın anlatısına değinilerek erkek/kadın,
kültür/doğa ve insan/doğa hiyerarşileri örneklendirilir ve bu anlatıda doğayla kadına
karşı baskıcı tavır açığa çıkarılır. Sonuç olarak, çalışma eril-merkezli toplumda aynı
muamele gördükleri için çevre ve kadın meselelerinin birbiriyle ilişkili olduğunu
savunan ekofeminist teori üzerine geniş bir perspektif sunar.
Atıf Bilgisi / Reference Information
Öztürk, Y. M. (2020). An Overview of Ecofeminism: Women, Nature and Hierarchies. Jass Studies-The
Journal of Academic Social Science Studies, Number: 81, Autumn, p. 705-714.
The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies
Year: 13 - Number: 81 , p. 705-714, Autumn 2020
Ekofeminizme Genel Bir Bakış: Kadınlar, Doğa ve Hiyerarşiler
Yıldız Merve Öztürk
Kyrgyzstan Turkey Manas University, Institute of Social Sciences, English Language and Literature,
Thesis Master Student, Bishkek – KYRGYZTAN
Artcile History
Submitted: 23.07.2020
Accepted: 08.09.2020
Published Online: 30.09.2020
Key Words
Ecofeminism
Woman
Nature
Androcentrism
Social Hierarchy
Research Article
DOI:
http://dx.doi.org/10.29228/JASSS.45458
Abstract
Ecofeminism is an interdisciplinary critical theory which claims that environmental
and women's issues are interconnected because of the objectification of women and
nature in a male-dominant society. According to this theory, the system forms a
male-centred hierarchy and dualities, creating inequality in society and providing the
superiority for men. On the other hand, the hierarchy and dualities are used to exert
pressure on non-male beings and marginalize them. Thus, in the male-dominant
hierarchical order dualities such as male/female, culture/nature, human/nature,
white/black, unconscious/unconscious, logic/emotion, soul/body occur, and former
dominates the latter. That is, in this order, man is superior to woman, culture is
superior to nature, and logic is to emotion. Also, since the man is considered superior
to the woman, all the superior features are attributed to the male and the inferior
features are associated with the female. In this way, while man symbolizes culture,
consciousness, logic and spirit, woman represents nature, unconsciousness, emotion
and body. In this case, women and nature become close to each other in a maledominant society and are similarly conceptualized. The main factor causing this
bond is the ability of both nature and women to reproduce and create. For example,
while women bring humans into the world, nature ensures the continuity of life on
earth with natural resources. Another factor is that both of them have a passive role
in society and are dependent. Women are pushed to live a domestic life and become
passive due to their fertility. Women who cannot achieve their economic freedom
become dependent on men. On the other hand, nature is not an active being
intrinsically. Since nature cannot move and speak, it has a position that is dependent
on humans. The bond between woman and nature naturalizes the fertility of women
and feminizes the fruitfulness of nature. For example, the fact that the woman is
closer to nature ensures that her reproducibility is perceived as a natural condition,
and motherhood is portrayed as the woman's most natural duty. Besides, it is natural
for women to be domestic because of their biological structure. Thus, the fact that
women cannot acquire social identity and depend on men is normalied, and women
exist as objects in society. On the other hand, nature stands out in the male-centred
system with its productivity and generosity, just like a mother. Nature serves the
patriarchal system with its renewable resources. Thus, the system perceives nature as
an object that provides abundance, infinite resources and power. As a result, both
women and nature are objectified and exploited in the masculine-dominated society.
The system puts forward women's closeness with nature to exclude them from
society. This study sheds light on how the male-centred hierarchy and dualities crush
non-male beings while glorifying men; explains why nature and women are
perceived closer to each other. The study also shows that this link by marginalizing
them conceptualizes women and nature closely. Then in the study, the hierarchy of
men/women, culture/nature and human/nature is exemplified by mentioning the
narrative of Adam and Eve, and in this narrative, oppressive attitude towards
women and nature is revealed. As a result, the study provides a broad perspective on
ecofeminist theory, which advocates that environmental and women's issues are
interrelated as they are treated the same in the male-centred society.
Yıldız Merve Öztürk
707
INTRODUCTION
Ecofeminism is a political, philosophical and social movement, and according to this
movement, women and nature are exploited by the male-dominant system. Thus, this critical theory
claims that environmental problems and women’s issues are interrelated. That is, as the patriarchal
order continues to exploit nature, discrimination against women will also endure. Similarly, as long as
the sex segregation persists, the exploitation of nature will continue. As a term, ecofeminism was first
coined in 1974 by the French thinker Françoise d'Eaubonne. According to this theory, white Western
patriarchal societies create a male-centred culture, and through this culture impose social hierarchies
and dualities. The hierarchies and dualities give superiority to men while subduing non-male beings.
For example, dualities such as men/women, white/black, culture/nature, West/East, strong/weak,
soul/body, mind/emotion are put forward to create hierarchies in western societies. These dualities
create an unequal order in society, and impose a superior/inferior relationship. Thus, while the former
is dominant, the latter is subordinate. Just as Pelin Kümbet notifies, in this system, the former asserts
control over the latter; therefore, the latter is discriminated and underestimated (2012:172). In this case,
for example, white people have superior positions, while black people have inferior positions. Also,
while the East is represented as a barbarian and uncivilized, the West symbolizes civilization and
enlightenment. Edward Said underlines that East is inferior, ignorant, and the West is superior, logical,
civilized and philanthropic (1977:301). In this way, the hierarchical orders that generalize binary
concepts enable men to be the primary sex while making women the second sex in the words of De
Beauvoir. Similarly, this order also causes culture to overpower nature. Therefore, since culture,
intelligence and powerfulness are considered as superior features, they represent men. On the other
hand, nature, emotions and powerlessness are perceived as inferior properties, and they are ascribed to
women. Belonging to the same subcategory creates a link between women and nature. However, this
situation also conceptualizes them similarly in a male-centred society. Therefore, in male-dominant
societies, women and nature exist as inferior and subordinate beings. The system oppresses both of
them simultaneously. Thus, women's issues and environmental problems become interrelated, and
ecofeminists aim to liberate women and nature from the oppression of the male-dominance. Kümbet
mentions that if the male-hegemony ends discriminating each creature, the harmony and peace in the
societies may reoccur, which are essential for a more democratic world (Kümbet, 2012:185). On the
other hand, Serpil Oppermann clarifies that ecological studies aim to destroy the beliefs that are against
the living and non-living beings, and to create an ecocentric point of view (2012:15). Consequently, since
gender inequalities and environmental problems are interrelated issues, ecofeminism by drawing
attention on women and nature, aims to free them from the oppression of the male-dominance.
As social irregularities like exploitation of women and nature are interdependent, the types of
oppression are also interrelated. For example, Karen Warren remarks that one form of inequality can
help to find another sort of imbalance like sexism, racism, classism, colonialism, ageism, which are the
different examples of abuse (2000:1). Therefore, the male-dominant system generalizes the relationship
between oppressor and oppressed through hierarchies; hence, ecofeminists handle all these forms of
inequalities. It means that minorities and non-male beings like women; people of colour, poor people,
people with disabilities, animals and children are oppressed by the male-dominant system and
ecofeminists seek to liberate them from the oppression. In a male-centred order men dominate over
women because of women’s reproductive system. Thus, women cannot be independent and they
become men’s domestic slaves. As Sherry Ortner notifies, since women give birth, they are supposed to
be at home and do the cooking and cleaning (1996:34). Just as Rosemary Radford Ruether mentions,
women “are isolated, sedentary, caring for children, cooking food (2015:15). Therefore, in the malecentred society, the system affirms women’s exclusion, and reinforces the dominance of men.
An Overview of Ecofeminism: Women, Nature and Hierarchies
Ecofeminists aim to destroy the hierarchy between men and women and finalize women’s
marginalisation. Additionally, in underdeveloped countries, women and children are also oppressed by
the male-dominant system. For example, finding water is women’s and children’s duty in
underdeveloped countries. Warren remarks that African women and children walk long steeps to reach
the water (Warren, 2000:7). However, this is a difficult mission and performing this mission deteriorates
women’s and children’s health; they face challenging conditions while walking through the forests.
Therefore, women of colour and children are also abused in male-dominant societies. Thus,
ecofeminists also draw attention to women and children in the third world countries and intend to
liberate them from the oppression. On the other hand, the male-dominance also treats animals as
sources of money; they kill and commodify animals to gain power. Men hunt and kill animals in order
to make a profit. Thus, humans exploit animals because they perceive animals as inferior beings. In this
way, Greta Gaard suggests herbivorous diet. She also mentions that murdering animals and consuming
them is cannibalism (1993:299). Hence, consuming meat is another form of oppression because it
approves the superiority of humans over nature. Ecofeminists also fight against the system that treats
animals and nature as objects. Therefore, all the non-males and minorities like women, women of colour
or animals exist as commodities in the society. For example, Charlotte Perkins Gilman exemplifies in
Women and Economics the objectification of women and animals:
“The labor of women in the house, certainly, enables men to produce more wealth than they
otherwise could; and in this way women are economic factors in society. But so are horses. The labor of
horses enables men to produce more wealth than they otherwise could. The horse is an economic factor in
society. But the horse is not economically independent, nor is the woman.” (2018:10)
Women provide economic power to men by serving them in the domestic sphere. On the other
hand, horses also bring economic wealth to men by serving them in the public sphere. In this way,
Gilman demonstrates that in a male-centred society, both women and nature have close positions as
they exist as objects. In this way, the male-dominance oppresses non-male beings and minorities, and
treats them as objects. For this reason, women’s issues, exploitation of animals and other disparities like
ageism, classism etc. become interrelated as they represent the same kind of oppression done by the
male-hegemony. Just as Greg Garrard notes, dominance comes to the fore in terms of the
discriminations against class, species, race and gender (2004:26). Consequently, ecofeminism handles
not only nature's exploitation and female's subordination, but also issues such as class, race, gender and
age matters.
Social Hierarchies and Dualities
The dualistic concepts such as male/female, strong/weak, reason/emotion, mind/body or
culture/nature play an active role in shaping gender roles in male-dominant societies. In this system,
men have superior positions, and they represent culture, consciousness, intellect and power. However,
women are inferior, and they represent the opposite characteristics such as nature, unconsciousness,
body and weakness. Thus, men claim authority by obtaining these superior features and women
become subordinate beings in male-dominant system. In other words, these hierarchies cause men's
dominance over women. In this way, these hierarchies serve as vehicles to create a division between
genders. That is, womanhood and manhood become completely opposite concepts in gender-based
societies. For example, as women are perceived as inadequate beings, they are associated with
inferiority. However, women’s biological system is another factor that causes their inferiority and
subordination. Therefore, women stay at home, clean, cook and take care of the child. The system
causes women to become dependent beings. As Simone De Beauvoir states, women have to be obedient,
powerless, futile and passive (2011:402). Thus, they cannot acquire independent identities. They exist
708
Yıldız Merve Öztürk
only as mothers, wives or daughters. On the other hand, men achieve dominance as they exist freely in
the outer world. In addition to their personal identities, men also acquire social identities. Hence, men
are powerful, autonomous and dominant. Therefore, by creating such a division, hierarchies polarize
women and men. Huey-li Li also mentions that men and women are polarised in order to enhance
men's hegemony, and women's "otherness" in the hierarchy (1993:288). Thus, while men are ultimately
superior beings, women exist as “others”. They become indescribable without men. De Beauvoir
mentions that women are nothing more than what men determine (2011:26). Women cannot have
identity without men. Consequently, in patriarchal societies, while men are perceived as primary
beings, women exist as secondary beings. Therefore, by creating a contrast between genders, the
hierarchies put forward the hegemony of men and “otherness” of women.
709
Although hierarchies and dualities are used to polarise genders, their main goal is not to create
conflict between genders, but to ensure men's dominance. This specific factor is the main objective in
the hierarchies in the male-centred system. As Val Plumwood remarks, superiority is the main
objective, and it makes the subcategory to be objectified (2017:77). Thus, while the hierarchies provide
dominance to the superior category, they also ensure the dependence of subcategory, because the
independence of subcategory endangers the superiority of the male-dominance. Hence, in the malecentred societies, non-male beings which represent the inferior category exist as commodities. For
example, the male-dominance categorizes the non-male beings similarly, and women and nature belong
to the same subcategory in this system. By classifying them similarly, the system generalizes their
dependency and causes their discrimination. Hence, while the hierarchies provide authority to men,
they ostracize women and nature. That is, hierarchies affirm the exploitation of women and nature in
order to give supremacy to men. Thus, women and nature cannot have unique features or be
autonomous. In this way, the hierarchies demonstrate that achieving superiority is the main objective of
the male-dominant hierarchies. However, they also lead to the marginalisation of women and nature.
Therefore, the male-centred system uses hierarchies and dualistic concepts bring superiority to men
while subduing non-males.
Consequently, the hierarchies and dualities are the building blocks of male-centred societies as
they ensure the continuity of the male-dominance. However, the male-dominance has also dependency
on the women even if it claims to be superior. In other words, the superior category depends on the
inferior category. Because the subcategory cannot be inferior without an upper category, and the upper
category cannot achieve dominance without a subcategory. As Plumwood notifies, there cannot be a
master without the slave (2017:72). Thus, man cannot achieve superiority without an opposite concept,
like a woman. Also, culture cannot emerge without nature. Hence, the superiority of men is not
significant without women since hierarchies cannot exist without two different creatures. Therefore,
even though the men portray themselves as independent beings, they rely upon the inferiority of the
non-male creatures. As Plumwood stresses, there must be a category of subordinate beings, and
through them, the dominant group can be identified, and this leads to the constant state of hierarchical
order (2017:73). In this case, non-male creatures do not only reinforce male-dominance, but they also
ensure the existence of the hierarchical system by being an essential element of it. Thus, the contrast
concepts complement each other. The male-dominant system becomes the centre, and non-male beings
become attached to the centre. As a result, there is a close relationship between the oppressor and the
oppressed which ensures hierarchical order in male-dominant system.
Women’s Close Relationship with Nature
In male-dominant societies women and nature have close positions to each other, and this also
establishes a close relationship between them. Firstly, the fact that both women and nature reproduce is
An Overview of Ecofeminism: Women, Nature and Hierarchies
the leading property that creates a link between them. In gender-based societies, women’s most
prominent feature is their fertility; women can reproduce and create a life, just like nature. For example,
women create humans; they raise children and feed them. Just as Roach highlights, women “are the lifegivers of the human species” (2003:40). A mother produces milk to her child and provides maintenance
to the family. For this reason, women are conceptualised as generous and compassionate creatures that
provide fruitfulness. Therefore, as Julia Kristeva states, motherhood is a cultural process (2016:47).
Culture naturalizes women’s identities as mothers and wives. Likewise, nature is just like a mother,
ensures the continuity of life on earth with its resources. Nature creates life and supplies products with
its generosity and abundance. It gives foods for living beings; it supplies air, and provides materials for
a living continuously. Thus, nature is mentioned as Mother Nature, motherland, or mother earth. As
Catherine Roach clarifies in Mother/Nature, Popular Culture and Environmental Ethics that nature
creates resources limitlessly and unrequitedly, it feeds and cares for the kids and humans (2003:68). The
system conceptualizes nature as a mother with infinite resources. In this way, the male-dominance
treats both women and nature as providers, and they both are compassionate and generous. For
example, Carl Gustav Jung highlights that mothers represent the elements that are associated with
fruitfulness and fertility, like arable fields, gardens, rocks, caves, trees or flowers (2015:121).
Additionally, Gaard exemplifies a situation that underlines the closeness between women and nature.
Gaard mentions that when people go to natural excursions, they throw coins to the pool, expecting that
it can realise their dreams (1993:302). People also tie rope to trees and make a wish with an expectation
that it will help. Humans expect that nature will relieve and provide fruitfulness, just like a mother. As
Sami Brisson remarks, nature protects her when she is mournful or exhausted; therefore, it symbolises
maternity (2017:15). Therefore, nature is perceived as a generous mother, while becoming a mothers is
seen as women’s natural duty. In human consciousness women and nature have a close bond thanks to
their reproductivity. As a result, reproductivity and generosity are other similar features that construct
a close relationship between women and nature.
Since both women and nature are inferior in the male-centred hierarchy, they have passive and
dependent roles. Women are passive and dependent because they are seen as incapable beings because
of their reproductivity, and it also prevents them from gaining financial freedom. Giving birth is seen as
their natural duty; therefore, the society generalises women’s dependency on men. On the other hand,
since nature is not an active being intrinsically, it cannot overpower humans. That is, humans are
intellectually more powerful than animals, and it causes a hierarchy between them and reinforces the
dependence of nature. For example, the male-authority consumes natural means swiftly and eradicates
them (Gaard, 2012:303). However, nature cannot react to these external factors. Thus, nature also
becomes prominent with its passivity and dependency. While women are dependent on men, nature is
dependent on humans. In this way, attributing similar characteristics to women and nature naturalizes
women, while feminizing nature. However, Greta Gaard states that linking feminine aspects to nature
ensures its subordination (1993:305). That is, ascribing feminine aspects like passivity and dependency
strengthens the subordination of nature. Gaard also remarks that attributing feminine features to nature
and trying to oppress it is a sign of racism (1993:305). Similarly, ascribing natural features to women is
also a sign of discrimination. Thus, thanks to these aspects, the male-centred system creates a closeness
between women and nature, which causes their marginalization. As a result, passivity and dependency
are seen as natural and feminine features, which establish a bond between women and nature. Thank to
this bond, women and nature have close positions in male-dominant societies.
As a result of close conceptualising of women and nature, nature becomes associated with
sexuality in male-dominant societies. Just as Gaard notifies, nature is represented as an object of desire
because it gains a feminine identity through statements such as “virgin forest”, “untouched land”
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(1993:304). Gaard also clarifies that nature connotes desire because women are also associated with
passion in the Western culture (1993:305). However, women are treated as objects not only in Western
traditions, but in the most traditions of the world. Thus, women’s subordination, which is a general
state, causes their passivity. Also, the environment has a passive role due to its motionless and
dependent state. External factors, such as culture, modify and exploit nature. Therefore, the passivity of
nature is a factor that feminises and objectifies it. The phrases like "unspoiled forest" demonstrate that
nature is an object of desire. In this way, the definitions like "virgin", "untouched" or "unspoiled"
symbolise not only women’s representation as objects of desire, but also nature. Women and nature
serve cognitively as entities of passion. In this way, in male-dominant systems nature, women and
submission exist as unity in a patriarchal culture. Thus, in a male-superior system, the passivity causes
women and nature to exist as objects of desire, and it creates a close relationship between them.
Hierarchies as Cultural Vehicles
As a result of the male-centred hierarchies, the system allows the culture to overpower nature.
However, the system ignores the fact that nature is the essence of every living and non-living creature.
As Terry Eagleton states, although culture evolves from nature, people perceive culture as the opposite
of nature (2000:7). In addition to this, cultural vehicles which humans utilise to transfigure nature also
come from nature (Eagleton, 2000:8). Therefore, culture is a part of nature, and nature is the beginning
of the world, and culture/nature hierarchy is an artificial system created by humans. Nature is
independent intrinsically, and culture evolves, thanks to nature. As Lori Gruen points out, nature is also
intrinsically precious (1997:363). For example, if to analyse from the scientific perspective, Georges
Lemaître's the Big Bang demonstrates that the cosmos and environment are known to occur before all
belief systems, cultures and norms. Yuval Noah Harari exemplifies in his book Sapiens and the Brief
History of Humankind the steps of the genesis that emerge with the Big Bang theory. He mentions that
firstly the physical universe, secondarily, the substances and their transactions; thirdly the organisms
such as unicellulars, animals, humans and plants, and lastly the homo-sapiens along with history and
culture emerged (2019:19). Hence, first, the physical environment develops, then the cultural beliefs.
Also, in the Greek creation myth, there is emptiness before everything else, called Chaos. After the
Chaos, Gaia comes into existence, which symbolises the mother of land, or in other words, nature. In
this narrative, the humanity reaches civilisation when Prometheus gives fire to the human race. Thus,
even though nature is independent, humans use the richness of it; and they create the dominant human
culture and claim superiority over nature. For these reasons, even though culture has a more dominant
position, the dependency of nature to culture is a cultural process. Nature's subordination and the
hegemony of culture is a result of humankind's effort.
Similarly, although men and women are homo-sapiens, and they both have the same
fundamental capabilities, men dominate over women. However, Friedrich Engels mentions that
societies were not always male-centred; there existed matrilineal societies in prehistorical times
(2004:11). According to Engels, when men discovered how to use nature and sparked an agricultural
revolution in prehistory, they became wealthy and gained dominance. Hence, men’s discovery of the
environment caused the male-hegemony and led societies to be male-centred. Therefore, Engels asserts
that women’s subordination is an unnatural process done by men (2004:9). In this way, claiming that
matriarchal states also existed, Engels highlights that women can also have dominant positions in
society. This idea puts forward the belief that women are as powerful as men. Thus, the dominance of
men is a cultural and artificial process. Harari also believes that the division between women and men
is a cultural factor. However, Harari notifies that the cultural factors between genders emerge due to
biological factors (2019:154). Therefore, the inferiority and subordination of women to men is an indirect
situation; the system uses women's fertility as a weapon to subdue them. In this way, just like the
An Overview of Ecofeminism: Women, Nature and Hierarchies
culture/nature hierarchy, men/women hierarchy is also a cultural condition generated by the maledominance. While the male-centred system subdues nature to culture, it also causes women’s
submission to men. As a result, although the male-centred systems put forward inequalities, nature is
not dependent on culture, and men and women are equals naturally.
The narrative of Adam and Eve is a palpable example of the emergence of hierarchies like
men/women, human/nature and culture/nature. The story reveals the man/woman, culture/nature and
human/nature dualities, by highlighting the unequal relationship between them. In the first narrative,
God creates nature, and then, Adam and Eve. Later, God orders man and woman to dominate over the
animals, waters, air and each living being in the world. Here, Adam and Eve appear in the story
simultaneously, and they subdue nature. According to Carolyn Merchant, there exists equality between
the two sexes in the first narrative (2003:22). Besides, Merchant also states that this narrative describes
nature as a dreamlike land, and that the animals and plants are magnificent (2003:17). Thus, although
nature occurs before anything else, Adam and Eve oppress nature. In addition to this, in the second
narrative, after creating nature, God first creates Adam, lets him rule over the animals and land. After
realizing that Adam is lonely, God makes a female companion for him out of his rib bone. Therefore,
there is gender equality in the first narrative; however, in the second narrative, the equality is
destroyed. Also, in both narratives, there is a human/nature hierarchy, as humans overpower the
environment. In this way, Adam dominates over Eve and nature; he is the authority in the garden. Just
as Merchant remarks, as a man, Adam is the representation of the Father, the Lord, dominance, order
and republic in the Genesis (2013:21). On the other hand, Eve is the representation of submission and
inferiority because she communicates with the serpent that tricks her. Thus, in the creation myth Eve
allegorically symbolises the garden and nature, and she is inferior to Adam (Merchant, 2003:21). As
Elmas Şahin also remarks, women’s subordination to men and their sin occurs with the emergence of
humankind (2015:85). As a result, the narratives impose both man/woman and human/nature
hierarchies. Adam subjugates Eve, and humankind overpowers nature. Therefore, the creation myth is
an example of how the hierarchies become a part of the Western male-dominant culture.
In addition to these hierarchies, the story also uncovers the culture/nature hierarchy. When
Adam and Eve eat the forbidden fruit, they suddenly experience a change. God acknowledges that
Adam and Eve have explored insufficiency (Ruether, 2005:116). Adam and Eve realize that their natures
are different from each other. They eat the forbidden fruit because of Eve. Since Eve, as Susan Griffin
states, is “the Devil's Gateway”, and that “sin and afterwards death came into the world because Eve
consorted with the devil in the body of a serpent” (1979:9) God punishes Eve more severely. God
augments her childbearing pain, and orders Adam to rule over her. Hence, due to Eve's curiosity and
her closeness to nature, God puts forward inequality between genders. Therefore, the forbidden fruit
causes the hierarchical order between Adam and Eve; however, it also gives rise to the culture/nature
hierarchy. The fruit causes the transition from naturalness to civilisation. After eating the fruit, Adam
and Eve obtain a new belief, custom and social behaviour. They start acting differently and cover
themselves with the leaves, which symbolise the exploit of nature for the cultural improvement. Thus,
the fruit represents the emergence of culture by using natural resources. This enlightenment drags
Adam and Eve to oppressing naturality, and assuming new behaviours. Besides, after the realisation,
Adam and Eve begin realising each other's differences. Therefore, the fruit which leads to the
emergence of culture causes the polarisation between the genders. As a result, the story conveys the
message that men should not comply with nature and women because they are inferior to them. The
story also underlines that humans use nature in order to shape the culture. Therefore, the narrative puts
forward also the dominance of culture over nature. Consequently, by emphasising women's closeness
to nature, the narratives expose man/woman, human/nature and culture/nature hierarchies.
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Conclusion
Ecofeminism is an interdisciplinary theory that reveals that patriarchal societies objectify
women and nature and gain power. According to this theory, dualities and hierarchies are the most
prominent features of male-dominated societies. Thanks to these hierarchies and dualistic concepts, the
male-domination maintains its strength and objectifies the non-males. The system gives superiority to
concepts such as men, culture and intellect, and lets them to overpower women, nature and emotions.
As a result of this hierarchical order, woman, “whose voice is a hissing serpent” (Griffin, 1979:8) and
nature lose their intrinsic values. Women become tools to reproduce and serve to reinforce the malecentred system. Therefore, the only duty of women is considered as reproducing, bringing humans to
the society and feeding them; and the woman is prevented from being free and independent. Similarly,
the male-dominant system exploits nature to be more authoritative. The system commodifies animals,
murders them to make a profit, and exploits the natural resources relentlessly. In this way, by putting
forward their superiority, men destroy both the social and natural balance. Consequently, in a system
where the male-centred society objectifies nature and women, they have a close relationship. Besides,
since according to ecofeminists, all types of oppression are interconnected, the environment will
continue to be exploited as long as women are marginalized in society. More, inequalities created using
factors such as race, class, religion, gender, age will also maintain as long as other forms of oppression
exist. As a result, by shedding light on the exclusion of women and the exploitation of nature,
ecofeminists aim to annihilate hierarchies and dualities and restore the harmony in the societies.
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