SESSION 1: INTRODUCTION TO ACADEMIC WRITING ......................................................... 2
SESSION 2: UNITY AND COHERENCE .................................................................................. 10
SESSION 3: AVOIDING COMMON MISTAKES ....................................................................... 18
SESSION 4: PARAPHRASING ................................................................................................ 32
SESSION 5: PARAPHRASING ................................................................................................ 42
SESSION 6: PARAPHRASING ................................................................................................ 51
SESSION 7: SUMMARIZING ................................................................................................... 61
SESSION 8: SUMMARIZING ................................................................................................... 69
SESSION 9: SYNTHESIZING .................................................................................................. 79
SESSION 10: SYNTHESIZING ................................................................................................ 88
SESSION 11: ESSAY .............................................................................................................. 98
SESSION 12-13: CAUSE-EFFECT ESSAY ........................................................................... 104
SESSION 14-15: ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY ........................................................................ 105
SESSION 16: REVISION ....................................................................................................... 105
APPENDIX: EXAMPLES OF PLAGIARISM............................................................................ 110
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SESSION 1: INTRODUCTION TO ACADEMIC WRITING
Content
Introduction to Academic Writing
Objectives
Students will be able to:


Know features of academic writing
Know ways to avoid plagiarism
A-FEATURES OF ACADEMIC WRITING
1. The purpose of academic writing
Writers should be clear why they are writing. The most common reasons for writing include:

to report on a piece of research the writer has conducted

to answer a question the writer has been given or chosen

to discuss a subject of common interest and give the writer‟s view

to synthesize research done by others on a topic
 Can you suggest any other reasons?

_________________________________________

_________________________________________

_________________________________________

_________________________________________
2. Common types of academic writing
Below are the most common types of written work produced by students.
 Match the terms on the left to the definitions on the right.
Notes
A piece of research, either individual or group work, with the topic chosen by
the student(s).
Report
The longest piece of writing normally done by a student (20,000+ words) often
for a higher degree, on a topic chosen by the student.
Project
A written record of the main points of a text or lecture, for a student‟s personal
use.
Essay
A general term for any academic essay, report, presentation or article.
Dissertation/
A description of something a student has done e.g. conducting a survey.
Thesis
Paper
The most common type of written work, with the title given by the teacher,
normally 1000–5000 words.
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3. The format of long and short writing tasks
Short
essays
(including
exam
answers) generally have this pattern:
Introduction
Main body
Conclusion
Longer essays may include:
Introduction
Main body
Literature review
Case study
Discussion
Conclusion
References
Appendices
Dissertations and journal articles
Abstract
may have:
List of contents
List of tables
Introduction
Main body
Literature review
Case study
Findings
Discussion
Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
Appendices
 Find the words in the lists above that match the following definitions:
(a) A short summary of 100–200 words, which explains the paper‟s purpose and main findings.
__________________________________________________________
(b) A list of all the sources the writer has mentioned in the text.
__________________________________________________________
(c) A section, at the end, where additional information is included.
__________________________________________________________
(d) A short section where people who have helped the writer are thanked.
__________________________________________________________
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(e) Part of the main body in which the writer discusses relevant research.
__________________________________________________________
(f) A section where one particular example is described in detail.
__________________________________________________________
4. Some text features of academic writing
 Read the text below and identify the features underlined, using the words in the box.
sentence
heading
paragraph
title
sub-title
phrase
(a) A fishy story
(b) Misleading health claims regarding omega-3 fatty acids
(c) Introduction
(d) There has been considerable discussion recently about the benefits of omega-3 fatty acids
in the diet. (e) It is claimed that these reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease and may even
combat obesity. Consequently food producers have added omega-3s to products ranging from
margarine to soft drinks in an attempt to make their products appear healthier and hence
increase sales.
(f) However, consumers may be unaware that there are two types of omega-3s. The best (longchain fatty acids) are derived from fish, but others (short-chain fatty acids) come from cheaper
sources such as soya. This latter group have not been shown to produce the health benefits
linked to the long-chain variety. According to Tamura et al. (2009) positive results may only be
obtained either by eating oily fish three times a week, or by taking daily supplements containing
500mg of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) or docosahexaenoic acid (DHA).
(a) __________________________________________________________
(b) __________________________________________________________
(c) __________________________________________________________
(d) __________________________________________________________
(e) __________________________________________________________
(f) __________________________________________________________
OTHER COMMON TEXT FEATURES
(a) Reference to sources using citation:
According to Tamura et al. (2009)
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(b) The use of abbreviations to save space:
docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)
(c) Italics: used to show words from other languages:
Tamura et al. (= and others)
(d) Brackets: used to give subsidiary information or to clarify a point:
. . . but others (short-chain fatty acids) come from cheaper sources such as soya.
B-AVOIDING PLAGIARISM
1. What is plagiarism?
Basically plagiarism means taking ideas or words from a source without giving credit
acknowledgement) to the author. It is seen as a kind of theft, and is considered to be an
academic crime. In academic work, ideas and words are seen as private property belonging to
the person who first thought or wrote them. Therefore it is important for all students, including
international ones, to understand the meaning of plagiarism and learn how to prevent it in their
work.
The main difficulty that students face is that they are expected:

to show that they have read the principal experts on a subject – by giving citations

to explain these ideas in their own words and come to their own original conclusions
There are several reasons why students must avoid plagiarism:

Copying the work of others will not help you develop your own understanding.

To show that you understand the rules of the academic community.

Plagiarism is easily detected by teachers and computer software.

It may lead to failing a course or even having to leave college.
2. Acknowledging sources
If you borrow from or refer to the work of another person, you must show that you have done
this by providing the correct acknowledgement. There are two ways to do this:
Summary and citation
Smith (2009) claims that the modern state wields power in new ways.
Quotation and citation
According to Smith: „The point is not that the state is in retreat but that it is developing
new forms of power . . .‟ (Smith, 2009: 103).
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These in-text citations are linked to a list of references at the end of the main text, which
includes the following details:
The citation makes it clear to the reader that you have read Smith and borrowed this idea from
him. This reference gives the reader the necessary information to find the source if the reader
needs more detail.
3. Degrees of plagiarism
Although plagiarism essentially means copying somebody else‟s work, it is not always easy to
define.
 Working with a partner, consider the following academic situations and decide if they
are plagiarism.
Situation
Yes/No
1
Copying a paragraph, but changing a few words and giving a citation.
Yes
2
Cutting and pasting a short article from a website, with no citation.
3
Taking two paragraphs from a classmate‟s essay, without citation.
4
Taking a graph from a textbook, giving the source.
5
Taking a quotation from a source, giving a citation but not using quotation
marks.
6
Using something that you think of as general knowledge, e.g. large areas of
rainforest have been cut down in recent years.
7
Using a paragraph from an essay you wrote and had marked the previous
semester, without citation.
8
Using the results of your own research, e.g. from a survey, without citation.
9
Discussing an essay topic with a group of classmates and using some of
their ideas in your own work.
10
Giving a citation for some information but mis-spelling the author‟s name.
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This exercise shows that plagiarism can be accidental. For example, situation (10) above, when
the author‟s name is mis-spelt, is technically plagiarism but really carelessness. In situation (9)
your teacher may have encouraged you to discuss the topic in groups, and then write an essay
on your own, in which case it would not be plagiarism. Self-plagiarism is also theoretically
possible, as in situation (7). It can be difficult to decide what is general or common knowledge
(situation 6), but you can always try asking colleagues.
However, it is not a good excuse to say that you didn‟t know the rules of plagiarism, or that you
didn‟t have time to write in your own words. Nor is it adequate to say that the rules are different
in your own country. In general, anything that is not common knowledge or your own ideas and
research (published or not) must be cited and referenced.
OTHER TYPES OF PLAGIARISM

The
following
information
is
retrieved
from
https://www.niu.edu/academic-
integrity/faculty/committing/examples/index.shtml. Check your Appendix to have more
examples.
Direct Plagiarism
Copying another writer's work with no attempt to
acknowledge that the material was found in an external
source
Direct “Patchwork” Plagiarism
Copying material from several writers & rearranging with
citation
Insufficient Citation of Quotes
Incorporating another writer's words or phrases within a
larger paraphrase, without quotation marks or citation
Paraphrasing without Citing
Changing the words of an original source, but uses the
ideas without citing
Insufficient Citation of Paraphrase
Changing the words of an original source & using the
author's ideas with attempts to acknowledge the
material's source(s), but without correctly citing
Plagiarism in Graphs
Using graphs, charts, figures, or images from a source
without citing
Misrepresentation
of
Common Failing to cite, believing info is "common knowledge"
Knowledge
4. Avoiding plagiarism by summarising and paraphrasing
Quotations should not be over-used, so you must learn to paraphrase and summarise in order
to include other writers‟ ideas in your work. This will demonstrate your understanding of a text to
your teachers.
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
Paraphrasing involves re-writing a text so that the language is substantially different
while the content stays the same.

Summarising means reducing the length of a text but retaining the main points.
Normally both skills are used at the same time, as can be seen in the examples below.
 Read the following text and then compare the five paragraphs below, which use ideas
and information from it. Decide which are plagiarized and which are acceptable, and give
your reasons in the table.
RAILWAY MANIAS
In 1830 there were a few dozen miles of railways in all the world – chiefly consisting of the line
from Liverpool to Manchester. By 1840 there were over 4,500 miles, by 1850 over 23,500. Most
of them were projected in a few bursts of speculative frenzy known as the „railway manias‟ of
1835–7 and especially in 1844–7; most of them were built in large part with British capital,
British iron, machines and know-how. These investment booms appear irrational, because in
fact few railways were much more profitable to the investor than other forms of enterprise, most
yielded quite modest profits and many none at all: in 1855 the average interest on capital sunk
in the British railways was a mere 3.7 per cent.
(From The Age of Revolution by Eric Hobsbawm, 1995, p. 45)
a) Between 1830 and 1850 there was very rapid development in railway construction
worldwide. Two periods of especially feverish growth were 1835–7 and 1844–7. It is
hard to understand the reason for this intense activity, since railways were not
particularly profitable investments and some produced no return at all. (Hobsbawm,
1995: 45)
b) There were only a few dozen miles of railways in 1830, including the Liverpool to
Manchester line. But by 1840 there were over 4,500 miles and over 23,500 by 1850.
Most of them were built in large part with British capital, British iron, machines and knowhow, and most of them were projected in a few bursts of speculative frenzy known as the
„railway manias‟ of 1835–7 and especially in 1844–7. Because most yielded quite
modest profits and many none at all these investment booms appear irrational. In fact
few railways were much more profitable to the investor than other forms of enterprise.
(Hobsbawm, 1995: 45)
c) As Hobsbawm (1995) argues, nineteenth-century railway mania was partly irrational:
„because in fact few railways were much more profitable to the investor than other forms
of enterprise, most yielded quite modest profits and many none at all: in 1855 the
average interest on capital sunk in the British railways was a mere 3.7 per cent.‟
(Hobsbawm, 1995: 45)
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d) Globally, railway networks increased dramatically from 1830 to 1850; the majority in
short periods of „mania‟ (1835–7 and 1844–7). British technology and capital were
responsible for much of this growth, yet the returns on the investment were hardly any
better than comparable business opportunities. (Hobsbawm, 1895: 45)
e) The dramatic growth of railways between 1830 and 1850 was largely achieved using
British technology. However, it has been claimed that much of this development was
irrational because few railways were much more profitable to the investor than other
forms of enterprise; most yielded quite modest profits and many none at all.
Plagiarised or acceptable? Reason?
a
b
c
d
e
5. Avoiding plagiarism by developing good study habits
Few students deliberately try to cheat by plagiarising, but some develop poor study habits that
result in the risk of plagiarism.
 Working with a partner, add to the list of positive habits.

Plan your work carefully so you don‟t have to write the essay at the last minute.

Take care to make notes in your own words, not copying from the source.

Keep a record of all the sources you use (e.g. author, date, title, page numbers,
publisher).

Make sure your in-text citations are all included in the list of references.

__________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________
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SESSION 2: UNITY AND COHERENCE
Content
Unity and coherence
Objectives
Students will be able to:

Understand unity and coherence in a paragraph

Apply ways to achieve coherence in writing
A-UNITY
You achieve unity by

discussing only one idea in a paragraph.

always staying on the topic in your supporting sentences.
 The three paragraphs that follow all discuss the same topic – Effects of Colors. Only
one of them shows unity. First read the paragraphs. Then answer these questions.
1. Which paragraph has unity?
2. Which paragraph does not have unity because it discusses two different topics?
3. Which paragraph does not have unity because it has sentences that are not related to the
main topic?
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Paragraph 1
Colors create biological reactions in our bodies. These reactions, in turn, can change our
behavior. In one study, prisoners were put in a pink room, and they underwent a drastic and
measurable decrease in muscle strength and hostility within 2.7 seconds. In another study,
athletes needing short burst of energy were exposed to red light. Their muscle strength
increased by 13.5 percent, and electrical activity in their arm muscles increased by 5.8 percent.
Athletes needing more endurance for longer performances responded best when exposed to
blue light. Other studies have shown that the color green is calming. Green was a sacred color
to the Egyptians, representing the hope and joy of spring. It is also a sacred color to Moslems.
Many mosques and religious temples throughout the world use green (the color of renewal and
growth) and blue (the color of heaven) to balance heavenly peace with spiritual growth. To sum
up, color influences us in many ways (Daniels 10).1
Paragraph 2
Colors create biological reactions in our bodies. These reactions, in turn, can change our
behavior. In one study, prisoners were put in a pink room, and they underwent a drastic and
measurable decrease in muscle strength and hostility within 2.7 seconds. In another study,
athletes needing short bursts of energy were exposed to red light. Their muscle strength
increased by 13.5 percent, and electrical activity in their arm muscles increased by 5.8 percent.
Athletes needing more endurance for longer performances responded best when exposed to
blue light. Other studies have shown that the color green is calming. After London's Blackfriars
Bridge was painted green, the number of suicides decreased by 34 percent. These and other
studies clearly demonstrate that color affects not only our moods but our behavior as well
(Daniels 10).
Paragraph 3
Colors create biological reactions in our bodies. These reactions, in turn, can change our
behavior. In one study, athletes needing short bursts of energy were exposed to red light. Their
muscle strength increased by 13.5 percent, and electrical activity in their arm muscles increased
by 5.8 percent. Athletes needing more endurance for longer performances responded best
when exposed to blue light. Blue is not a good color for dinnerware, however. Food looks less
appetizing when it is served on blue plates, perhaps because very few foods in nature are of
that color. Other studies have shown that the color green is calming. After London's Blackfriars
Bridge was painted green, the number of suicides from it decreased by 34 percent. It is clear
that color affects not just our moods, but our behavior as well (Daniels 10).
 Identify off-topic sentences
Both of the following paragraphs contain one or more sentences that are off the topic.
Step 1 Locate and underline the topic sentence of each paragraph.
Step 2 Cross out the sentence or sentences that are off the topic.
1
Daniels, Amanda. "Curing with Color." From House to Home Feb./Mar. 2004: 8-10. Published by the Marin
Independent Journal, Novato, California.
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Paragraph 1
Adventure travel is the hot trend in the tourism industry. Ordinary people are no longer content
to spend their two weeks away from the office resting on a sunny beach in Florida. More and
more often, they are choosing to spend their vacations rafting down wild rivers, hiking through
steamy rain forests, climbing the world's highest mountains, or crossing slippery glaciers.
People of all ages are choosing educational study tours for their vacations.
Paragraph 2
Daredevil sports are also becoming popular. Young people especially are increasingly willing to
risk life and limb while mountain biking, backcountry snowboarding, or high-speed
skateboarding. Soccer is also popular in the United States now, although football is still more
popular. One of the riskiest new sports is skysurfing, in which people jump out of airplanes with
boards attached to their feet. Skysurfing rivals skydiving and bungee jumping for the amount of
thrills and risk.
 Identify paragraphs of more than one topic
Both of the following paragraphs not only have sentences that are off the topic but also discuss
two or more topics.
Step 1 Decide where each paragraph should be divided into two paragraphs. Underline the
topic sentence of each.
Step 2 Find sentence(s) that are off the topic and cross them out.
Paragraph 1
Because the Internet makes the world a smaller place, the value of having a common language
is greatly increased. The question is-which language? Because the Internet grew up in the
United States, the largest percentage of its content is now in English. Bill Gates, Microsoft's
president, believes that English will remain valuable for a long time as a common language for
international communication. His company spends $200 million a year translating software into
other languages. He says, "Unless you read English passably well, you miss out on some of the
Internet experience." Someday, software may be available to instantly translate both written and
spoken language so well that the need for any common language could decline. That day is
decades away, however, because flawless machine translation is a very tough problem.
Computer spelling checkers also exist for various languages. Software that does crudes
translations already exists. It is useful if all you are trying to do is understand the general idea of
something you see on your computer screen. However, if you are trying to negotiate a contract
or discuss a scientific subject where details are important, machine translation is totally useless
(Gates).2
2
Gates, Bill. "One universal language for all on the Internet." Bill Gates: Technology. Syndicated column, 1977.
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Paragraph 2
Even when you try to be polite, it is easy to do the wrong thing inadvertently in a new culture.
For example, when someone offers you food or a beverage in the United States, accept it the
first time it is offered. If you say, "No, thank you" because it is polite to decline the first one or
two offers in your culture, you could become very hungry and thirsty in the United States. There,
a host thinks that "no" means "no" and will usually not offer again. Meals in the United States
are usually more informal than meals in other countries, and the times of meals may be
different. Although North Americans are usually very direct in social matters, there are a few
occasions when they are not. If a North American says, "Please drop by sometime," he may or
may not want you to visit him in his home. Your clue that this may not be a real invitation is the
word "sometime." In some areas of the United States, people do not expect you to visit them
unless you have an invitation for a specific day and time. In other areas of the United States,
however, "dropping by" is a friendly, neighborly gesture. Idioms are often difficult for newcomers
to understand.
B-COHERENCE
There are four ways to achieve coherence:
1. Repeat key nouns.
2. Use consistent pronouns.
3. Use transition signals to link ideas.
4. Arrange your ideas in logical order.
Repetition of Key Nouns
The easiest way to achieve coherence is to repeat key nouns frequently in your paragraph.
There is no fixed rule about how often to repeat key nouns or when to substitute pronouns. You
should repeat a key noun instead of using a pronoun when the meaning is not clear.
If you do not wish to repeat a key noun again and again, you can use synonyms or expressions
with the same meaning.
 In the following paragraph, the key noun is never repeated. Replace the pronoun with
the key noun wherever you think doing so would make the paragraph more coherent.
English
[1] English has almost become an international language. [2] Except for Chinese, more people
speak it than any other language. [3] Spanish is the official language of more countries in the
world, but more countries have it as their official or unofficial second language. [4] More than 70
percent of the world's mail is written in it. [5] It is the primary language on the Internet. [6] In
international business, it is used more than any other language, and it is the language of airline
pilots and air traffic controllers all over the world. [7] Moreover, although French used to be the
language of diplomacy, it has displaced it throughout the world. Therefore, unless you plan to
13 | P a g e
spend your life alone on a desert island in the middle--of the Pacific Ocean, it is a useful
language to know.
Using consistent pronouns
When you use pronouns, make sure that you use the same person and number throughout your
paragraph. Don't change from you to he or she (change of person) or from he to they (change of
number).
EXAMPLE:
 In the following paragraph, the pronouns are not consistent. Correct them to make this
paragraph more coherent.
Olympic Athletes
Olympic athletes must be strong both physically and mentally. First of all, if you hope to
compete in an Olympic sport, you must be physically strong. Furthermore, aspiring Olympians
must train rigorously for many years. For the most demanding sports, they train several hours a
day, five or six days a week, for ten or more years. In addition to being physically strong,
athletes must also be mentally tough. This means that you have to be totally dedicated to your
sport, often giving up a normal school, family, and social life. Being mentally strong also means
that he or she must be able to withstand the intense pressure of international competition with
its accompanying media coverage. Finally, not everyone can win a medal, so Olympians must
possess the inner strength to live with defeat.
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Using transition signals
Most words and phrases in the first two columns of the chart can appear at the beginning, in the
middle, or at the end of one independent clause and are usually separated by commas.
For example, the Baltic Sea in northern Europe is only one-fourth as saline as the
Red Sea in the Middle East.
The runoff created by melting snow, furthermore, adds a considerable amount of
freshwater to dilute the saline seawater.
The Mediterranean Sea is more saline than the Red Sea, however.
EXCEPTIONS
1. The words and phrases in the last four groups in the chart (for listing ideas and time
sequences, for emphasizing, for giving reasons, and for conclusions) usually appear only at the
beginning of a sentence, not in the middle or at the end.
2. Too usually appears only at the end of a sentence, sometimes preceded by a comma.
3. The short time words then, now, and soon usually do not need commas.
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 Improve the coherence of the following paragraph by adding transitions in the blank
spaces. Use the hints provided in parentheses to help you choose a transition.
Move Over, DVD. Here Comes BD!
First, CDs brought digital sound into our homes. Then DVD technology brought digital sound
and video and revolutionized the movie industry. Soon there will be (1) ____________
(additional idea) revolution: Blu-ray discs (BDs). A 8lu-ray disc will have several advantages. (2)
____________ (list in order) it has an enormous data storage capacity. A single-sided DVD can
hold 4.7 gigabytes of information, about the size of an average 2-hour movie. A single-sided
BD, (3) ____________ (contrast), can hold up to 27 gigabytes, enough for 13 hours of standard
video. A (4) ____________ (list in order) advantage is that a BD can record, store, and play
back high-definition video because of its larger capacity. A double-layer BD can store about 50
gigabytes, enough for 4.5 hours of high-definition video. The cost will be about the same. (5)
____________ (additional idea), a BD has a higher date transfer rate- 36 megabits per secondthan today's DVDs, which transfer at 10 megabits per second. (6) ____________ (result) a BD
can record 25 gigabytes of data in just over an hour and a half. (7) ____________ (conclusion)
because of their large storage capacity and comparable cost, BDs will probably take over the
market when they become widely available.
 Avoid overusing transition signals
Read your paragraph aloud and pay attention to your own language. Are you using too many
transition signals? Too many can be distracting rather than helpful. There is no rule about how
many to use in one paragraph. Use them only when they will help your reader follow your ideas.
The following paragraph has too many transition signals. Which ones are helpful to the reader?
Which transition signals are an unnecessary distraction?
Step 1 Improve the paragraph by deleting some transition signals. You may want to rewrite
sentences, and you may have to change the capitalization and punctuation.
Step 2 There are many possible ways to do this assignment. Discuss your changes with a
partner or in a group.
How to Grow an Avocado Tree
After you have enjoyed the delicious taste of an avocado, do not throw out the seed! You can
grow a beautiful houseplant or even your own tree by following these simple steps. First, wash
the seed. Second, dry it. Third, insert three toothpicks into its thickest part. Then fill a glass or
empty jar with water. After that, suspend the seed in the water with the pointed end up and the
broad end down. The water should cover about an inch of the seed. Next, put the glass in a
warm place, but not in direct sunlight. Add water when necessary to keep the bottom of the
seed under water at all times. In two to six weeks, you should see roots begin to grow.
16 | P a g e
Furthermore, the seed will crack open, and then a stem will emerge from the top. However,
wait until the stem is 6 to 7 inches long. Then cut it back to about 3 inches. Now wait until the
roots are thick and the stem has leafed out again. Then fill an 8- to 10-inch diameter clay pot
with enriched potting soil. Plant the seed, leaving the top half exposed. Then water it well. After
that, water frequently but lightly; also give the plant an occasional deep soaking. However, do
not overwater your little tree. Yellow leaves are a sign of too much water. Then place the potted
plant in a sunny window and watch it grow. The more sunlight, the better. Then, when the stem
is 12 inches high cut it back to 6 inches to encourage the growth of side branches. In just a few
more weeks, you will have a beautiful indoor plant. In conclusion, enjoy your new plant, but do
not expect it to bear fruit. Avocados grown from seed occasionally flower and bear fruit;
however, first you will have to plant it outside and then wait anywhere from five to thirteen
years.
Logical order
In addition to using transition signals and repeating key nouns and pronouns, a fourth way to
achieve coherence is to arrange your sentences in some kind of logical order.
Your choice of one kind of logical order over another will, of course, depend on your topic and
your purpose. You may even combine two or more different logical orders in the same
paragraph. The important point to remember is to arrange your ideas in some kind of order that
is logical to a reader accustomed to the English way of writing.
Some common kinds of logical order in English are chronological order, logical division of ideas,
and comparison/contrast.

Chronological order is order by time-a sequence of events or steps in a process.

In logical division of ideas, a topic is divided into parts, and each part is discussed
separately.

In a comparison/contrast paragraph, the similarities and/or differences between two or
more items are discussed.
FURTHER PRACTICE
Choose one of the topics listed below (or assigned by your lecturer) and write a well-organized
paragraph of 120-150 words. Try to use a specific example to support your topic sentence.

One (or two) place(s) a visitor to your country should not miss

An interesting custom or special celebration from your culture

Other: _____________________________
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SESSION 3: AVOIDING COMMON MISTAKES
Content
Avoiding common mistakes
Objectives
Students will be able to:


Know some common mistakes in writing
Revise their own writing
A – PROOFREADING
1. Common types of errors
Proof-reading means checking your work for small errors that may make it more difficult for the
reader to understand exactly what you want to say. If a sentence has only one error:
She has no enough interpersonal skills to handle different relationships . . .
it is not difficult to understand, but if there are multiple errors, even though they are all quite
minor, the cumulative effect is very confusing:
Demolition of sevral uk banks like northren Rock and may others . . .
Clearly, you should aim to make your meaning as clear as possible. Note that computer
spellchecks do not always help you, since they may ignore a word that is spelt correctly but that
is not the word you meant to use:
Tow factors need to be considered . . .
 Examples of the most common types of error in student writing are shown below. In
each case underline the error and correct it.
i.
Factual: corruption is a problem in many countries such as Africa
ii.
Word ending: she was young and innocence
iii.
Punctuation: However some strains of malaria are resistant . . .
iv.
Tense: Since 2005 there were three major earthquakes in the region
v.
Vocabulary: . . . vital to the successfulness of a company operating in China
vi.
Spelling: pervious experience can sometimes give researchers . . .
vii.
Singular/plural: one of the largest company in Asia
viii.
Style: . . . finally, the essay will conclude with a conclusion
ix.
Missing word: an idea established by David Ricardo in nineteenth century
x.
Word order: a rule of marketing which states that consumers when go out shopping . . .
 The following extracts each contain one type of error. Match each to one of the
examples (i–x) above, and correct the error.
i.
Products like Tiger biscuits are well-known to kids . . .
ii.
Both companies focus on mass marketing to promote its line of products.
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iii.
Failure to find the right coffee may lead to torment for consumers.
iv.
. . . different researchers have differently effects on the research.
v.
After the single European market was established in 1873 . . .
vi.
. . . experienced researchers can most likely come over these problems.
vii.
Firstly because, it provides them with an opportunity of borrowing capital . . .
viii.
The company selected Hungry for setting up its research centre.
ix.
These cases demonstrate why specialists from the rest of world are eager to . . .
x.
Since 2003, few companies entered the French market . . .
 Underline the errors in the paragraph below and then re-write it.
OPPORTUNITIES FOR NON-EUROPEAN BUSINESSES IN EUROPE
Many non-European businesses are aiming to enter single European market as they see an
unexploited potential there. There are two reasons of this interest. Firstly the noneuropean
organisations are keen to do a business in the European markets because it is one of leading
investment destination and easiest place to set up and run a business. Secondly, the single
European market provide forein investors with an internationally competitive tax environment.
Lastly there‟s lots of rich people living in the country.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
2. Confusing pairs
When proof-reading it is important to check for mistakes with some confusing pairs of words,
which have similar but distinct spellings and meanings:
The drought affected the wheat harvest in Australia.
An immediate effect of the price rise was a fall in demand.
„Affect‟ and „effect‟ are two different words. „Affect‟ is a verb, while „effect‟ is commonly used as
a noun.
 Study the differences between other similar confusing pairs (most common uses in
brackets).
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accept (verb)/ except (prep)
It is difficult to accept their findings.
The report is finished except for the conclusion.
compliment (noun/ verb)/ complement (verb)
Her colleagues complimented her on her presentation.
His latest book complements his previous research on African politics.
economic (adj)/ economical (adj)
Sharing a car to work was an economical move.
Inflation was one economic result of the war.
its (pronoun)/ it’s (pronoun + verb)
It’s widely agreed that carbon emissions are rising.
The car‟s advanced design was its most distinct feature.
lose (verb)/ loose (adj)
No general ever plans to lose a battle.
He stressed the loose connection between religion and psychology.
principal (adj/ noun)/ principle (noun)
All economists recognise the principle of supply and demand.
Zurich is the principal city of Switzerland.
rise (verb – past tense rose)/ raise (verb – past tense raised)
The population of Sydney rose by 35% in the century.
The university raised its fees by 10% last year.
site (noun)/ sight (noun)
The site of the battle is now covered by an airport.
His sight began to weaken when he was in his eighties.
tend to (verb)/ trend (noun)
Young children tend to enjoy making a noise.
In many countries there is a trend towards smaller families.
 Choose the correct word in each sentence.
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(a) The company was founded on the principals/ principles of quality and value.
(b) Millions of people are attempting to lose/ loose weight.
(c) Sunspots have been known to affect/ effect radio communication.
(d) Professor Poledna received their compliments/ complements politely.
(e) The ancient symbol depicted a snake eating it‟s/ its tail.
(f) Both social and economical/ economic criteria need to be examined.
(g) It took many years for some of Einstein‟s theories to be accepted/ excepted.
B – USING PARALLEL STRUCTURES AND FIXING SENTENCE PROBLEMS
1. Parallelism
Parallelism is an important element in English writing, especially when you are listing and
comparing and contrasting items or ideas. Parallelism means that each item in a list or
comparison follows the same grammatical pattern. If you are writing a list and the first item in
your list is a noun, write all the following items as nouns also. If the first item is an -ing word,
make all the others -ing words; if it is an adverb clause, make all the others adverb clauses.
In the examples that follow, the sentences in the column on the right follow the rule of
parallelism.
Not Parallel
Parallel
My English conversation class is made up of My English conversation class is made up of
Chinese, Spaniards, and some are from Chinese, Spaniards, and Bosnians.
Bosnia.
(The items are all nouns.)
The students who do well attend class, they do The students who do well attend class, do
their homework, and practice speaking in their homework, and practice speaking in
English.
English.
(The items are all verbs + complements.)
The teacher wanted to know which country we The teacher wanted to know which country
came from and our future goals.
we came from and what our future goals
were.
(The items are both noun clauses.)
The language skills of the students in the The language skills of the students in the
evening classes are the same as the day evening classes are the same as the
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language skills of the students in the day
classes.
classes.
(The items are both noun phrases.)
Notes
1. You may substitute a pronoun for the second "the language skills" in the last example:
The language skills of the students in the evening classes are the same as those of
the students in the day classes.
2. All the words in the first item do not always have to be repeated in the second. You may
repeat all or some of the words, depending on what you wish to emphasize. The following
sentences are both correct:
Before you write a paper or before you take a test, you must organize your
thoughts.
Before you write a paper or take a test, you must organize your thoughts.
Parallelism with coordinators: And, Or, But and correlative (paired) conjunctions
and
The Federal Air Pollution Control Administration regulates automobile
exhausts, and the Federal Aviation Administration makes similar
regulations for aircraft.
but
The states regulate the noise created by motor vehicles but not by
commercial aircraft.
or
Pesticides cannot be sold if they have a harmful effect on humans, on
animal life, or on the environment.
both…and
A new law provides the means for both regulating pesticides and
ordering their removal if they are dangerous.
either…or
Air pollutants may come either from the ocean as natural contaminants
given off by sea life or from the internal combustion engines of
automobiles.
neither…nor
If neither industry nor the public works toward reducing pollution
problems, future generations will suffer.
not only… but also
At the present time, air pollution is controlled through laws passed not
only to reduce the pollutants at their sources but also to set up
acceptable standards of air quality.
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 Rewrite the following sentences in parallel form. Underline the part of the sentence
that is not parallel and correct it. The first one has been done for you as an example.
1. The disadvantages of using a credit card are overspending and you pay high interest rates.
The disadvantages of using a credit card are overspending and paying high interest rates.
2. Credit cards are accepted by department stores, airlines, and they can be used in some
gas stations.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. You do not need to risk carrying cash or to risk to miss a sale.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
4. With credit cards, you can either pay your bill with one check, or you can stretch out your
payments.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
5. You can charge both at restaurants and when you stay at hotels.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
6. Many people carry not only credit cards but they also carry cash.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
7. Many people want neither to pay off their balance monthly nor do they like paying interest.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
8. Not making any payment or to send in only the minimum payment every month is poor
money management.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. Sentence problems
Sentence Fragments
Sentence fragments are incomplete sentences or parts of sentences. Always check your own
writing for sentence fragments. Pay particular attention to sentences beginning with
subordinators (although, since, because, if, before, and so on). These are DANGER WORDS!
Make sure that every clause beginning with these words is attached to an independent clause.
23 | P a g e
Incomplete sentences
Corrected sentences
1. Because some students work (1) Because some students work part-time while taking a
part-time while taking a full load of full load of courses, they have very little free time.
classes.
(2) Some students work part-time while taking a full load
of classes.
2. For example, the increase in the For example, the increase in the cost of renting an
cost of renting an apartment.
apartment is one reason for more people being homeless.
To live and work for at least a year To live and work for at least a year in a foreign country
in a foreign country.
has always been my dream.
3. Teachers who give too much Teachers who give too much homework are unpopular.
homework.
 Read the following sentences. Mark them Frag. if they are sentence fragments, and
rewrite each fragment to make a complete sentence.
1. The desire of all humankind to live in peace and freedom, for example.
2. Second, a fact that men are physically stronger than women.
3. The best movie I saw last year.
4. Titanic was the most financially successful movie ever made, worldwide.
5. For example, many students have part-time jobs.
6. Although people want to believe that all men are created equal.
7. Finding a suitable marriage partner is a challenging task.
8. Many of my friends who did not have the opportunity to go to college.
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9. Working during the morning and attending classes during the afternoon.
10. Because I do not feel that grades in college have any value.
11. A tsunami that occurred in the Indian Ocean in December 2004, killing more than 200,000
people.
12. The total energy of the tsunami waves was about five megatons of TNT.
13. More than twice the total explosive energy used during all of World War II, including two
atomic bombs, according to one expert.
14. Evidence that the wave reached a height of 80 feet (24 meters) when coming ashore along
the coastline and rose to 100 feet (30 meters) in some areas when traveling inland.
15. Despite a lag of up to several hours between the earthquake and tsunami, nearly all of the
victims were taken completely by surprise.
 Read the following short essay. Find and correct any sentence fragments.
Women Drivers
[1] Sexism extends even into the area of automobile driving, it seems. [2] Believing that they are
far better drivers than women. [3] Men consider women drivers incompetent, inattentive, and
even dangerous behind the wheel.
[4] However, statistics prove that women are, in fact, safer drivers than men. [5] For example,
insurance rates. [6] Insurance rates for women are 20 percent lower than they are for men. [7]
Another proof is that more accidents are caused by male drivers between the ages of 18 and 25
than by any other group. [8] Also, the greater percentage of accidents involving deaths caused
by men. [9] Although women are criticized for being too cautious. [10] They are really just being
safe drivers.
[11] The reasons for women drivers' safer driving habits can. perhaps be found in the differing
attitudes of the sexes toward automobiles. [12] On the one hand, women drivers who regard the
automobile as a convenience. [13] Like a washing machine. [14] On the other hand, men regard
25 | P a g e
the automobile as an extension of their egos. [15] Using it as a weapon when they feel
particularly aggressive. [16] Or using it as a status symbol.
[17] All in all, women are safer drivers. [18] Because of their attitude. [19] Men can learn to
become safe drivers. [20] If they adopt the attitude that an automobile is merely a convenience.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Choppy sentences
Choppy sentences are sentences that are too short. Short sentences can be effective in certain
situations. However, overuse of short sentences is considered poor style in academic writing.
Choppy sentences are easy to correct. Just combine two or three short sentences to make one
compound or complex sentence. Your decision to make a compound or a complex sentence
should be based on whether the ideas in the short sentences are equal or whether one idea is
dependent on the other.
Step 1 Decide what the relationship between the sentences is.

Do they express equal ideas? If yes, write a compound sentence. Both sentences
present the main idea.
Similar or equal idea
and
Negative equal idea
nor
Opposite idea
but
Alternative possibility
or
26 | P a g e

Surprising continuation
yet
Expected result
so
Reason
for
Is one idea more important than another idea? If yes, go on to Step 2 and 3 and write a
complex sentence.
Step 2 Decide which sentence expresses the most important idea. This will be the independent
clause.
Step 3 Then decide what the relationship of other sentences to the main idea is and choose a
subordinator that expresses that relationship.
Time
when, after, as soon as, and so on
Reason
because, since, or as
Contrast
although, whereas, and so on
Descriptive information
who, which, that, and so on
 Improve the following choppy sentences by combining them. The first one has been
done for you as an example.
2. (a) Electric cars are powered solely by batteries. (b) The new hybrid vehicles switch between
electricity and gasoline.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
27 | P a g e
____________________________________________________________________________
3. (a) Government and private agencies have spent billions of dollars advertising the dangers of
smoking. (b) The number of smokers is still increasing.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
4. (a) Some students go to a vocational school to learn a trade. (b) Some students go to college
to earn a degree.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
5. (a) The grading system at our college should be abolished. (b) The students do not like
getting grades. (c) The instructors do not enjoy giving grades.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
6. (a) Education in a free society teaches children how to think. (b) Education in a dictatorship
teaches children what to think.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Run-On Sentences and Comma Splices
A run-on sentence is a sentence in which two or more independent clauses are written one
after another with no punctuation.
My family went to Australia then they emigrated to Canada.
A similar error happens when two independent clauses are incorrectly joined by a comma
without a coordinating conjunction. This kind of error is called a comma splice.
My family went to Australia, then they emigrated to Canada.
The ways to correct these two sentence errors are the same.
28 | P a g e
1. Add a period:
My family went to Australia. Then they emigrated to Canada.
2. Add a semicolon:
My family went to Australia; then they emigrated to Canada.
3. Add a coordinator:
My family went to Australia, and then they emigrated to Canada.
4. Add a subordinator:
My family went to Australia before they emigrated to Canada.
After my family went to Australia, they emigrated to Canada.
 Rewrite both paragraphs, correcting the mistakes that you found. There are four
errors.
[1] Teachers at Stone Mountain State College give higher grades than teachers at 12 of
the 19 other colleges in the state college system, according to a recent report from the State
Institutional Research Committee. [2] This report showed that more than one-third of the
undergraduate grades awarded in the spring semester 2005 were A's only 1.1 percent were F's.
[3] The percentage of A's awarded to graduate students was even higher, almost two-thirds
were A's.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
[4] While students may be happy to receive high grades, evidence suggests that this
trend is having negative consequences. [5] Investigation of the admissions criteria of some
graduate and professional schools indicates that the admissions offices of these schools are
discounting high grades on the transcripts of SMSC students, this means that an A from
SMSCis not equal to an A from otheruniversities. [6] Grade inflation may, therefore, hurt a
student from Stone Mountain State College who intends to apply to a graduate or professional
school he or she may not be accepted despite a high grade point average.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
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Stringy Sentences
Stringy sentence is a sentence with too many clauses, usually connected with and, but, so, and
sometimes because. It often results from writing the way you speak going on and on like a
string without an end.
To correct a stringy sentence, divide it and/or recombine the clauses, remembering to
subordinate when appropriate.
Example:
Stringy sentence
Corrected sentence
Many students attend classes all Many students attend classes all morning and work all
morning, and then they work all afternoon. Since they also have to study at night, they
afternoon, and they also have to are usually exhausted by the weekend.
study at night, so they are usually
OR
exhausted by the weekend.
Because many students attend classes all morning,
work all afternoon, and study at night, they are usually
exhausted by the weekend.
 Improve these stringy sentences.
1. He enrolled in an intermediate calculus class, but he found it too easy, so he dropped it, and
he signed up for the advanced class.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
2. First-born children in a family often have more responsibility than their younger siblings, and
they feel pressure to set a good example, so they often become superachievers.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
3. Last-born children, on the other hand, often have little responsibility, and they may be
pampered as the "baby" of the family, but they are the smallest, and they have to get people to
like them, so they often develop superior social skills.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
30 | P a g e
____________________________________________________________________________
4. The students in my engineering class could not do the homework, so we got together and
worked for several hours, and we finally solved all the problems.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
5. The lack of rainfall has caused a severe water shortage, so people have to conserve water
every day, and they also have to think of new ways to reuse water, but the situation is
improving.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
FURTHER PRACTICE
Read and edit the Writing you have written in Session 3. Exchange your writing with your
peer for feedback. Pay attention to the following errors:
i.
Factual
ii.
Word ending
iii.
Punctuation
iv.
Tense
v.
Vocabulary
vi.
Spelling
vii.
Singular/plural
viii.
Style
ix.
Missing word
x.
Word order
xi.
Confusing pairs
xii.
Parallelism
xiii.
Sentence problems: fragment, choppy, runs-on, comma splice, stringy
31 | P a g e
SESSION 4: PARAPHRASING
Content
Paraphrasing
Objectives
Students will be able to:



Identify appropriate paraphrasing
Learn some common academic synonyms
Use synonyms in paraphrasing
A – IDENTIFY APPROPRIATE PARAPHRASING
When you paraphrase, you rewrite information from an outside source in your own words
without changing the meaning. Because you include in your rewriting all or nearly all of the
content of the original passage, a paraphrase is almost as long as the original.
For example, the following sentence:
There has been much debate about the reasons for the industrial revolution happening
in eighteenth-century Britain, rather than in France or Germany.
could be paraphrased:
Why the industrial revolution occurred in Britain in the eighteenth century, instead of on
the continent, has been the subject of considerable discussion.
Note that an effective paraphrase usually:

has a different structure to the original

has mainly different vocabulary

retains the same meaning

keeps some phrases from the original that are in common use, e.g. „industrial revolution‟
or „eighteenth century‟
Substituting only one vocabulary word in a sentence is not a restatement. It is so close to the
original that it is not an acceptable paraphrase.
Here is an example statement and an unacceptable paraphrase. Only one word was different
from the original statement:
Original Statement:
The hardest woodwind instrument to learn is the oboe.
Unacceptable Paraphrase:
The most difficult woodwind instrument to learn is the oboe.
32 | P a g e
Now look at an acceptable paraphrase. More than one synonym was different, although this
paraphrase is still very close to the original sentence:
Original Statement:
The hardest woodwind instrument to learn is the oboe.
Unacceptable Paraphrase:
The most difficult woodwind instrument to master is the oboe.
This is an improvement in paraphrasing. This is considered excellent, as more than one
synonym was different and the structure of the sentence was also changed:
Original Statement:
The hardest woodwind instrument to learn is the oboe.
Unacceptable Paraphrase:
The oboe is the most difficult woodwind instrument to master.
 Choose the best paraphrase of each sentence.
1. Megastores do not require the customer to purchase large quantities of items.
A. Customers do not have to buy goods in bulk at megastores.
B. Megastores do not carry large quantities of products for customers.
C. Customers must buy a large number of items at megastores.
2. The use of speed cameras is backed only by misleading statistics.
A. Statistics show that speed cameras are effective.
B. Speed cameras are only useful in certain driving situations.
C. Only unreliable statistics support using speed cameras.
3. Advertisements increase consumer spending.
A. Consumer spending on advertisements is on the increase.
B. Consumers spend more due to advertisements.
C. Advertisements have an effect on consumer spending.
4. Studies show that lie detectors are accurate in almost 91% of all cases.
A. 91% of lie detectors have been examined accurately.
B. Research suggests lie detectors are 91% accurate at detecting lies.
C. The accuracy of lie detectors is about 91% according to research.
5. TV has the ability to shut out the rest of our crazy world completely.
A. With the help of TV, we can escape from this insane world.
B. When watching TV, we always isolate ourselves from the abnormal world.
33 | P a g e
C. TV can totally prevent the rest of our world from going crazy.
6. The release of fossil fuels by humans is the largest source of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere.
A. Humans release the most carbon dioxide into the air by burning fossil fuels.
B. Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is caused by the burning of fossil fuels.
C. Humans are the most responsible for the air pollution caused by carbon dioxide.
7. E-books have the ability to store a large amount of data
A. Not much data can be held in E-books.
B. Large storage capacity is one feature of E-books.
C. E-books can be sold in large quantities at stores.
8. Fluorine, which is used in the production of uranium, is a very toxic gaseous chemical.
A. Uranium is made from poisonous fluorine gas.
B. Fluorine is a very poisonous gas used to produce uranium.
C. Since it is used to produce uranium, gaseous fluorine is very harmful.
9. Tough grading makes it hard for students to get into colleges and universities.
A. Students cannot apply to colleges and universities because of a strict grading policy.
B. Colleges and universities never accept students with low grades.
C. Students have difficulty entering colleges and universities due to strict grading.
10. Human cloning offers the hope of repairing diseased organs.
A. Fixing failed body parts may be possible with human cloning.
B. Organic diseases can spread through human cloning.
C. The cloning of deceased humans may bring them back to life.
11. The treasure described in the Copper Scroll consists of vast quantities of gold and silver.
A. Vast quantities of gold and silver are contained in the Copper Scroll.
B. The Copper Scroll describes a large treasure of gold and silver.
C. The Copper Scroll is made of gold and silver treasure.
12. Political activism is often expressed through community-based theater.
A. Political expression is discouraged in local theater groups.
B. Political activists are actors from community-based theaters.
C. Community-based theaters can provide an outlet for political activists.
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B – USING SYNONYMS IN PARAPHRASING
Strategies to use

Substitute multiple synonyms

Make an explanation
1. Substitute multiple synonyms
Synonyms are different words with a similar meaning. A good writer uses them to avoid
repetition and thus provide more interest for the reader. Synonyms should also be used when
paraphrasing or note-making to avoid plagiarism.
(a) Synonyms are not always exactly the same in meaning, but it is important not to change the
register. „Firm‟ is a good synonym for „company‟, but „boss‟ is too informal to use for „manager‟.
(b) Many common words e.g. culture, economy or industry have no effective synonyms.
 Underline the synonyms in the following text and complete the table.
Royal Dutch Shell is the largest oil company in the world by revenue with a significant share of
the global hydrocarbon market. The giant firm employs over 100000 people internationally
including over 8000 employees in Britain.
word/phrase
synonym
largest
giant
oil
company
in the world
people
 Rewrite the following sentences by substituting synonyms for the underlined words
and phrases.
Example:
Original: Thomas Edison was a very curious child, performing his first experiment when he was
only three years old.
Paraphrase: Thomas Edison was a very inquisitive child, conducting his first experiment at the
age of three.
1. The copperhead, a snake that strikes without warning, is considered much more dangerous
than the rattlesnake.
35 | P a g e
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
2. Because J. P. Morgan was known as a reputable and prudent businessman, he was able to
persuade others to remain in the market even after the crash had begun.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
3. Phosphorus is used in paint on highway signs and markers because it is bright at night.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
4. Rain forests are often located near the equator.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
5. By the mid-nineteenth century, land was so expensive in large cities that architects began to
conserve space by building skyscrapers.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
6. Research studies of vertebrates show development from a very simple heart in fish to a
complex four-chamber heart in humans.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
7. When two products are fundamentally the same, advertising can influence the choice that the
public makes.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
8. As a whole, in birds, the male of the species is more brilliantly colored.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
9. The price of gold on the world market is subject to several variables, including but not limited
to supply and demand.
____________________________________________________________________________
36 | P a g e
____________________________________________________________________________
10. The idea of a submarine is not recent, dating from the 1400s when Drebbel and da Vinci
drew initial sketches.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
2. Make an explanation
Sometimes even native speakers cannot retrieve a word from memory when they are
paraphrasing, especially when they are speaking. When this happens to you, there are several
ways to compensate for the word that has slipped your mind. Make an explanation.
Strategy
Example
If it is an adjective, you can use an opposite adjective with the word not.
large  not small
If it is a verb, you can use a general verb instead of a specific synonym.
rely on  use
If it is a noun, you can describe the noun with a descriptive phrase or farmer  the person
clause.
who
engages
in
agriculture
 Make an explanation for the following underlined words
ADJECTIVES - Use an opposite.
Original: The second movement of a symphony is usually slow.
Paraphrase: The second movement of a symphony is usually not fast.
1. The temperature in many desert regions is cold at night.
______________________________________________________________________
2. Facial expressions may be common across cultures.
______________________________________________________________________
3. Obsidian is shiny because it cools too quickly for crystals to form.
______________________________________________________________________
4. Few musical instruments play louder than 100 decibels or softer than 20 decibels.
______________________________________________________________________
5. The people who have adapted to life at very high altitudes are usually short.
______________________________________________________________________
NOUNS – Use a phrase.
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Original: Skyscrapers are representative of the International Style of architecture.
Paraphrase: Tall buildings are representative of the International Style of architecture.
1. In many cities, vendors must have a license to set up their booths in public places.
______________________________________________________________________
2. Studies show that small pets are a positive influence in elderly people‟s lives.
______________________________________________________________________
3. Staircases were an important feature of the palaces constructed during the Baroque
period.
______________________________________________________________________
4. Global wind patterns are affected by the Earth‟s rotation.
______________________________________________________________________
5. Bilingual education is more common in regions where language minorities live.
______________________________________________________________________
VERBS - Use a general verb.
Original: Many managers employ teams to accomplish complex goals.
Paraphrase: Many managers use teams to accomplish complex goals.
1. Unlike cast iron, pure wrought iron contains no carbon.
______________________________________________________________________
2. Hypnosis achieves a heightened state of suggestibility in a willing participant.
______________________________________________________________________
3. Productivity increases when fewer employees are required to accomplish the work.
______________________________________________________________________
4. Normally, the plasma in human blood constitutes 50-60 percent of the total blood
volume.
______________________________________________________________________
5. Three fourths of the goods manufactured in Canada for export are sold to the United
States.
______________________________________________________________________
38 | P a g e
FURTHER PRACTICE
Common synonyms in each academic writing
 Match the academic synonyms in each list.
Nouns
Verbs
area
advantage
accelerate
change
authority
part
achieve
help
behaviour
argument
alter
question
beliefs
disadvantage
analyse
suggest
benefit
tendency
assist
explain
category
field
attach
evolve
component
source
challenge
examine
concept
emotion
claim
establish
controversy
target
clarify
insist
drawback
explanation
concentrate on
speed up
expansion
conduct
confine
take apart
feeling
topic
develop
join
framework
possibility
eliminate
reach
goal
ethics
evaluate
decrease
hypothesis
production
found
demonstrate
interpretation
research
maintain
increase
issue
theory
predict
cite
method
increase
prohibit
reinforce
option
idea
quote
remove
quotation
citation
raise
focus on
results
figures
reduce
forecast
statistics
type
respond
ban
study
structure
retain
limit
trend
system
show
keep
output
findings
strengthen
reply
39 | P a g e
 Find synonyms for the words and phrases underlined, re-writing the sentence where
necessary.
(a) Professor Hicks questioned the findings of the research.
__________________________________________________________
(b) The statistics show a steady expansion in applications.
__________________________________________________________
(c) The institute‟s prediction has caused a major controversy.
__________________________________________________________
(d) Cost seems to be the leading drawback to that system.
__________________________________________________________
(e) They will concentrate on the first option.
__________________________________________________________
(f) After the lecture she tried to clarify her concept.
__________________________________________________________
(g) Three issues need to be examined.
__________________________________________________________
(h) The framework can be retained but the goal needs to be altered.
__________________________________________________________
(i) OPEC, the oil producers‟ cartel, is to cut production to raise global prices.
__________________________________________________________
(j) The trend to smaller families has speeded up in the last decade.
__________________________________________________________
 Identify the synonyms in this text by underlining them and linking them to the word
they are substituting for.
Example: agency – organization
The chairman of the UK‟s food standards agency has said that a national advertising campaign
is necessary to raise low levels of personal hygiene. The organisation is planning a £3m
publicity programme to improve British eating habits. A survey has shown that half the
population do not wash before eating, and one in five fail to wash before preparing food. There
are over six million cases of food poisoning in this country every year, and the advertising blitz
40 | P a g e
aims to cut this by 20 per cent. This reduction, the food body believes, could be achieved by
regular hand washing prior to meals.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
 In the following text, replace all the words or phrases in bold type with suitable
synonyms.
Many motor manufacturers are currently planning to start making electric cars. Their plan is to
make cars that are cheaper and less polluting. But the motor manufacturers face several key
difficulties. One key difficulty is the limited range of the battery, while another difficulty is its
cost and weight. But the motor manufacturers predict that these difficulties will soon be
overcome and predict that 10 per cent of cars will be powered by electricity in five years‟ time.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
41 | P a g e
SESSION 5: PARAPHRASING
Content
Paraphrasing
Objectives
Students will be able to:


Use alternative grammatical structures in paraphrasing
Combine paraphrasing techniques at sentence level
A – USE ALTERNATIVE GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURES IN PARAPHRASING
1. Produce restatements
Study the examples of restatements in each of the categories below. Learn to make
restatement using alternative structures. When you can use both synonyms and alternative
structures, you will be able to paraphrase appropriately.
Categories
Structures
Original sentences
Restatements
Chronology
Before,
After the death of Queen Before Elizabeth ascended
Mary in 1558, her half-sister the throne of England in
after, during
Elizabeth
ascended
the 1558, her half-sister Mary
throne of England.
Coordination
ruled.
Not only-but also, Before the introduction of
neither-nor,
not- the
musical
Before the introduction of the
staff, musical
but, both-and, as composers preserved their preserved
well as
staff,
composers
their
work
by
work not only by writing it writing it down as well by
down but also by teaching it teaching it to a younger
to a younger musician.
Cause
Because,
because
musician.
The diesel engine that runs The diesel engine runs more
of, on oil is more efficient than efficiently than most other
since, as a result
most
other
engines engines because of the oil
because it converts more that
useful energy.
Comparison
convert
more
useful
energy.
Similar, like, the Although they are smaller in Although they are different in
same,
differ, size, chipmunks are like size, chipmunks are similar
different,
more, most other ground squirrels.
less
to
most
other
ground
squirrels.
42 | P a g e
Concession
Although,
though,
even Although oil paint tends to Oil paint tends to yellow with
despite, yellow with age, tempera age,
in spite of, but, colors retain their vibrancy retain
whereas
Negatives
for centuries.
but
tempera
their
colors
vibrancy
for
centuries.
Not + un-, not The addiction to gambling is The addiction to gambling is
once,
not
one, not unlike the addiction to like
very rarely, very substances.
the
addiction
to
substances.
seldom
Passives
BE
+
Past Sea gulls need either fresh Either fresh water or salt
participle
or salt water for them to water is needed by sea gulls
survive.
for them to survive.
 Rephrase the following sentences using:
Chronology
1. Not until the Triassic Period did the first primitive mammals appear.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
2. The Moriori people settled the Chatham Islands off the coast of New Zealand long before the
Europeans arrived in 1791.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
3. Always rinse your test tubes with a small amount of distilled water before you store them in
the lab cabinets.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Coordination
1. Successful managers neither proceed without a plan nor ignore opportunities that arise.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
2. Neither corn nor winter wheat are native to the Americans.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
43 | P a g e
3. Ethnicity is usually based on race and religion as well as national origin.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Cause
1. Too much water can cause plants to turn brown on the edges.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
2. Blood pressure can become elevated as a result of increased salt consumption.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
3. Since the interstate highway system linking roads across the country was built in the 1930s,
most of the roads in the system need to be repaired.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Comparison
1. Viruses and the first life forms that appeared on Earth millions of years ago have a similar
structure.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
2. The Indian Ocean is smaller but deeper than the Atlantic Ocean.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
3. The difference in the gravitational attraction of various places on the Earth‟s surface is the
reason that the weight of objects is not the same.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Concession
1. Even though the Jovian planets are grouped together, each one has had a very different
evolutionary history.
____________________________________________________________________________
44 | P a g e
____________________________________________________________________________
2. Despite the advantage that young people enjoy for recall in vocabulary studies, older people
appear to be better at word recognition.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
3. In spite of the fact that incentives are the most common strategy for assessing job applicants,
they tend to have low validity.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Negative
1. Never has there been such wide access to news from so many media.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
2. The construction of a city on the ruins of a previous settlement is not uncommon.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
3. Not until the Triassic Period did the first primitive mammals develop.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Passive
1. In the stringed instruments, a bow produces the tones when it is played across a set of
strings made of wire.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
2. Architects can use a domed roof to conserve floor space.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
3. The Egyptians used papyrus to make paper, sails, baskets, and clothing.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
45 | P a g e
2. Changing word order
Example:
. . . the best explanation for the British location of the industrial revolution is found by studying
demand factors.
 A focus on demand may help explain the UK origin of the industrial revolution.
 Change the word order of the following sentences (other changes may be needed).
1. At the same time, trades unions became increasingly militant in defence of their members‟
jobs.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
2. Today the industry owns some of the most famous brands in the world.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
3. However, many car makers are currently threatened by increased competition and saturated
markets.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
 Now turn back to the previous exercise, make changes to the word order.
B – COMBINING PARAPHRASING TECHNIQUES AT SENTENCE LEVEL
When you paraphrase a sentence, always check your sentence to avoid the following problems:

Change the meaning

Leave out information

Use too much of the original wording

Copy the original
Example:
Original sentence: Sometimes students plagiarize material from lectures and reading
passages because they don’t understand how to make the appropriate changes for an excellent
paraphrase.
46 | P a g e
Change the meaning
On occasion, students use paraphrases of excellent lectures and
reading passages without understanding the purpose of the changes
that they have made in them.
Leave out information
On occasion, students use lecture and reading material verbatim.
Use too much of the On occasion, students plagiarize material from lectures and reading
original wording
passages because they don‟t comprehend how to make the
necessary changes for an excellent paraphrase.
Copy the original
Sometimes students plagiarize material from lectures and reading
passages because they don‟t understand how to make the
appropriate changes for an excellent paraphrase.
 Paraphrase the following sentences. Then exchange with your friends to check
whether your sentences have the above problems and make correction (if any).
1. The school board decided that the new curriculum should be centered on math and science.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
2. Some people may value science less than literature in terms of human development.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
3 Jazz influenced American popular music of the 1920s in many ways.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
4. In view of the weather, the experiment will be postponed.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
5.The winter moth is regarded as one of the major harmful plant pests in Europe.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
6. Group studying enhances students' performances both in class discussions and on tests.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
47 | P a g e
7. Victorian literature often made fun of the English aristocracy and its shortcomings.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
8. Geopolitics has become increasingly complicated due to the rise of the Internet.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
9. A melanoma is a growth on the skin that contains cancer cells.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
10. The scientist Copernicus was one of the most influential men in history.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
11. Airplanes have to receive permission from the control tower before they can take off.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
12. The ocean is full of countless mysterious creatures that humans do not yet know much
about.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
13. The battle for equal rights for women in America was both long and difficult.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
14. Acid rain contains toxins that come from factories and are absorbed into the atmosphere.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
15. Dinosaurs disappeared from the face of the Earth many millions of years ago.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
16. Wounds can be fatal to hemophiliacs because their bleeding does not stop by itself.
48 | P a g e
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
17. The Pilgrims left England for the New World because they were seeking an escape from
religious persecution.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
18. Jesse James was surely the most feared outlaw in the Wild West.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
19. Many schools are starting to emphasize the study of math and science more than they did in
the past.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
20. Most students become bored with subjects that have no practical application in the real
world.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
FURTHER PRACTICE
 Paraphrase the following sentences
1. A smart car is one that utilizes advanced methods of engineering or computers with some
kinds of artificial intelligence.
Smart cars operate by __________________________________________________________
____________________________________________can think for themselves to some extent.
2. A smart car will be able to handle many of the driving duties, thereby allowing the people in
the car to attend to other matters.
By doing__________________________________________________ , a smart car will enable
___________________________________________________________________________ .
3. Because the smart car will be driving itself, it will be able to select optimal routes based on
their lack of vehicles and the speed with which they may be traveled upon.
49 | P a g e
The car will decide ___________________________________by looking at how many cars are
on various roads and__________________________________________________________ .
4. Since a smart car will be almost entirely run by computers, the computers will be able to alert
the owner when there is a minor problem to be fixed.
The computers in a smart car will__________________________________________________
___________________________________________________, no matter how small it may be.
5. The owner will be able to fix the car at a low cost as opposed to waiting for the problem to
develop into a major issue that would require an inordinate amount of money to be spent.
Because the owner can_________________________________________ , he will not have to
suffer a major problem and therefore______________________________________________ .
6. It would be nice to have smart cars do all the driving for us, but they probably won't be as
breathtaking as everyone anticipates.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
7. It's a documented fact that, as automobile technology has improved, the amount of traffic has
steadily increased.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
8. Just because they're smart cars doesn't mean that they'll be smart enough to get you out of a
traffic jam.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
9. Most of the parts of a smart car will be custom-made, so, due to the manufacturing process,
replacing the parts will be expensive.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
10. The labor bill may be cheap, but the bill for the parts is going to be astronomical in some
cases.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
50 | P a g e
SESSION 6: PARAPHRASING
Content
Paraphrasing
Objectives
Students will be able to:



Identify appropriate paraphrase at paragraph level
Revise paraphrasing techniques
Use paraphrasing techniques at paragraph level
A - IDENTIFY APPROPRIATE PARAPHRASING AT PARAGRAPH LEVEL
It is important to learn how to use information from outside sources without committing
plagiarism. Plagiarism is wrongly using someone else's words or ideas, and it is a serious
offense. Students who plagiarize may fail a class or even be expelled from school.
There are two kinds of plagiarism.
1. When you use information from an outside source without citing the source (telling where you
got the information), you are guilty of plagiarism.
2. Even when you cite your source, if your paraphrase is too similar to the original, you are
guilty of plagiarism.
Check the following examples of plagiarism:
Original Passage:
Language is the main means of communication between peoples. But so many different
languages have developed that language has often been a barrier rather than an aid to
understanding among peoples. For many years, people have dreamed of setting up an
international universal language which all people could speak and understand. The arguments
in favor of a universal language are simple and obvious. If all peoples spoke the same tongue,
cultural and economic ties might be much closer, and good will might increase between
countries (Kispert).
Unacceptable Paraphrase 1
Humans communicate through language. However, because there are so many languages in
the world, language acts as an obstacle instead of as an aid to understanding. People have
long wished for a universal international language that speakers all over the world could
understand. A universal language would certainly build cultural and economic bonds. It would
also create better feelings among countries.
51 | P a g e
Unacceptable paraphrase 2
Language is the principal means of communication between peoples. However, because there
are numerous languages, language itself has frequently been a barrier than an aid to
understanding among the world population. For many years, people have envisioned a common
universal language that everyone in the world could communicate in. The reasons for having a
universal language are clearly understandable. If the same tongue were spoken by all countries,
they would undoubtedly become closer culturally and economically. It would probably also
create good will among nations (Kispert).
Paraphrase 1 is plagiarism because the source is not cited. You can avoid this kind of
plagiarism by always citing your sources.
Paraphrase 2 is plagiarism because it is too similar to the original passage. For example, in the
first sentence, only one word has been changed: main replaces principal. In the second
sentence, only a few words have been changed. You can avoid this kind of plagiarism by
learning to paraphrase correctly.
 Read the text below and then choose the best paraphrases. Write best next to the best
version, and write reasons – no citation, incomplete/inaccurate, or too simple next to the
other versions
Original Passage 1
Living aboard a space station in orbit around Earth for months at a time poses problems for
astronauts' bodies as well as for their minds.
Source: Page 16 of a three-page article in the October 15, 2003, issue of Space Science
magazine. The title of the article is "Manned Mars Flight: Impossible Dream?" The author is
Patrick Clinton, a NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) physician.
____________
A. An article in Space Science magazine reports that lengthy space station
duty may lead to physical and mental problems for astronauts (Clinton,
2003).
____________
B. An article in Space Science magazine reports that astronauts who live
aboard space stations for long periods of time may experience physical as
well as mental problems.
____________
C. An article in Space Science reports that living in a space station orbiting
Earth for a long time can cause difficulties for astronauts' bodies and
minds (Clinton, 2003).
____________
D. An article in Space Science reports that astronauts will become physically
sick and have mental problems if they visit a space station (Clinton, 2003).
52 | P a g e
Original Passage 2
Source: Page 16 of the same article in passage 1.
One major problem is maintaining astronauts' physical health. Medical treatment may be days
or even weeks away, as there may not be a doctor on board. Illnesses such as appendicitis or
ulcers, routinely treated on Earth, could be fatal in space because of the delay in getting to a
doctor.
____________
A. NASA physician Patrick Clinton states that one problem is astronauts'
physical health. With no doctor on board, common illnesses like
appendicitis and ulcers could be fatal to astronauts because it would talce
too long to get them back to Earth.
____________
B. NASA physician Patrick Clinton states that keeping the astronauts
physically healthy is one problem. If the crew does not include a doctor,
the delay in getting treatment for an ordinary illness, such as appendicitis
or ulcers, could mean death (16).
____________
C. NASA physician Patrick Clinton states that the physical health of
astronauts is a huge problem. Spaceships do not usually have medical
doctors among the crew, so astronauts who get appendicitis on a long
space journey will die (16).
____________
D. NASA physician Patrick Clinton states that one big problem is keeping
astronauts in good physical health. Medical treatment might take days or
weeks to get because there may not be a doctor on the spaceship.
Ordinary illnesses such as appendicitis and ulcers could be deadly
because it would take too long to get to a doctor (16).
Original Passage 3:
THE CAUSES OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Allen (2009) argues that the best explanation for the British location of the industrial revolution is
found by studying demand factors. By the early eighteenth century high wages and cheap
energy were both features of the British economy. Consequently, the mechanisation of industry
through such inventions as the steam engine and mechanical spinning was profitable because
employers were able to economise on labour by spending on coal. At that time, no other country
had this particular combination of expensive labour and abundant fuel.
____________
A. A focus on demand may help to explain the UK origin of the industrial
revolution. At that time workers‟ pay was high, but energy from coal was
inexpensive. This encouraged the development of mechanical inventions
53 | P a g e
based on steam power, which enabled bosses to save money by
mechanizing production (Allen, 2009).
____________
B. The reason why Britain was the birthplace of the industrial revolution can
be understood by analysing demand in the early 1700s, according to Allen
(2009). He maintains that, uniquely, Britain had the critical combination of
cheap energy from coal and high labour costs. This encouraged the
adoption of steam power to mechanise production, thus saving on wages
and increasing profitability.
____________
C. Allen (2009) claims that the clearest explanation for the UK location of the
industrial revolution is seen by examining demand factors. By the
eighteenth century cheap energy and high wages were both aspects of
the British economy. As a result, the mechanisation of industry through
inventions such as the steam engine and mechanical spinning was
profitable because employers were able to save money on employees by
spending on coal. At that time, Britain was the only country with significant
deposits of coal.
B- REVISE PARAPHRASING TECHNIQUES
Look at the Original passage 3 of the previous exercise. The following techniques were applied
to paraphrase the whole paragraph:
Changing vocabulary by using synonyms:

argues  claims

eighteenth century  1700s

wages  labour

costs/ economise  saving
NB. Do not attempt to paraphrase every word, since some have no true synonym, e.g. demand,
economy, energy
Changing word class:

explanation (n.)  explain (v.)

mechanical (adj.)  mechanise (v.)

profitable (adj.)  profitability (n.)
Changing word order:
54 | P a g e

. . . the best explanation for the British location of the industrial revolution is found by
studying demand factors.
 A focus on demand may help explain the UK origin of the industrial revolution.
 Read the following text and then practise the techniques illustrated above.
FOUR WHEELS GOOD
The growth of the car industry parallels the development of modern capitalism. It began in
France and Germany, but took off in the United States. There Henry Ford adapted the moving
production line from the Chicago meat industry to motor manufacturing, thus inventing mass
production. In the 1920s Alfred Sloan‟s management theories helped General Motors to
become the world‟s dominant car company. After the second world war the car makers focused
on the styling of their products to encourage more frequent model changes. From the 1970s
there was criticism of the industry due to the inefficiency of most vehicles, which used petrol
wastefully. At the same time, trades unions became increasingly militant in defence of their
members‟ jobs. Today the industry owns some of the most famous brands in the world.
However, many car makers are currently threatened by increased competition and saturated
markets.
(a) Find synonyms for the words underlined.
(i) The growth of the car industry parallels the development of modern capitalism.
____________________________________________________________________________
(ii) It began in France and Germany, but took off in the United States.
____________________________________________________________________________
(iii) There Henry Ford adapted the moving production line from the Chicago meat industry to
motor manufacturing, thus inventing mass production.
____________________________________________________________________________
(b) Change the word class of the underlined words, and then re-write the sentences.
(i) In the 1920s Alfred Sloan‟s management theories helped General Motors to become the
world‟s dominant car company.
____________________________________________________________________________
(ii) After the second world war the car makers focused on the styling of their products, to
encourage more frequent model changes.
____________________________________________________________________________
(iii) From the 1970s there was criticism of the industry due to the inefficiency of most vehicles,
which used petrol wastefully.
55 | P a g e
____________________________________________________________________________
(c) Change the word order of the following sentences (other changes may be needed).
(i) At the same time, trades unions became increasingly militant in defence of their members‟
jobs.
____________________________________________________________________________
(ii) Today the industry owns some of the most famous brands in the world.
____________________________________________________________________________
(iii) However, many car makers are currently threatened by increased competition and
saturated markets.
____________________________________________________________________________
C - USE PARAPHRASING TECHNIQUES AT PARAGRAPH LEVEL
There are three keys to writing a good paraphrase:
1. Use your own words and your own sentence structure.
2. Make your paraphrase approximately the same length as the original.
3. Do not change the meaning of the original.
You can write a good paraphrase if you follow these steps.
Step 1: Read the original passage several times until you understand it fully. Look up unfamiliar
words, and find synonyms for them. It may not be possible to find synonyms for every word,
especially technical vocabulary. In this case, use the original word.
Language is the main means of communication between peoples. But so many different
languages have developed that language has often been a barrier rather than an aid to
understanding among peoples. For many years, people have dreamed of setting up an
international universal language which all people could speak and understand. The arguments
in favor of a universal language are simple and obvious. If all peoples spoke the same tongue,
cultural and economic ties might be much closer, and good will might increase between
countries (Kispert).3
Step 2: It helps to take notes. Write down only a few words for each idea - not complete
sentences. Here are one writer's notes on the original passage about universal language:
Language - people use to communicate - but so many - difficult to
3
Kispert, Robert J. "Universal Janguage." World Book Online Reference Center. 2004. World Book, Inc. 13 Nov.
2004 <http://www.worldbookonJine.com/wb/Article?id=ar576960>.
56 | P a g e
understand one another – people wish – universal international language
– reasons: cultural, economic bonds, better feelings between countries
It may be helpful to make a brief outline such as the following:
A. Language-people use to communicate
1. So many languages make it difficult to understand one another.
2. People wish for one universal international language.
B. Reasons
1. Cultural, economic bonds
2. Better feelings between countries
Step 3: Write your paraphrase from your notes. Don't look at the Original while you are writing.
Paraphrase
Humans communicate through language. Because there are so many different languages,
however, people around the world have a difficult time understanding one another. Some
people have wished for a universal international language that speakers all over the world could
understand. Their reasons are straightforward and clear. A universal language would build
cultural and economic bonds. It would also create better feelings among countries (Kispert).
Step 4: Check your paraphrase against the original to make sure you have not copied
vocabulary or the sentence structure too closely. Above all, make sure that you have not
changed the meaning of the original or given any wrong information.
Step 5: Add an in-text citation at the end.
 Write a paraphrase of each of the passages that follow. You don’t need to add in-text
citation
Passage 1
One advantage of smart cars is that they will help traffic flow faster. A smart car will be able to
handle many of the driving duties, thereby allowing the people in the car to attend to other
matters. Because the car, for the most part, will be driving itself, it will be able to select optimal
routes based on their lack of vehicles and the speed with which they may be traveled upon.
This, in turn, will make travel times much shorter and keep traffic moving continuously.
Notes
57 | P a g e
Paraphrase
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Passage 2
In addition, a smart car will have lower maintenance costs. Since the car will be almost entirely
run by computers, the computers will be able to alert the owner when there is a minor problem
to be fixed. The owner will then be able to fix the car at a low cost as opposed to waiting for the
problem to develop into a major issue that would require an inordinate amount of money to be
spent.
Notes
Paraphrase
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Passage 3
It's a documented fact that, as automobile technology has improved, the amount of traffic has
steadily increased. So while we may have cars do the driving for us, you can expect to sit in
longer traffic jams. Just because they're smart cars doesn't mean that they'll be smart enough to
get you out of a traffic jam.
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Notes
Paraphrase
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Passage 4
Second of all, they are not going to be cheap to maintain. "Why?" you may ask. Well, most of
the parts of a smart car will be custom-made. This means that, due to the manufacturing
process, replacing the parts will be expensive. Sure, the labor bill may be cheap, but the bill for
the parts is going to be astronomical in some cases.
Notes
Paraphrase
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
ASSIGNMENT
Follow the 5 steps instructed above, paraphrase the paragraphs on the next page.
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N.B: The text does not include the source, so students are not required to add in-text
citation.
Social Interaction
People deal with each other everyday. This interaction is at the heart of social life. The study of
social interaction is concerned with the influence people have over one another‟s behavior.
People take each other into account in their daily behavior and in fact, the very presence of
others can affect behavior. For example, one principle of social interaction, audience effects,
suggests that individuals‟ work is affected by their knowledge that they are visible to others, that
the presence of others tends to alter the way people behave or perform an activity.
Target Marketing
Advertisers in the past have used radio and television in an attempt to provide information about
their products to large, general audiences; it was once thought that the best way to sell a
product was to advertise it to as many people as possible. However, more recent trends in
advertising have turned toward target marketing. Target marketing is the strategy of advertising
to smaller, very specific audiences---audiences that have been determined to have the greatest
need or desire for the product being marketed. Target marketing has proved to be very effective
in reaching potential customers.
Revealing Coloration
Many animals use coloration to protect themselves from predators. One defensive strategy
involving the use of coloration is what is known as reveling coloration. Animals employing this
strategy have an area of bright color on some part of their body; this bright color is usually
hidden from predators‟ view. When approached by a predator, the animal suddenly reveals the
area of bright color; this unexpected display of color startles or confuses the predator and
provides the would-be prey with an opportunity to escape.
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SESSION 7: SUMMARIZING
Content
Summarizing
Objectives
Students will be able to:



Know stages of summarizing
Identify key points of a short paragraph
Summarize main ideas of a short paragraph
Another way to use borrowed information from an outside source is to summarize it.
In
academic writing summarizing is a vital skill, allowing the writer to condense lengthy sources
into a concise form.
How to write a Good Summary
1. Use your own words and your own sentence structure.
2. Remember that a summary is much shorter than a paraphrase. Include only the main points
and main supporting points, leaving out most details.
3. Do not change the meaning of the original
 Read the following text and the summaries (a)–(c). Rate them 1 (best) – 3.
(a) Fruit crops have usually been picked by hand, as it is difficult to mechanise the process. But
in rich countries it has become hard to find affordable pickers at the right time so fruit is often
wasted. Therefore intelligent machines have been developed that can overcome the technical
problems involved, and also provide the farmer with useful data about the plants.
(b) Developing machines that can pick fruit such as tomatoes or apples is a challenging task,
due to the complexity of locating ripe fruit in an unpredictable outdoor environment, where
difficult conditions can be produced by wind or water. But recent developments in computing
ability mean that growers can now automate this process, which should save them money and
increase their profits.
(c) Strawberries and grapes are the kind of crops that have always been hand-picked. But many
farmers, for example in California, now find it increasingly difficult to attract enough pickers
when the fruit is ripe. However, computing advances have produced a solution to this problem,
which will save farmers from worrying about the pickers, and also collect vital data.
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MECHANICAL PICKERS
Although harvesting cereal crops such as wheat and barley has long been done by large
machines known as combine harvesters, mechanising the picking of fruit crops such as
tomatoes or apples has proved more difficult. Farmers have generally relied on human labour to
harvest these, but in wealthy countries it has become increasingly difficult to find pickers willing
to work for the wages farmers are able to pay. This is partly because the demand for labour is
seasonal, usually in the autumn, and also because the work is hard and demanding. As a result,
in areas such as California part of the fruit harvest is often unpicked and left to rot.
There are several obvious reasons why developing mechanical pickers is challenging. Fruit
such as grapes or strawberries comes in a variety of shapes and does not always ripen at the
same time. Outdoors, the ground conditions can vary from dry to muddy, and winds may move
branches around. Clearly each crop requires its own solution: machines may be towed through
orchards by tractors or move around by themselves using sensors to detect the ripest fruit.
This new generation of fruit harvesters is possible due to advances in computing power and
sensing ability. Such devices will inevitably be expensive, but will save farmers from the
complexities of managing a labour force. In addition, the more intelligent pickers should be able
to develop a database of information on the health of each individual plant, enabling the grower
to provide it with fertiliser and water to maintain its maximum productivity.
A – STAGES OF SUMMARIZING
SAMPLE:
Step 1: Read the original passage several times until you understand it fully. Look up any words
that you don't understand.
Original Passage (85 words)
Language is the main means of communication between peoples. But so many different
languages have developed that language has often been a barrier rather than an aid to
understanding among peoples. For many years, people have dreamed of setting up an
international universal language which all people could speak and understand. The arguments
in favor of a universal language are simple and obvious. If all peoples spoke the same tongue,
cultural and economic ties might be much closer, and good will might increase between
countries (Kispert).
Step 2: Decide what the important ideas are. It helps to underline or highlight important ideas. It
also helps to take notes. Write down only a few words for each idea-not complete sentences.
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Language - people use to communicate - but so many - difficult to
understand one another – people wish – universal international language –
reasons: cultural, economic bonds, better feelings between countries
Step 3: Write your summary from your notes, paraphrasing where possible. Don't look at the
original while you are writing, re-organising the structure if needed.
Summary (28 words)
People communicate through language; however, having different languages creates
communication barriers. A universal language could bring countries together culturally and
economically as well as increase good feelings among them (Kispert).
Step 4: Check your summary against the original to make sure it is accurate and nothing
important has been changed or lost.
Step 5: Add an in-text citation at the end of the summary.
B - IDENTIFYING KEY POINTS OF A SHORT PARAGRAPH
 Read each passage and write key points in the Note
1. A national park is public land protected by law from overdevelopment and pollution. The
world‟s first national park, Yellowstone National Park in the state of Wyoming, was established
1872. The U. S Congress continued to pass laws creating many national parks, and, in 1916, an
agency, the National Park Service, was formed to govern the parks. Today there are 360
national parks, costing U.S. taxpayers about $2.2 billion each year.
Note:
Summary:
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
2. People are living a lot longer now than in the past. Hospitals have very advanced equipment
that helps doctors diagnose and remedy health problems. Doctors are getting state-of-the-art
training throughout the world. Also, doctors are able to prescribe many new medications to help
people treat and avoid health concerns.
Note:
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Summary:
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
3. Embryonic stem cells are cells that appear in human embryos a few days after fertilization
Because they can grow into any kind of tissue in the body, they may make medical
breakthroughs, such as regenerating spinal cords, possible. Their use has triggered ethical
objections, however, as some believe the cells are forms of human life and thus should not be
destroyed for use in medical experiments.
Note:
Summary:
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
4. The cost of housing in big cities is very expensive. In addition, almost everything costs more
than it would in smaller towns. Food, gasoline, and basic living supplies are substantially more
expensive in the cities. Many people are choosing to live outside of the cities and drive to work.
They can often buy homes for half of the price that they could in the city.
Note:
Summary:
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____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
5. Modern movies are amazing. They show marvelous special effects created by computers.
Computers allow special effects artists lots of freedom. They are able to make monsters, edit
backgrounds, and modify scenes. In addition, many modern blockbusters cost over 100 million
dollars when directors create them. This huge amount of money allows them to get famous
tours and travel to lots of locations.
Note:
Summary:
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
6. The U.S. expanded differently than the European powers. England, France, and Spain fought
wars with each other in attempts to acquire new territory. They also colonized other lands
throughout the world. They used military forces to obtain land. The U.S., on the other hand,
gained most of its land peacefully. The country purchased Florida, and Alaska. Texas voluntarily
joined the country, and the U.S. acquired the southwest after Mexico attacked America.
Note:
Summary:
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
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7. Computers are becoming more and more powerful. During the 1990s, the memory and
processing speeds of computers were doubling every year or two. This growth has slowed a bit,
but they are still growing very quickly. The size of the hardware needed to store information is
also shrinking. 40 years ago, NASA needed a computer to do calculus equations. Now, power
can be held in someone's hand with a calculator.
Note:
Summary:
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
8. Divorces are becoming more frequent in industrialized countries. As countries become
wealthier, the status of women often increases. Women are usually added to the workforce.
They gain solid jobs and become more economically independent. An independent woman is
more likely to seek a divorce since she can sustain herself without a husband. Also, the rights of
women usually increase as a country industrializes. In many poor, conservative societies,
women do not even have the right to divorce; only men can.
Note:
Summary:
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
9. Entertainment is changing society's perception of what is acceptable behavior. Many movies
are becoming more violent and sexual in nature. Most popular movies contain many explosions'
deaths, and questionable behavior by women. Pop singers are also following this trend. Popular
music videos are highlighted by scantily clad women dancing provocatively.
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Note:
Summary:
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
10. Many cities are expanding their mass transit systems. As people learn more about the
dangers of the greenhouse effect, more cities want to reduce pollution. This means making
more bus routes, adding train tracks, and, most importantly, expanding subways. Subways are
becoming larger in terms of new lines being added, and, when possible, they add more trains
per line. This effort helps to get more cars off of the streets and puts less pollution in the air.
Note:
Summary:
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
11. Just 20 years ago, almost no one had a video game console or a personal computer at
home. But now, most households have a few of each. Many children are spending much of their
time playing video games, sending email, or chatting online. They are doing these activities
instead playing outside. This is causing problems like children being overweight and out of
shape.
Note:
Summary:
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____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
12. Biologists have found that constant commercial fishing can be very harmful to the
ecosystem from which they take fish. Some of the problems surrounding the overfishing of
commercial waters have to do with the irreversible alteration of the ecosystem by removing
important fish species. By removing these important species, other dependent life forms, such
as plankton and algae, might become overabundant and block out sunlight, which will lead to
the death of fragile coral and sponge species.
Note:
Summary:
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
C - SUMMARIZING MAIN IDEAS OF A SHORT PARAGRAPH
 Use key points that you have noted, write one to two sentence(s) to summarize the
above paragraphs.
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SESSION 8: SUMMARIZING
Content
Summarizing
Objectives
Students will be able to:


Identify key points of a long passage
Summarize main ideas of a long passage
A – IDENTIFYING KEY POINTS
1. Model
THE DEATH OF THE PRESS?
A hundred years ago news was exclusively provided by newspapers. There was no other way
of supplying the latest information on politics, crime, finance or sport to the millions of people
who bought and read newspapers, sometimes twice a day. Today the situation is very different.
The same news is also available on television, radio and the internet, and because of the nature
of these media, can be more up-to-date than in print. For young people especially, the internet
has become the natural source of news and comment.
This development means that in many countries newspaper circulation is falling, and a loss of
readers also means a fall in advertising, which is the main income for most papers.
Consequently, in both Britain and the USA newspapers are closing every week. But when a
local newspaper goes out of business an important part of the community is lost. It allows
debate on local issues, as well as providing a noticeboard for events such as weddings and
society meetings.
All newspapers are concerned by these developments, and many have tried to find methods of
increasing their sales. One approach is to focus on magazine-type articles rather than news,
another is to give free gifts such as DVDs, while others have developed their own websites to
provide continuous news coverage. However, as so much is now freely available online to
anyone with a web browser, none of these have had a significant impact on the steady decline
of paid-for newspapers.
(Source: New Business Monthly, May 2010, p. 37)
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Decline of newspapers
(New Business Monthly, May 2010, p. 37)
a) Newspapers only source of news 100 yrs ago – now also TV, radio + www
b) Newspaper sales
> decline in advertising > newspapers shutting
c) Attempts to increase sales:
– more magazine content
– gifts
– websites
but none effective.
 Read the following text and underline the key points.
WEALTH AND FERTILITY
For most of the past century an inverse correlation between human fertility and economic
development has been found. This means that as a country got richer, the average number of
children born to each woman got smaller. While in the poorest countries women often have
eight children, the rate fell as low as 1.3 in some European countries such as Italy, which is
below the replacement rate.
Such a low rate has two likely negative consequences: the population will fall in the long term,
and a growing number of old people will have to be supported by a shrinking number of young.
But a recent study by researchers from Pennsylvania University suggests that this pattern may
be changing. They related countries‟ fertility rates to their human development index (HDI), a
figure with a maximum value of 1.0, which assesses life expectancy, average income and
education level. Over 20 countries now have an HDI of more than 0.9, and in a majority of these
the fertility rate has started to increase, and in some is approaching two children per woman.
Although there are exceptions such as Japan, it appears that ever higher levels of wealth and
education eventually translate into a desire for more children.
 Complete the notes of the key points below.
(a) Falling levels of fertility have generally been found ________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
(b) In some, number of children born ______________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
(c) Two results: smaller populations and ____________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
(d) Recent research claims that __________________________________________________
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____________________________________________________________________________
(e) Comparison of HDI (human development index: _________________________________)
with fertility found that in most highly rated (+0.9) countries, ____________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
 Join the notes together and expand them to make the final summary. Check that the
meaning is clear and no important points have been left out.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
 Read the following text and find out key points, then summarize it.
Passage 1:
One of the most promising new developments in personal transportation is the smart car. A
smart car is one that utilizes advanced methods of engineering or computers with some kinds of
artificial intelligence. While smart cars have not yet reached their full potential, they are sure to
be beneficial to all who eventually drive them.
One advantage of smart cars is that they will help traffic flow faster. A smart car will be able to
handle many of the driving duties, thereby allowing the people in the car to attend to other
matters. Because the car, for the most part, will be driving itself, it will be able to select optimal
routes based on their lack of vehicles and the speed with which they may be traveled upon.
This, in turn, will make travel times much shorter and keep traffic moving continuously.
In addition, a smart car will have lower maintenance costs. Since the car will be almost entirely
run by computers, the computers will be able to alert the owner when there is a minor problem
to be fixed. The owner will then be able to fix the car at a low cost as opposed to waiting for the
problem to develop into a major issue that would require an inordinate amount of money to be
spent.
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Notes on key points:
Summary:
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Passage 2:
Many environmentalists are wary of allowing the introduction of new species into an ecosystem.
Ecosystems are fragile, and invasive species can often cause many problems when they are
introduced where they do not belong. In fact, when they invade a new ecosystem, they often
have several harmful effects.
For one, the introduction of new species can ruin the local ecosystem in many ways. First, it can
act as a predator and eat other local species, thereby causing their extinction. Another way is
that it can consume too much of a valuable local food source. This consumption can cause
other animals not to be able to eat as much as they are accustomed to. The result may be a
decrease in the number of native species.
Another way that nonnative species can be harmful is by causing the people who live in that
area to suffer from financial losses. An example of this is the mesquite tree in the American
Southwest. It thrives in areas with little water. However, because it soaks up the water from the
ground, nearby grasses do not get enough and die. This causes local ranchers to lose money
since they have to pay extra for animal feed. Also, the mesquite tree regenerates easily, so
farmers must pay large amounts of money to remove the trees from their land.
Notes on key points:
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Summary:
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Passage 3
A contentious issue in American politics is whether or not to raise the gasoline tax. Many people
support it because they believe it will help the economy. However, their beliefs are erroneous
since raising the gas tax would definitely have negative effects on the economy.
To begin with, an increase in the gas tax would disrupt the economy. Many people rely upon
their cars to get to work. By raising the gas tax just a few percentage points, the government
would be making people's commutes to work cost more. In many cases, they cannot afford this
extra expense. In addition, if people are spending more money on gasoline, then they will spend
less money purchasing other products. Since the American economy runs on consumer
spending, a decrease in spending could greatly damage the economy.
Second of all, an increase in the gasoline tax would hurt those with low incomes. Naturally, it
would make their gasoline more expensive, and these people simply do not have the money
they would need to pay the tax. Also, since many people with low incomes live in areas with no
public transportation, they might not be able to afford to go out or even make it to their
workplaces. At best, they would suffer increased financial hardship.
Notes on key points:
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Summary:
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Passage 4
Because of the dangers of forest fires, some park rangers have started promoting a new way to
take care of forests. Their method is called prescribed burning. What they do is actually start
fires in forests to burn down various kinds of trees or other plant life. Unfortunately, prescribed
burning is not an effective method for a number of different reasons.
First, fires are extremely difficult to control. While park rangers insist that they take tremendous
precautions, it is still possible for a prescribed burning to rage out of control. This has actually
happened in some cases. Because the rangers could not control the fire, it caused much more
damage than a regular forest fire would have. In fact, fire is unpredictable. Rangers may want to
burn one area but instead end up burning additional places because of the unpredictability of
forest fires.
In addition, prescribed burning is not cheap. It costs a large amount of money to start and
control a forest fire. There are numerous people and machines involved in this process, so
salaries and equipment costs must be paid. Moreover, when fires start burning uncontrollably, it
costs even more money to reign them back in. All things considered, prescribed burning has
many disadvantages and should not be practiced.
Notes on key points:
Summary:
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____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Passage 5
These days, many schools and research institutions find themselves relying more and more
upon educational videos and DVDs. While some purists, preferring to use books, are
vehemently against this trend, the reliance upon visual materials is actually a positive thing.
First of all, educational materials are useless if the audience does not pay attention to them.
The twenty-first century is a visual age. Students are much more used to watching videos and
DVDs than to reading books. By relying upon visual aids, educators are more likely to capture
the attention of students. Also, videos and DVDs are more easily able to explain difficult
processes or ideas through the use of computer graphics or animation. This quality makes
difficult topics much easier to understand, a definite merit that will help students further their
education.
Also, videos and DVDs are much cheaper than books. Many visual aids sell for less than ten
dollars while books may cost two or three times that amount. Since many students are on tight
budgets, this economic benefit will help them considerably. Additionally, many schools only
have to purchase one video or DVD as opposed to buying thirty or forty or more copies of the
same book. By purchasing visual materials, schools can save considerable amounts of money,
which they can use to buy other important materials.
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Notes on key points:
Summary:
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
ASSIGNMENT
Follow the steps instructed in Session 8, summarize BOTH TWO TEXTS on the next
page.
Step 1: Read the original passage several times until you understand it fully. Look up any words
that you don't understand.
Step 2: Decide what the important ideas are. It helps to underline or highlight important ideas. It
also helps to take notes. Write down only a few words for each idea-not complete sentences.
Step 3: Write your summary from your notes, paraphrasing where possible. Don't look at the
original while you are writing, re-organising the structure if needed.
Step 4: Check your summary against the original to make sure it is accurate and nothing
important has been changed or lost.
Step 5: Add an in-text citation at the end of the summary.
N.B: The text does not include the source, so students are not required to add in-text
citation.
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Passage 1
Car manufacturers and governments have been eagerly seeking a replacement for the
automobile's main source of power, the internal-combustion engine. By far the most promising
alternative source of energy for cars is the hydrogen-based fuel-cell engine, which uses
hydrogen to create electricity that, in turn, powers the car. Fuel-cell engines have several
advantages over internal-combustion engines and will probably soon replace them.
One of the main problems with the internal-combustion engine is that it relies on petroleum,
either in the form of gasoline or diesel fuel. Petroleum is a finite resource; someday, we will run
out of oil. The hydrogen needed for fuel-cell engines cannot easily be depleted. Hydrogen can
be derived from various plentiful sources, including natural gas and even water. The fact that
fuel-cell engines utilize easily available, renewable resources makes them particularly attractive.
Second, hydrogen-based fuel cells are attractive because they will solve many of the world's
pollution problems. An unavoidable by-product of burning oil is carbon dioxide, and carbon
dioxide harms the environment. On the other hand, the only byproduct of fuel-cell engines is
water.
Third, fuel-cell engines will soon be economically competitive because people will spend less
money to operate a fuel-cell engine than they will to operate an internal-combustion engine.
This is true for one simple reason: a fuel-cell automobile is nearly twice as efficient in using its
fuel as an automobile powered by an internal-combustion engine is. In other words, the fuel-cell
powered car requires only half the fuel energy that the internal-combustion powered car does to
go the same distance.
(258 words)
Passage 2
The factory is a product of both the eighteenth and, even more so, nineteenth centuries. The
rise of factories began in England and eventually spread throughout the world. There were three
primary reasons as to why this occurred.
Prior to the creation of factories, the majority of work, including making clothes and even metal
tools, was done by hand by people in their homes or in small shops. The main technological
achievement that enabled the rise of factories was the steam engine. Originally developed in
the mid-eighteenth century to pump water out of deep coal mines, the steam engine provided its
user with enough power to do the work of many people. The steam engines people owned,
therefore, needed to be centralized in protective buildings to maximize their capabilities.
Factories were a direct result of this need.
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The steam engine and, later, the internal combustion engine, brought about improved
transportation thanks to the inventions of the railroad and steamship. Railroads could transport
raw materials to a central point, like a factory, where workers and machines could subsequently
transform them into finished products. The railroads and steamships could then turn around and
transport these goods to markets throughout the world.
Another key point in the rise of factories, particularly in England, was property rights.
Subsistence farming had been a way of life for untold centuries. However, many people did not
own their own land but merely farmed wherever they could. "Enclosures," land that was
enclosed by hedges and fences and owned by individuals, became dominant features in
England. Those without any land became the suppliers of cheap labor in factories. Additionally,
laws preventing private property from government seizure encouraged both the development of
the land's resources and the further construction of factories.
(293 words)
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SESSION 9: SYNTHESIZING
Content
Synthesizing
Objectives
Students will be able to:


Know the steps to synthesize information from two sources
Revise identifying key points from long texts
A – SYNTHESIS
For most assignments students are expected to read a variety of sources, often reflecting
similar/conflicting views on a topic. The writer needs to know how to present and organise a
range of sources.
 Read the example, from a study of women’s experience of prison.
According to Giallombardo (1966), women alleviated the pains of imprisonment by developing
kinship links with other inmates. Similarly, Heffernan (1972) found that adaptation to prison was
facilitated by the creation of a pseudo-family. Owen (1998) also notes that the female subculture
is based on personal relationships with other women inmates. Others, however, believe that the
subculture in women‟s prisons is undergoing a gradual shift that more closely resembles that of
male prisons. Fox (1982) states, for example, that the cooperative caring prison community that
has embodied characterizations of female prisons has evolved into a more dangerous and
competitive climate.
a) How many writers are mentioned?
b) Do they have similar or conflicting ideas?
Process of writing a synthesis
The following process is suggested for synthesizing information from two sources.
1. Pre-writing
Step 1: Read the sources
Step 2: Make notes of each source
Step 3: Combine ideas and make an outline from the notes
2. Writing
Step 4: Write the synthesis using the outline: summarize, paraphrase and cite
the information
3. Checking
Step 5: Revise and edit the synthesis
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SUGGESTED OUTLINE
Introduction
Topic of the two sources
Relationship between main idea of the two sources: similar/conflicting
Body
Key point 1
Supporting information from source 1
Supporting information from source 2
Key point 2
Supporting information from source 1
Supporting information from source 2
Key point 3
Supporting information from source 1
Supporting information from source 2
Conclusion (optional):
Summary of the main ideas from the two sources
SAMPLE
Source A
Source B
One of the most promising new developments Let's move on to another piece of technology
in personal transportation is the smart car. A that we are sure to see in the future. I'm
smart car is one that utilizes advanced talking, of course, about smart cars. Now,
methods of engineering or computers with don't get too thrilled about them. Yeah, it
some kinds of artificial intelligence. While would be nice to have smart cars do all the
smart cars have not yet reached their full driving for us, but they probably won't be as
potential, they are sure to be beneficial to all breathtaking as everyone anticipates. Here, let
who eventually drive them.
me explain for you.
One advantage of smart cars is that they will
To begin with, you've all seen movies with
help traffic flow faster. A smart car will be able
scenes of smart cars zipping around through
to handle many of the driving duties, thereby traffic, right? Well, unfortunately, that probably
allowing the people in the car to attend to won't be what will happen. It's a documented
other matters. Because the car, for the most fact that, as automobile technology has
part, will be driving itself, it will be able to improved, the amount of traffic has steadily
select optimal routes based on their lack of increased. So while we may have cars do the
vehicles and the speed with which they may driving for us, you can expect to sit in longer
80 | P a g e
be traveled upon. This, in turn, will make travel traffic jams. Just because they're smart cars
times much shorter and keep traffic moving
doesn't mean that they'll be smart enough to
continuously.
get you out of a traffic jam.
In addition, a smart car will have lower
Second of all, they are not going to be cheap
maintenance costs. Since the car will be to maintain. "Why?" you may ask. Well, most
almost
entirely
run
by
computers,
the of the parts of a smart car will be custom-
computers will be able to alert the owner when made. This means that, due to the
there is a minor problem to be fixed. The manufacturing process, replacing the parts will
owner will then be able to fix the car at a low be expensive. Sure, the labor bill may be
cost as opposed to waiting for the problem to cheap, but the bill for the parts is going to be
develop into a major issue that would require astronomical in some cases. So think about
an inordinate amount of money to be spent.
those things before you get too excited about
smart cars, okay?
1. Pre-writing
Step 1: Read the sources
Step 2: Make notes of each source
Source A
Source B
Smart Car - Promising New Developments
Smart Car - Not as Breathtaking as People
1. Will help traffic flow faster

handle many of the driving duties 
drivers can attend to other matters

Anticipate
1. Will not ease traffic

can choose optimal routes  much
shorter travel times & continuously
automobile
technology
improves
amount of traffic

moving traffic
people will have to sit in longer traffic
jams
2. Have lower maintenance costs

computers will alert owner when is
minor problem

2. Will not be cheap to maintain

can fix problem before it becomes
major issue
use of very expensive, custom-made
parts

replacing parts  astronomical amount
of money
Step 3: Combine ideas and make an outline from the notes
81 | P a g e
Introduction
Topic of the two Smart car
sources
Conflicting points
Relationship
between
main
idea of the two
Body
- Source A: Promising New Developments
sources
- Source B: Not as Breathtaking as People Anticipate
Key point 1
Traffic
Supporting
Will help traffic flow faster
information
from
source A

handle many of the driving duties  drivers can
attend to other matters

can choose optimal routes  much shorter travel
times & continuously moving traffic
Will not ease traffic
Supporting
information
from
source B
automobile technology improves amount of traffic

people will have to sit in longer traffic jams
Key point 2
Maintenance cost
Supporting
Have lower maintenance costs
information
from
source A
information
source B

computers will alert owner when is minor problem

can fix problem before it becomes major issue
Will not be cheap to maintain
Supporting
Conclusion

from

use of very expensive, custom-made parts

replacing parts  astronomical amount of money
Summary of the main ideas from the two sources
(optional):
2. Writing
Step 4: Write the synthesis using the outline; summarize, paraphrase and cite the information
82 | P a g e
B – IDENTIFYING KEY POINTS FROM LONG TEXT
 Find the key points in the following text. Then make an outline to combine the ideas
from both sources
Source 1A
Why don't we discuss a few more invasive species before today's class ends? Now, although
we've discussed a lot of harmful invasive species, please remember that they are not always
detrimental to the local ecosystem. In fact, I could name a few that have actually been, well,
beneficial. Don't believe me? Okay, listen to this.
Everyone knows that Kansas is famous for wheat and Texas is celebrated for cows. Well, they
are both, uh, invasive species. And they haven't done any harm to the environment. For
example, wheat has not caused the extinction of any local wildlife. It doesn't use up an
excessive amount of resources like some invasive species do. And cows, of course, are not
predators, so no animals have been killed by them while they graze.
Those are two examples of harmless invasive species. But how about invasive species that are,
uh, beneficial? Yeah, it sometimes happens. A perfect case is that of the cane toad, which was
introduced for farmers down in Florida, among other places. Cane toads devour many harmful
insects, so they keep the bug population down. Also, since the toads eat so many insects,
farmers don't have to use any pesticides that could be dangerous to humans. So, cane toads
are actually helpful to many people, showing that invasive species sometimes do have benefits.
Source 1B
Many environmentalists are wary of allowing the introduction of new species into an ecosystem.
Ecosystems are fragile, and invasive species can often cause many problems when they are
introduced where they do not belong. In fact, when they invade a new ecosystem, they often
have several harmful effects.
For one, the introduction of new species can ruin the local ecosystem in many ways. First, it can
act as a predator and eat other local species, thereby causing their extinction. Another way is
that it can consume too much of a valuable local food source. This consumption can cause
other animals not to be able to eat as much as they are accustomed to. The result may be a
decrease in the number of native species.
Another way that nonnative species can be harmful is by causing the people who live in that
area to suffer from financial losses. An example of this is the mesquite tree in the American
Southwest. It thrives in areas with little water. However, because it soaks up the water from the
ground, nearby grasses do not get enough and die. This causes local ranchers to lose money
since they have to pay extra for animal feed. Also, the mesquite tree regenerates easily, so
farmers must pay large amounts of money to remove the trees from their land.
83 | P a g e
Outline – Source 1A & 1B
Topic:
Relationship
Key point 1
Source 1A
Source 1B
Key point 2
Source 1A
Source 1B
Source 2A
While we're on the topic of taxes, let's discuss another touchy issue. I'm referring, of course, to
the gasoline tax. I must say that I'm strongly in favor of raising the gas tax for a number of
reasons. Allow me to explain a couple of them.
One argument people always like to use against the gas tax is that it will disrupt the economy.
Well, I disagree. For one thing, our economy is way too complex for just one factor to hurt the
economy. A raise in percentage points in the gas tax wouldn't in any way dramatically harm our
economy. Also, there are many other factors that are already doing tremendous economic
damage. Health care expenses and fixing the nation's infrastructure are just two of these.
84 | P a g e
Also, let's think about how people with low incomes would be affected. Yes, the gas tax would
take money that they can't afford to spend out of their pockets. However, all it takes is a little
creativity to solve this problem. For example, the government could give tax breaks to people
whose incomes are below a certain level. This would, in a sense, give them a rebate on the gas
tax. Or the government could also allow people with lower incomes to pay less money when
they go to fill up their cars.
Source 2B
A contentious issue in American politics is whether or not to raise the gasoline tax. Many people
support it because they believe it will help the economy. However, their beliefs are erroneous
since raising the gas tax would definitely have negative effects on the economy.
To begin with, an increase in the gas tax would disrupt the economy. Many people rely upon
their cars to get to work. By raising the gas tax just a few percentage points, the government
would be making people's commutes to work cost more. In many cases, they cannot afford this
extra expense. In addition, if people are spending more money on gasoline, then they will spend
less money purchasing other products. Since the American economy runs on consumer
spending, a decrease in spending could greatly damage the economy.
Second of all, an increase in the gasoline tax would hurt those with low incomes. Naturally, it
would make their gasoline more expensive, and these people simply do not have the money
they would need to pay the tax. Also, since many people with low incomes live in areas with no
public transportation, they might not be able to afford to go out or even make it to their
workplaces. At best, they would suffer increased financial hardship.
Outline – Source 2A & 2B
Topic:
Relationship
Key point 1
Source 2A
Source 2B
85 | P a g e
Key point 2
Source 2A
Source 2B
Source 3A
We all know that forest fires can cause lots of damage to the environment. Remember that one
we had last year? Well, the forest is just now starting to recover. However, some
environmentalists actually believe that starting forest fires is effective. Imagine that! It's called
prescribed burning, and here are its advantages.
First, unlike a regular forest fire, which often burns uncontrollably, prescribed burning can be
handled. Park rangers are able to manage exactly where the fire burns and even what plants
and trees it burns down. There are many different prescribed burning experts and programs, so
park rangers make sure to consult them before they commence with the burning. Even if the fire
starts burning unpredictably, they have methods to ensure that the fire does not get out of their
control and burn the wrong places.
Second, there are always fires in forests. They actually help rejuvenate the forests. However,
natural forest fires can cause up to ten times the damage prescribed burning does. Not only
that, but natural forest fires can also get into human settlements, burn down houses, and even
kill people. By using prescribed burning, authorities can control exactly what gets burned while
keeping the fire on a small scale. So they can help the forest recover yet prevent it from entirely
burning down.
Source 3B
Because of the dangers of forest fires, some park rangers have started promoting a new way to
take care of forests. Their method is called prescribed burning. What they do is actually start
fires in forests to burn down various kinds of trees or other plant life. Unfortunately, prescribed
burning is not an effective method for a number of different reasons.
First, fires are extremely difficult to control. While park rangers insist that they take tremendous
precautions, it is still possible for a prescribed burning to rage out of control. This has actually
happened in some cases. Because the rangers could not control the fire, it caused much more
86 | P a g e
damage than a regular forest fire would have. In fact, fire is unpredictable. Rangers may want to
burn one area but instead end up burning additional places because of the unpredictability of
forest fires.
In addition, prescribed burning is not cheap. It costs a large amount of money to start and
control a forest fire. There are numerous people and machines involved in this process, so
salaries and equipment costs must be paid. Moreover, when fires start burning uncontrollably, it
costs even more money to reign them back in. All things considered, prescribed burning has
many disadvantages and should not be practiced.
Outline – Source 3A & 3B
Topic:
Relationship
Key point 1
Source 3A
Source 3B
Key point 2
Source 3A
Source 3B
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SESSION 10: SYNTHESIZING
Content
Synthesizing
Objectives
Students will be able to:



Cite information
Use transition words/phrases to maintain coherence in synthesis
Apply techniques to synthesize information from two sources
A- CITING INFORMATION
 Look at the example below. The italic words are used to cite information.
According to Giallombardo (1966), women alleviated the pains of imprisonment by developing
kinship links with other inmates. Similarly, Heffernan (1972) found that adaptation to prison was
facilitated by the creation of a pseudo-family. Owen (1998) also notes that the female subculture
is based on personal relationships with other women inmates. Others, however, believe that the
subculture in women‟s prisons is undergoing a gradual shift that more closely resembles that of
male prisons. Fox (1982) states, for example, that the cooperative caring prison community that
has embodied characterizations of female prisons has evolved into a more dangerous and
competitive climate.
Structures for citing
According to + noun
According to source A, [clause].
[Subject], according to source A, [verb].
[Clause], according to source A.
Subject + reporting verbs + that clause
Remember: You need to paraphrase the information in the clause
Reporting verbs
tell*
report
suggest
explain
conclude
say
argue
state
quote
remind*
indicate
cite
claim
discuss
inform*
explain
point out
mention
admit
88 | P a g e
* These verbs must be used with personal objects (The writer/professor/author
tells/informs/reminds us that… )
Some verbs can be used only for counterarguments (arguments against an original
argument): not agree, disagree, reject, contradict, challenge, take a different view, dispute the
fact that/the idea that/the theory that
Source A does not agree/disagrees with this idea. It states that…
Source A disputes/rejects the idea that ….
Source A challenges source B’s idea about X.
… . This contradicts source A, which states that…
 Add an appropriate reporting verb and quotation marks around the cited word or
words.
1.
Original
The effects on the local ecology can be devastating.
Paraphrase
The author_______________ that invasive plants may have devastating
results.
2.
Original
Most programs aimed at children, such as cartoons, for example, contain
little valuable content.
Paraphrase
The author _______________that most children‟s TV programs do not
have valuable content.
3.
Original
Smoking prevention campaigns, particularly those aimed at young people,
have met with significant success all around the country.
Paraphrase
The author _______________ that antismoking campaigns for teens have
had significant success.
4.
Original
… office assistants can devote themselves to other tasks. Offices can
operate with fewer assistants, thus spending a great deal less on salaries
and benefits.
Paraphrase
The speaker _______________that offices save money because office
workers can now devote themselves to other tasks.
5.
Original
The fact is, research shows that children who watch an hour or so of TV
daily… actually do better in school than children who do not watch TV at
all.
Paraphrase
The speaker _______________that when children watch TV, they actually
do better in school.
89 | P a g e
6.
Original
It is well established that animals (including humans) who play live longer,
healthier lives than those who do not.
Paraphrase
The author _______________ that play helps people live longer, healthier
lives.
7.
Original
Health care centers, on the other hand, are often painted with neutral
colors, as these convey a sense of cleanliness…
Paraphrase
The author _______________that neutral colors are used in health care
centers to convey a sense of cleanliness.
 Read the following synthesis of source A and source B in Session 10. Underline the
words/phrases to cite the information, and circle the words/phrase to show transition
between ideas.
Source A and source B both discuss aspects of smart cars. While source A states that smart
cars is a promising new development, source B says that smart cars will not be as great as
people expect.
According to source A, smart cars will avoid traffic jams by replacing the driver to control the
vehicle and choose the optimal routes to drive along. This contradicts source B, which affirms
that smart cars will not resemble scenes in movies where they move rapidly through cities. It
states that, as automobile technology has improved, it has always created more traffic, not less,
and future traffic jams involving smart cars will be bigger than they currently are.
Next, as for the maintenance costs of smart cars, source A states that smart cars will tell their
owners when they have minor problems, allowing them to be fixed rather cheaply before they
become more serious. Source B, however, declares that most smart car parts are custommade,
so they must be specially manufactured, making them incredibly expensive. Also, source B
states that while labor fees will not be expensive, any repair work involving spare parts will be.
In conclusion, source B has a dim view of the future of smart cars, which directly contrasts the
opinion of source A, which states that smart cars will be very beneficial.
 Use the outlines you have made for source 1A-1B, 2A-2B, 3A-3B in Session 10. Write 12 sentence(s) to paraphrase and cite information from the sources.
Source 1A-1B
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
90 | P a g e
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Source 2A-2B
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Source 3A-3B
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
B – COHERENCE IN SYNTHESIS
1. Showing contrasts
Transition words: however; on the other hand; in contrast; on the contrary; conversely
According to source A, X is…; however, source B states that X is….
Source A claims that X is…. Source B, on the other hand, indicates that X is…
Adverb clause markers: although; even though; while; but; whereas
Although source A states that X is…, source B says that X is…
Source A supports the idea that X is…, while sources B asserts that….
91 | P a g e
2. Showing similarity
Transition words: similarly, likewise
According to source A, X is…; similarly, source B states that X is….
Source A claims that X is…. Source B, likewise, indicates that X is…
Adverb: also, both
Both source A and source B states that X is….
Source A claims that X is…. Source B also indicates that X is…
3. Other transitional words and phrases
Listing: first, second, third, finally
Showing addition: moreover; furthermore; in addition; besides; also; as well
Showing cause and effect: because, since, for, thus, therefore, hence, as a result, accordingly,
for the same reason
C – APPLYING TECHNIQUES TO SYNTHESIZE INFORMATION
 Use the outlines you have made for source 1A-1B, 2A-2B, 3A-3B in Session 10.
Combine the sources and synthesize information for each key point. Apply appropriate
techniques to paraphrase, summarize and cite information. Remember to use appropriate
transition words/phrases to maintain coherence.
Source 1A-1B
Topic
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Key point 1
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
92 | P a g e
____________________________________________________________________________
Key point 2
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Source 2A-2B
Topic
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Key point 1
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Key point 2
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
93 | P a g e
Source 3A-3B
Topic
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Key point 1
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Key point 2
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
 Read the following sources, follow the steps and techniques learnt in Session 10&11,
and write a synthesis.
Source 4A
I know many of you prefer watching educational DVDs to reading books. However, I must
inform you that books are still much better than watching visual aids. Allow me to educate you
as to why.
First, videos are limited by time. You can only impart so much information in a one- or two-hour
video. Therefore, the video is likely to be incomplete and not contain all the necessary
information. You don't have this issue with books. A 500-page book is filled with much more
information than a two-hour DVD. In addition, visual materials are often designed more for
entertainment than education. This means they are often highly simplified. You often can't
explain difficult topics on videos. Again, books don't suffer from this problem.
94 | P a g e
Second of all, visual aids really aren't cheaper than books. Don't believe me? Okay, well, tapes
and disks of movies are often rather cheap, but this isn't the case for educational materials.
They are almost always very pricey, costing between fifty to one hundred dollars a copy. These
prices make them much more expensive than most books. Also, even if you own an educational
DVD, you still have to purchase the DVD player and television set, which aren't cheap. And,
when they break down, as is often the case, they're expensive to repair and also cause
annoying delays.
Source 4B
These days, many schools and research institutions find themselves relying more and more
upon educational videos and DVDs. While some purists, preferring to use books, are
vehemently against this trend, the reliance upon visual materials is actually a positive thing.
First of all, educational materials are useless if the audience does not pay attention to them.
The twenty-first century is a visual age. Students are much more used to watching videos and
DVDs than to reading books. By relying upon visual aids, educators are more likely to capture
the attention of students. Also, videos and DVDs are more easily able to explain difficult
processes or ideas through the use of computer graphics or animation. This quality makes
difficult topics much easier to understand, a definite merit that will help students further their
education.
Also, videos and DVDs are much cheaper than books. Many visual aids sell for less than ten
dollars while books may cost two or three times that amount. Since many students are on tight
budgets, this economic benefit will help them considerably. Additionally, many schools only
have to purchase one video or DVD as opposed to buying thirty or forty or more copies of the
same book. By purchasing visual materials, schools can save considerable amounts of money,
which they can use to buy other important materials.
Your notes:
95 | P a g e
Your synthesis:
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
ASSIGNMENT
Follow the steps and techniques learnt in Session 10&11, synthesize information from
the two sources in the next page.
96 | P a g e
Source A:
First, congestion pricing gets more people to use public transportation. By raising the cost of
using the roadways, individuals are encouraged not to drive. Instead, they are encouraged to
find alternative means of transportation such as mass transit (trains, buses, subways), biking,
and walking. Getting more individuals to give up driving and start using pubic transportation will
thereby reduce air pollution from vehicle emissions.
Second, congestion pricing, by taking more cars off the roadways, means faster commuting
times for everyone. Drivers that decide to pay for the right to drive during peak periods will face
less traffic and can reduce the time spent. In their daily commute. Similarly, with less overall
congestion, buses will also be able to reach their destinations more quickly.
Third, congestion pricing is essentially an equitable solution that will benefit the majority. This
policy will only punish those who choose to pollute the air. By increasing the cost to pollute,
more people will choose not to; therefore, everyone will benefit with cleaner air.
Source B:
First of all, congestion pricing will not necessarily encourage more people to use public
transportation. This is because, in many cities, the public transportation systems are not
extensive enough to meet increased demand. In other words, buses and subways don't go to
every neighborhood, and that means that even if you don't want to drive your car, you have no
choice because there's no public transportation in your neighborhood. That's a problem.
A second point I would like to make is that congestion pricing will not automatically result in
faster commutes like proponents say it will. It doesn't mean that you can get to and born work in
less time. This may be true for some people, but more than likely, once your city implements
congestion pricing, you will actually spend more time going to and from work. Why? Well,
because, as more people use public transportation, trains and buses get mom crowded. That
means you wait longer before you can even get on the bus or train.
Third, congestion pricing will not benefit everyone. It's not that simple. Sure, some people will
choose to drive to work because It is more convenient. And congestion pricing will certainly tax
those individuals for driving. But what about the individuals who have no other choice? Many
workers cannot afford to drive in the city or near public transportation lines because housing in
those areas is too expensive. Those individuals must drive to work, and many of them are from
- poor neighborhoods and have low-paying jobs.
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SESSION 11: ESSAY
Content
Essay
Objectives
Students will be able to:


Revise paragraph and essay structure
Avoid plagiarism in writing essay by creating references and citations
A-PARAGRAPH/ESSAY STRUCTURE
1. Paragraph
A paragraph contains three parts
1.
A
good
topic

is a complete sentence with a subject, a verb, and a controlling idea.

is neither too general nor too specific. It clearly states the main idea of
sentence
the paragraph but does not include specific details.

is usually the first sentence in the paragraph.

explain or prove the topic sentence.
supporting

are specific and factual.
sentences

can be examples, statistics, or quotations.
3.

signals the end of the paragraph.

summarizes the important points briefly or restates the topic sentence in
2.
Good
A
good
concluding
sentence
different words.
2. Essay
An essay has three main parts: an introduction (introductory paragraph), a body (at least one,
but usually two or more paragraphs), and a conclusion (concluding paragraph).

An essay introduction consists of two parts: a few general statements to attract your
reader's attention and a thesis statement to state the main idea of the essay. A thesis
statement for an essay is like a topic sentence for a paragraph: It names the specific
topic and gives the reader a general idea of the contents of the essay.

The body consists of one or more paragraphs. Each paragraph develops a subdivision
of the topic, so the number of paragraphs in the body will vary with the number of
subdivisions or subtopics.

The conclusion, like the concluding sentence in a paragraph, is a summary or review of
the main points discussed in the body.
98 | P a g e
An essay has unity and coherence, just as a paragraph does. Transition signals and the
repetition of key nouns link the paragraphs into a cohesive whole.
The following chart shows you how the parts of a paragraph correspond to the parts of an
essay.
B-REFERENCES
1. Why use references?
There are three principal reasons for providing references and citations:
(a) To show that you have read some of the authorities on the subject, which will give added
weight to your writing.
(b) To allow the reader to find the source, if he/ she wishes to examine the topic in more detail.
(c) To avoid plagiarism.
 Decide if you need to give a reference in the following cases.
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Yes/No
(a) Data you found from your own primary research
(b) A graph from an internet article
(c) A quotation from a book
(d) An item of common knowledge
(e) A theory from a journal article
(f) An idea of your own based on reading several sources
2. Citations and references
It is important to refer correctly to the work of other writers that you have used. You may present
these sources as either a summary/ paraphrase or as a quotation. In each case a citation is
included to provide a link to the list of references at the end of your paper:
In-text
Smith (2009) argues that the popularity of the Sports Utility Vehicle (SUV) is
citation
irrational, as despite their high cost most are ever driven off-road. In his view
“they are bad for road safety, the environment and road congestion” (Smith,
2009: 37).
References
Smith, M. (2009) Power and the State. Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan
 Underline the citations in the example above. Which is a summary and which a
quotation?
Giving citations
A quotation
Author‟s name, date of publication, page no.
(Smith, 2009: 37)
A summary
Author‟s name, date of publication
Smith (2009)
3. Reference verbs
Summaries and quotations are usually introduced by a reference verb:
Smith (2009) argues that . . .
Janovic (1972) claimed that . . .
These verbs can be either in the present or the past tense. Normally the use of the present
tense suggests that the source is recent and still valid, while the past indicates that the source is
older and may be out-of-date, but there are no hard-and-fast distinctions. In some disciplines an
old source may still have validity.
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4. Reference systems
There are various systems of referencing in use in the academic world, so you should ask your
teachers if you are not sure which to use. With any system, the most important point is to be
consistent.
NB. Referencing is a complex subject and students should use an online reference guide for
detailed information. Their university library may provide one.
For a full guide to the use of the Harvard system see
www.home.ched.coventry.ac.uk/caw/harvard/
For the Vancouver system see:
www.imperial.ac.uk/Library/pdf/Vancouver_referencing.pdf
For the footnotes system see:
www.resources.glos.ac.uk/shareddata/dms/9F4295CDBCD42A0399BA0A2A6E688835.
pdf
C-QUOTATIONS
Using a quotation means bringing the original words of a writer into your work. Quotations are
effective in some situations, but must not be overused.
They can be valuable:

when the original words express an idea in a distinctive way

when the original is more concise than your summary could be

when the original version is well-known
All quotations should be introduced by a phrase that shows the source, and also explains how
this quotation fits into your argument:
Introductory
Author
Reference/
phrase
Reporting verb4
This view is as Friedman
stated:
widely shared;
Quotation
Citation
“Inflation is the one form of (1974: 93).
taxation
that
can
be
imposed without legislation”
 Add punctuation to the following direct quotations, and change the capitalization if
necessary
1. Dr. Yixuan Ma, a well-known astrophysicist who has been studying black holes, said they are
the most interesting phenomena we astrophysicists have ever studied.
4
Refer to session 10
101 | P a g e
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
2. As she explained in black holes the laws of nature do not seem to apply.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
3. A black hole is a tiny point with the mass 25 times the mass of our sun explained Ma's
associate, Chun-Yi Suo Black holes are created by the death of a very large star she stated.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
4. It is an invisible vacuum cleaner in space she added with tremendous gravitational pull.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
5. According to Dr. Su, if a person falls into a black hole, he will eventually be crushed due to
the tremendous gravitational forces.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
6. Time will slow down for him as he approaches the point of no return she said and when he
reaches the point of no return, time will stand still for him.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
The following paragraph is from an article titled „The mobile revolution‟ in the journal
„Development Quarterly‟ (Issue 34 pages 85–97, 2009) by K. Hoffman. p. 87.
According to recent estimates there are at least 4 billion mobile phones in the world, and the
majority of these are owned by people in the developing world. Ownership in the developed
world reached saturation level by 2007, so countries such as China, India and Brazil now
account for most of the growth. In the poorest countries, with weak transport networks and
unreliable postal services, access to telecommunications is a vital tool for starting or developing
a business, since it provides access to wider markets. Studies have shown that when
household incomes rise, more money is spent on mobile phones than any other item.
Quotation:
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According to Hoffman, mobile phone ownership compensates for the weaknesses of
infrastructure in the developing world: “In the poorest countries, with weak transport networks
and unreliable postal services, access to telecommunications is a vital tool for starting or
developing a business, since it provides access to wider markets” (2009: 87).
 Read the next paragraph of the same article, also on p. 87. Introduce a quotation from
the text.
In such countries the effect of phone ownership on GDP growth is much stronger than in the
developed world, because the ability to make calls is being offered for the first time, rather than
as an alternative to existing landlines. As a result, mobile phone operators have emerged in
Africa, India and other parts of Asia that are larger and more flexible than Western companies,
and which have grown by catering for poorer customers, being therefore well-placed to expand
downmarket. In addition Chinese phone makers have successfully challenged the established
Western companies in terms of quality as well as innovation. A further trend is the provision of
services via the mobile network which offer access to information about topics such as
healthcare or agriculture.
Quotation:
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
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SESSION 12-13: CAUSE-EFFECT ESSAY
Content
Cause-Effect essay
Objectives
Students will be able to:



Understand the organization of a cause-effect essay
Develop ideas for a cause-effect essay
Apply suitable language for a cause-effect essay
Materials are taken from Effective Academic Writing 3.
ASSIGNMENT
Prepare ideas for a cause-effect essay. The topic is given by lecturer.
The essay is written in-class and submitted to lecturer in session 14.
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SESSION 14-15: ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY
Content
Argumentative essay
Objectives
Students will be able to:



Understand the organization of an argumentative essay
Develop ideas for an argumentative essay
Apply suitable language for an argumentative essay
Materials are taken from Effective Academic Writing 3.
ASSIGNMENT
Prepare ideas for an argumentative essay. The topic is given by lecturer.
The essay is written in-class and submitted to lecturer in session 16.
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SESSION 16: REVISION
Content
Revision
Objectives
Students will be able to:


Practice adding details as supporting ideas
Revise knowledge and skills learnt in the course
ADDING DETAILS AS SUPPORTING IDEAS
Many paragraphs can be made better by adding details. Look at the example box below. Asking
and answering the kinds of questions shown in the box will help you strengthen your
paragraphs.
Original version:
Although seat belts have been shown to save lives, people give a number of reasons for not
using them. First, many people think they are a nuisance. Second, many people are lazy. Third,
some people don‟t believe they will have an accident. Finally, some people are afraid the seat
belt will trap them in their car. All of these reasons seem inadequate since statistics show that
wearing seat belts saves lives and prevents serious injuries.
The paragraph can be improved by adding details to answer the following questions:

Why don‟t people like seat belts?

In what way are people lazy?

Why do people think they won‟t have an accident?

Under what circumstances might people get trapped?
Improved version:
Although seat belts have been shown to save lives, people give a number of reasons for not
using them. First, many people think they are a nuisance. They say the belt is uncomfortable
and inhibits freedom of movement. Second, many people are lazy. For them, it is too much
trouble to put on and adjust a seat belt, especially if they are only going a short distance. Third,
some people don‟t believe they will have an accident because they are careful and experienced
drivers. They think they will be able to respond quickly to avoid a crash. Finally, some people
are afraid the seat belt will trap them in their car. They feel that if they have an accident, they
might not be able to get out of a car that is burning, or they might be unconscious and another
person won‟t be able to get them out. All of these reasons seem inadequate since statistics
show that wearing seat belts saves lives and prevents serious injuries.
 Rewrite the “weak” paragraphs below. For the first three ones, use the questions as a
guide for adding details. For the others, improve each in your own way.
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1. When you plant a tree, you are helping your environment in many ways. Your tree will
provide a home and food for other creatures. It will hold the soil in place. It will provide
shade in the summer. You can watch it grow and someday show your children, or even
grandchildren, the tree you planted.

What kind of home would the tree provide?

What kind of food would the tree provide?

What kind of creatures might use the tree?

Why is holding the soil in place important?

Why is shade important?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
2. Airplanes and helicopters can be used to save people‟s lives. Helicopters can be used
for rescuing people in trouble. Planes can transport food and supplies when disasters
strike. Both types of aircraft can transport people to hospitals in emergencies.
Helicopters and airplanes can be used to provide medical services to people who live in
remote areas.

In what situations do people need rescuing by helicopters?

What kinds of disasters might happen?

What kinds of emergencies may require people to be transported to hospitals?

How can helicopters and airplanes be used to provide medical services for
people in remote areas?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
3. Studying in another country is advantageous in many ways. A student is exposed to a
new culture. Sometimes he or she can learn a new language. Students can often have
learning experiences not available in their own countries. A student may get the
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opportunity to study at a university where a leading expert in his or her field may be
teaching.

How can exposure to a new culture be an advantage?

How can learning a new language be an advantage?

What kinds of experiences might a student have?

What are the benefits of studying under a leading expert?
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
4. Even though airplanes are fast and comfortable, I prefer to travel by car. When travelling
by car, I can look at the scenery. Also, I can stop along the road. Sometimes I meet
interesting people from the area I am travelling through. I can carry as much luggage as
I want, and I don‟t worry about missing flights.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
5. Wild animals should not be kept in captivity for many reasons. First, animals are often
kept in poor and inhumane conditions. In addition, many suffer poor health from lack of
exercise and exhibit frustration and stress through their neurotic behavior. In conclusion,
money spent in the upkeep of zoos would be better spent in protecting natural habitats.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
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6. Good teachers should have the following qualities. First, they must know the material
that they are teaching very well. Second, they should be able to explain their knowledge.
Third, they must be patient and understanding. Last, they must be able to make the
subject matter interesting to the students.
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
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APPENDIX: EXAMPLES OF PLAGIARISM
Source: https://www.niu.edu/academic-integrity/faculty/committing/examples/index.shtml
1. Direct Plagiarism
Definition
Copying another writer's work with no attempt to acknowledge that the material was found in an
external source is considered direct plagiarism.
Example Source Text
Normal science, the activity in which most scientists inevitably spend almost all their time, is
predicated on the assumption that the scientific community knows what the world is like. Much
of the success of the enterprise derives from the community's willingness to defend that
assumption, if necessary at considerable cost. Normal science, for example, often suppresses
fundamental novelties because they are necessarily subversive of its basic commitments (5).
Kuhn, Thomas. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. 3rd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 1996.
Draft
Normal science, the activity in which most scientists inevitably spend almost all their time, is
predicated on the assumption that the scientific community knows what the world is like. Some
scientists say that the success of the enterprise comes from the community‟s willingness to
defend that assumption, if necessary at considerable cost. Normal science often suppresses
fundamental novelties because they are necessarily subversive of its basic commitments.
Explanation
In instances of direct plagiarism, the writer takes most of his or her draft almost word-for-word
from another source. Even though the writer eliminates some sentences from the original, she
or he still uses another person's words and ideas and tries to pass them off as his or her own.
The writer uses no quotation marks to distinguish his or her own words from those that are from
the source, and she or he provides no citations to acknowledge that the material comes from
another source.
To avoid this type of plagiarism, you must acknowledge that your ideas and/or words came from
a source and either enclose the words taken directly from the source in quotation marks or
paraphrase the material into your own words. (Note: Paraphrasing is expressing the information
from a source with your own words without changing the meaning of the original source.)
110 | P a g e
Corrected Draft
Thomas Kuhn asserts that scientific research "is predicated on the assumption that the scientific
community knows what the world is like" (5). Because this assumption is the foundation of most
scientific knowledge, scientists are willing to go to great lengths to defend it, even to the point of
suppressing substantial new information that would undermine the basic proposition (Kuhn 5).
Kuhn, Thomas. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. 3rd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 1996.
2. Direct "Patchwork" Plagiarism
Definition
Direct "patchwork" plagiarism occurs when a writer copies material from several writers and
rearranges that material with no attempt to acknowledge the original sources.
Example Source Text
Colonialism had a destabilizing effect on what had been a number of ethnic groups that is still
being felt in African politics. Before European influence, national borders were not much of a
concern, with Africans generally following the practice of other areas of the world, such as the
Arabian peninsula, where a group's territory was congruent with its military or trade influence.
"Africa
:
Politics." Wikipedia.
31
Aug.
2005.
Retrieved
Aug.
31
2005,
from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa#Politics
In the 1870s European nations were bickering over themselves about the spoils ofAfrica. In
order to prevent further conflict between them, they convened at the Berlin Conference of 18841885 to lay down the rules on how they would partition up Africa between themselves. Between
1870 and World War I alone, the European scramble for Africa resulted in the adding of around
one-fifth of the land area of the globe to its overseas colonial possessions.
Shah, Anup. "Introduction." Conflicts in Africa. 27 Feb. 2005. Retrieved Aug. 31 2005, from
http://www.globalissues.org/Geopolitics/Africa/Intro.asp
Draft
Colonialism had a destabilizing effect on what had been a number of ethnic groups that is still
being felt in African politics. In the 1870s European nations were bickering over themselves
about the spoils of Africa. Between 1870 and World War I alone, the European scramble for
Africa resulted in the adding of around one-fifth of the land area of the globe to its overseas
colonial possessions. Prior to European influence, national borders were not much of a concern,
with Africans generally following the practice of other areas of the world, such as the Arabian
peninsula, where a group's territory was congruent with its military or trade influence.
111 | P a g e
Explanation
Like direct plagiarism, patchwork plagiarism occurs when a writer makes use of material taken
almost word-for-word from several sources with no attempt to acknowledge the original sources.
What sets patchwork plagiarism apart from direct plagiarism, however, is that, in patchwork
plagiarism, the writer creatively weaves the source materials together with his or her own words
into a paragraph that is a mixture of plagiarized and original material.
To eliminate this type of plagiarism, you should acknowledge each source that your ideas came
from and either enclose the words taken directly from each source in quotation marks or
paraphrase the material into your own words.
Corrected Draft
The echoes of colonialism throughout the world can still be felt in today's global political sphere.
In the mid-19th and early 20th centuries, several European nations were in conflict over rights to
African land and resources, and eventually "around one-fifth of the land area of the globe"
(Global Issues "Conflicts in Africa") was colonized by European nations. One major
repercussion of colonialism is in the existence of African borders, which were "not much of a
concern" (Wikipedia "Africa: Politics") before Europeans colonized the globe, but are now the
cause of much conflict throughout the world.
3. Insufficient Citation of Partial Quotations
Definition
Insufficient citation of partial quotations occurs when writers incorporate into their own texts
words or phrases that are stylistically or intellectually marked as another writer's within a larger
paraphrase of the source, without using either quotation marks or proper citation.
Example Source Text
The force that the electromagnetic field exerts on electrically charged particles, called the
electromagnetic force, is one of the four fundamental forces. The other fundamental forces are
the strong nuclear force (which holds atomic nuclei together), the weak nuclear force (which
causes certain forms of radioactive decay), and the gravitational force. All other forces are
ultimately derived from these fundamental forces. However, it turns out that the electromagnetic
force is the one responsible for practically all the phenomena one encounters in daily life, with
the exception of gravity.
"Electromagnetism." Wikipedia.
21
Aug.
2005.
Retrieved
Aug.
31
2005,
from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetism
Draft
112 | P a g e
Electromagnetism is defined as the "force that the electromagnetic field exerts on electrically
charged particles," and it is "one of the four fundamental forces." Electromagnetism and the
other three fundamental forces (strong and weak nuclear forces and gravitational force) are the
foundations for every other fundamental force, but electromagnetism itself dictates almost every
phenomenon we witness daily.
Explanation
In this example, the writer has attempted to acknowledge that she or he took words from a
source document by putting quotation marks around particular words within his or her own text.
However, she or he has failed to identify the source with adequate parenthetical or endnote or
footnote citation. Despite the writer's partial citation, she or he is guilty of plagiarism.
To eliminate this type of plagiarism, you should include quotation marks around the words taken
directly from your source and include a parenthetical or endnote or footnote citation to identify
the author, location, and/or date of the original material's publication. Check the most recent
edition of your style guide for documentation guidelines.
Corrected draft
Electromagnetism is defined as the "force that the electromagnetic field exerts on electrically
charged
particles,"
and
it
is
"one
of
the
four
fundamental
forces"
(Wikipedia "Electromagnetism"). Electromagnetism and the other three fundamental forces
(strong and weak nuclear forces and gravitational force) are the foundations for every other
fundamental force, but electromagnetism itself dictates almost every phenomenon we witness
daily (Wikipedia, "Electromagnetism").
4. Paraphrasing (or Summarizing) Without Citation
Definition
Paraphrasing or summarizing without citation occurs when a writer changes the words of an
original source, but uses the ideas in it without acknowledging that those ideas are not his or
her original thoughts, even if the writer adds his or her own "spin" to the original.
Example Source Text
New classical economics. The original theoretical impetus was the charge that Keynesian
economics lacks microeconomic foundations -- i.e. its assertions are not founded in basic
economic theory. This school emerged during the 1970s. This school asserts that it does not
make sense to claim that the economy at any time might be "out-of-equilibrium". Fluctuations in
aggregate variables follow from the individuals in the society continuously re-optimizing as new
information on the state of the world is revealed.
113 | P a g e
"Macroeconomics." Wikipedia.
18
Aug.
2005.
31
Aug.
2005
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macroeconomics.
Draft
Scholars in the school of new classical economics, which emerged in the 1970s, focus on the
belief that the school of Keynesian economics is misguided. New classical scholars assert that
the economy is never unbalanced, as Keynesian scholars believe, but instead that changes in
an economy result from people's changing their spending habits as they interpret the news
about the world.
Explanation
This writer has adequately paraphrased the source material, but the draft is based almost
completely on the ideas she or he discovered in the source. He or she has not acknowledged
that the notion of the difference between new classical economics and Keynesian economics
was derived wholly from another author's ideas, and this constitutes plagiarism.
To eliminate this type of plagiarism, you should provide parenthetical or endnote or footnote
citations for the paragraph(s) that include material derived from a source or incorporate the
original source into the body of your draft to acknowledge that the ideas the draft is based upon
were originally another person's, along with a parenthetical or endnote of footnote citation.
Corrected draft
According to the article "Macroeconomics" on Wikipedia.org, scholars in the school of new
classical economics, which emerged in the 1970s, focus on the belief that the school of
Keynesian economics is misguided. New classical scholars assert that the economy is never
unbalanced, as Keynesian scholars believe, but instead that changes in an economy result from
people's changing their spending habits as they interpret the news about the world.
5. Insufficient Citation of Paraphrase (or Summary)
Definition
Changing the words of an original source and using the author's ideas with attempts to
acknowledge the material's source(s), but without correct or adequate citation, is considered
insufficient citation of paraphrase.
Example Source Text
In classical music of the last 35 years, the term minimalism is sometimes applied to music which
displays some or all of the following features: repetition (often of short musical phrases, with
minimal variations over long periods of time) or stasis (often in the form of drones and long
114 | P a g e
tones); emphasis on consonant harmony; a steady pulse. It is almost inseparable, currently,
from electronic music and composition.
Apart from Philip Glass, Steve Reich is arguably the most famous minimalist composer, with
John Coolidge Adams also being notable. Following the classical compositions of Philip Glass,
the Chicago House scene in the late 1990s saw a major revolution with the advent of the
ghettotech single "Time for the Perculator" by Cajmere, which was decidedly more minimalistic
in its outlook.
"Minimalist
Music." Wikipedia.
22
Aug.
2005.
31
Aug.
2005
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimalist_music
Draft
According to an article on Wikipedia.org, musical minimalism has evolved since the 1970s to
incorporate repetition, long notes, and a consistent beat into what people now commonly call
electronic music. Since the late 1990s, it has revolutionized even electronic music by bringing
about "ghettotech" in the music culture known as "Chicago House." Philip Glass, Steve Reich,
and John Coolidge Adams are musical minimalism's minimalism's most well-known composers.
Explanation
The writer has adequately paraphrased the source material, but has based his or her draft
almost completely on the ideas he or she discovered in the source. She or he has
acknowledged that the ideas about musical minimalism were derived wholly from another
author's ideas, but has failed to cite his or her source adequately.
To eliminate this type of plagiarism, you should provide a parenthetical or endnote or
footnote citation for the paragraph(s) that include material derived from a source or incorporate
the original source into the body of your draft to acknowledge that the ideas were originally
another person's. You should check the most recent edition of your style guide for
documentation guidelines.
Corrected draft
According to an article on Wikipedia.org, musical minimalism has evolved since the 1970s to
incorporate repetition, long notes, and a consistent beat into what people now commonly call
electronic music. Since the late 1990s, it has revolutionized even electronic music by bringing
about "ghettotech" in the music culture known as "Chicago House" (Wikipedia "Minimalist
Music"). Philip Glass, Steve Reich, and John Coolidge Adams are musical minimalism's most
well-known composers.
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6. Plagiarism in Graphs, Charts, Figures, or Images
Definition
Using graphs, charts, figures, or images from a source without acknowledging that another
person developed them is considered plagiarism.
Example Source
Source:
Scania. Annual
Report 2002.
2003.
31
Aug.
2005.
http://www.annualreport.scania.com/downloads/scania_annual_report_2002.pdf
Draft
Scania is a Scandinavian company that manufactures parts for large semi-trucks. The
company's profits have been rising steadily throughout the years, as can be seen in the table
below.
Explanation
This writer has lifted a table from a secondary source and used it directly in his/her draft. By
doing this, the writer has used another person's ideas, calculations, and words without
acknowledgement. This lack of citation constitutes plagiarism.
To eliminate this type of plagiarism, you should provide a citation for any tables, graphics,
figures, or images you acquire from secondary sources. You may also consider translating the
information from tables into your own words. Remember, even if you use only information from
a graph, chart, figure, or image in your paper, you still need to acknowledge your source by
providing proper citation.
7. Misinterpretation of Material as "Common Knowledge"
Definition
Failing to provide citation for material because you believe it is "common knowledge" (when it is
not) is considered plagiarism.
Example Source Text
116 | P a g e
None.
Draft
Linguistics asserts the existence of a critical period, which usually comes at puberty and marks
the end of the fluid language acquisition of childhood. The critical period is the point at which
many of the unused connections in the brain begin to die to allow the body to reallocate physical
resources away from intellectual development to reproductive development. If a speaker begins
to learn a language after his or her critical period has passed, he or she will always speak with
an accent.
Explanation
This writer has made an assertion without finding a source for it because she or he believed the
assertion to be widely enough known to be considered "common knowledge." However, most
general readers would not know enough about the topic for the information to be considered
"common knowledge." Thus, the writer should have found a source to support his or her claims.
If a writer is ever in doubt about whether information can be considered "common
knowledge," she or he should always err on the side of caution and provide documentation.
Corrected draft
Linguistics asserts the existence of a critical period, which usually ends at or before puberty and
marks the fluid language acquisition of childhood. The critical period's end is the point at which
many of the unused connections in the brain begin to die to allow the body to reallocate physical
resources away from cognitive development towards reproductive development. If a speaker
begins to learn a language after his or her critical period has passed, he or she will always
speak with an accent (Abrahamsson 751-75).
Abrahamsson, N. "Second Language Acquisition and the Critical Period Hypothesis." Applied
Linguistics 20.4 (1999): 751-75.
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