2018 IEEE 7th International Conference on Power and Energy (PECon)
Latest Electric Vehicle Charging Technology for
Smart Grid Application
Kang Miao Tan
Institute of Power Engineering,
Department of Electrical Power
Engineering
Universiti Tenaga Nasional
Kajang, Malaysia
tan.kangmiao.1988@ieee.org
Vigna K. Ramachandaramurthy
Institute of Power Engineering,
Department of Electrical Power
Engineering
Universiti Tenaga Nasional
Kajang, Malaysia
vigna@uniten.edu.my
Abstract—Extensive research and development of the
electric vehicle technologies have been conducted into
numerous diversified aspects. This paper presented a
comprehensive
assessment
on
the
recent
charger
configurations and control strategies of the electric vehicle
applications in the smart grid environment. The latest
converter topologies of electric vehicle charger were reviewed
and discussed in accordance to various charger characteristics,
such as the power levels, power flows, placements, connections
and structures. Furthermore, the control designs of electric
vehicle charger in order to achieve a variety of vehicle
charging and smart grid support purposes were presented. The
control objectives of vehicle charger included unidirectional
rapid charging, bidirectional vehicle to grid charging, power
factor correction, reactive power compensation and grid
voltage regulation. It is envisaged that the extensive review in
this paper will be a valuable resource to further advance this
research area.
Keywords—AC-DC power converters, DC-DC power
converters, electric vehicles, power conversion, reactive power
control, voltage control.
I. INTRODUCTION
Energy crisis and environmental pollution issues have led
to a tremendous increase in Electric Vehicle (EV) stocks due
to the environmental–friendly characteristics of these
vehicles [1]–[3]. Nevertheless, high penetration level of EV
adoption will cause an excessive raise in energy demands,
which can affect the reliability of the power grid. The
potential impacts of EV charging to the power grid include
overloading of power equipment, voltage instability,
harmonics, voltage drop and power losses [4]–[9]. On the
other hand, a large scale integration of EVs with the power
grid has introduced a new smart grid concept, which is
denoted as the Vehicle to Grid (V2G) technology. V2G
technology encourages grid–connected EVs to provide
demand response services to the power grid [10]–[14].
The development of EV technologies has gained full
supports from the governments and private sectors
throughout the nations to further enhance the EV potentials.
The recent advancement of EV technologies has focused on
the performance of EV batteries, design of EV charging
facilities, efficiency of EV propulsion power trains, as well
as the energy management between EVs and power grid.
From the perspective of the power system, technological
improvement of the EV charging systems plays a significant
role to allow a reliable energy interaction between EVs and
the power grid. The development of different chargers’
converter topologies and control strategies are crucial to
realize various EV applications in the smart grid
environment.
Jia Ying Yong
Institute of Power Engineering,
Department of Electrical Power
Engineering
Universiti Tenaga Nasional
Kajang, Malaysia
jiaying@uniten.edu.my
EV chargers have gained major attention in literature
since they are indispensable elements for EV technological
advancement. Various EV charger configurations with
unique characteristics were introduced, such as the integrated
chargers, isolated chargers and high power capacity charger.
Charger controllers can also be utilized to enhance the EV
potentials since they determine the operations, performances
and functions for the EV chargers. Numerous control
strategies were developed not merely meant for the charging
of EV batteries, but also for the improvement of the power
grid reliability
The development of EV technologies have evolved into
diversified disciplines. The extensive availabilities of EV
technology can complicate the establishment of EV
application. Various factors such as the EV charger capacity,
power flow direction, and control strategy are crucial to be
considered before the implementation of EV technology.
Inaccurate EV system planning can lead to unproductive
investment process, ineffective system operation or even
causing degradation of the power grid reliability. Therefore,
this paper presents a review on the latest EV technologies
with the aim to assist the implementation process of EV
application in terms of technology selection and
enhancement of EV potential. This paper includes a
comprehensive review and analysis on the latest converter
topologies and control strategies of the EV charging
technology. Hence, the key contributions of this paper are: (i)
the deliberation of the latest EV charger's converter
topologies available in the market, and (ii) the assessment on
the recent control strategies of the EV chargers for smart grid
application.
This paper is organized into several sections. The
introduction of this paper was presented in Section I. In
Section II, discussions for the latest EV charger
configurations are presented. Section III deliberates the
assessment on the EV charger’s control strategies. Section IV
concludes the paper.
II. CONVERTER TOPOLOGIES AND CONFIGURATIONS OF THE
EV CHARGER
An EV charger serves as a core element in the
development of EV charging system. A good EV charger
needs to be efficient, reliable, cost effective, as well as
capable of supporting the power grid. A variety of converter
topologies and configurations of EV chargers have been
developed to meet the needs of various EV applications. The
current EV charger configurations can generally be
categorized into several main attributes, which are the power
levels, power flows, placements, connections and structures.
Table I describes each of these characteristics [15]–[35].
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2018 IEEE 7th International Conference on Power and Energy (PECon)
The conventional EV chargers usually have a conductive
connection, as well as the non–integrated and non–isolated
structure, which are used for unidirectional energy transfer
[16]–[20]. These chargers have various limitations, such as
bulky in size, expensive, limited charging capacity and
inflexible charging method. Numerous new converter
topologies have been developed to further improve the
technologies of EV charger, such as the high power level,
isolated structure, integrated structure and inductive
connection. These advanced EV charger configurations
allows bidirectional energy transfer between the EVs and
power grid to achieve V2G services.
A. Three-level High-level EV Charger
The importance of a fast charging facility has become
prominent to alleviate the range anxiety problem of EV
drivers and solve the limited all–electric drive range of the
current EVs. The authors in [24] encouraged the usage of a
bipolar DC power system in the EV fast charging station for
its reduced complexity and high power capacity. A three–
level high–power DC fast charger was proposed to provide
charging services for the EVs. Fig. 1 presents the
configuration of the proposed three–level DC EV fast
charger. Besides providing fast charging services, the
proposed EV charger was also equipped with the ability to
support DC Power Balance Management (PBM) in both
active and passive modes. The active PBM was developed to
assist the central neutral–point–clamped converter in the
charging station to provide a balancing service without any
additional balancing circuit required. Meanwhile, the passive
PBM was designed to eliminate the fluctuating current to
flow in the neutral point.
B. Isolated EV Charger
The power grid and EV are two separate electrical
circuits that require the appropriate communication and
energy transfer during EV charging and V2G services. The
physical connection between these circuits can be harmful as
their groundings might not share a similar potential. Hence,
an isolated EV charger is developed for galvanic isolation
and safety purposes. The authors in [21] proposed a multi–
functional on–board EV charger with a high–frequency
isolating transformer, which was able to provide galvanic
isolation between the power grid and EV. In addition, this
multi–functional EV charger can achieve several operations
using the same charger configuration, such as the on–board
grid to vehicle charging, vehicle to grid services and
auxiliary battery charging. Fig. 2 shows the configuration of
the multi–functional EV charger with a high–frequency
isolating transformer.
The authors in [36] also adopted the isolated EV charger
configuration due to high power density and energy
efficiency of this converter topology. Fig. 3 depicts the
proposed EV charger configuration used in [36]. The
proposed charger consisted of an unregulated LLC resonant
converter and an isolated DC/DC converter. The charging
and discharging operations in the isolated DC/DC converter
was operated separately. With the implementation of a
Discontinuous Conduction Mode (DCM) controller, the
converter’s inductor size was greatly reduced without
affecting the power factor.
TABLE I.
CHARACTERISTICS OF VARIOUS EV CHARGER
CONFIGURATIONS [15]-[35]
Characteristic
Value
Power
Slow
• charge from 120 VAC single–phase
power source
• approximately 1.4 kW of charging
power
• estimated charging time up to 17 hours
Medium
• charge from 240 VAC power source
• approximately 20 kW of charging
power
• estimated charging time up to 1.2 hours
Fast
• charge from 300–450 VDC power
source
• approximately 45 kW of charging
power
• estimated charging time up to 30
minutes
Superfast
• charge from 400–850 VDC power
source
• approximately 150 kW of charging
power
• estimated charging time less than 10
minutes
Unidirectional
• exclusively provides EV charging
service
• less complicated
• requires minimal initial investment
Bidirectional
•
•
•
•
On–board
• charger located inside an EV
• smaller in size
• usually available in slow charging mode
Off–board
• charger located outside an EV
• larger in size
• usually available in medium or fast
charging mode
Non–
• constructed as an additional equipment
to charge the EV battery
• available as on–board or off–board
level
Power
flow
Place–
ment
Structure
integrated
Connect
Integrated
• integrates the charger with existing EV
propulsion machine’s converter
• requires slight reconfiguration of the
propulsion machine’s converter
• reduces weight, volume and cost of the
charger
Non–isolated
• constructs as an additional equipment to
charge the EV battery
• has the physical contact between the
power grid and EV charger for the
energy transfer
Isolated
• constructed as an additional equipment
to charge the EV battery
• no physical conduction path for the
energy transfer
• utilizes the isolated transformer for the
energy transfer
Conductive
• requires the physical contact between
the EV battery and power grid for the
energy transfer
• requires a stationary EV during the
charging
Inductive
• involves wireless energy transfer
• EV can be in stationary or moving
condition during the charging
–ion
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provides EV charging service
allows bidirectional power flow
more complicated
requires higher initial investment
2018 IEEE 7th International Conference on Power and Energy (PECon)
Fig. 4. Reconfigured integrated EV charger: (a) machine’s phase
connection, (b) equivalent scheme [22].
Fig. 1. Three–level high–power DC fast charger [24].
Fig. 5. Integrated EV charger in a half–bridge converter–fed SRM drive
[23].
Fig. 2. Multi–functional EV charger with a high–frequency isolating
transformer [21].
Fig. 3. EV charger with an isolated DC/DC converter [36].
Fig. 6. The BD–IPT EV charger with back–to–back converter [25].
C. Integrated EV Charger
Cost effectiveness is an important factor to be considered
while developing an EV charger. Instead of constructing an
additional equipment to perform the EV charging service, the
utilization of the existing vehicle propulsion’s component to
achieve a similar purpose serves as a better option to reduce
investment cost of the EV charger. Therefore, the integrated
EV charger has been introduced. This charger configuration
is suitable for all multi–phase EV propulsion drives that
consist of the phase number of more than three phases with a
single neutral point. One of the latest integrated EV charger
topology was developed in [22]. The proposed charger
configuration was developed using a five–phase EV
propulsion machine, which required minor hardware
reconfiguration. Fig. 4 presents the reconfigured integrated
EV charger in its machine’s phase connection, as well as the
equivalent scheme. The machine five-phase connection was
utilized for vehicle propulsion. Meanwhile, the three-phase
connection as shown in Fig. 4(b) was used for EV battery
charging purpose.
concept to adjust the voltage level for appropriate battery
charging function. Meanwhile, for the AC power charging
mode, the converter adopted a cascaded multi–level strategy
to convert AC source into DC source for a similar EV
charging operation. Hence, the intelligent design of the
integrated charger was a sustainable, flexible and economical
option for the EV charger.
In [23], an asymmetric half–bridge converter–fed Switch
Reluctance Motor (SRM) which was featured to drive an
eight pole stator/six pole rotor machine was further improved
to provide the integrated charging service to the EV battery.
SRM drive was driven by two converters separately, where
these converters were powered by their independent EV
battery. The developed converter was also flexible to provide
the charging function to the EV battery by utilizing either an
AC source or a DC source. In order to achieve the DC power
Fig. 5 shows the configuration of the proposed integrated EV
charger in a half–bridge converter–fed SRM drive. This
charging mode, the converter employed a voltage boost
D. Inductive EV Charger
A conventional EV charger requires the EV battery to be
physically connected to the power grid while receiving the
charging power. A breakthrough in the charger technology is
the invention of the inductive EV charger, which utilizes the
technology of a contactless magnetic power transfer. The
inductive EV charging can provide a greater charging
flexibility and convenience to EV owners by allowing on–
road and off–road charging services. The authors in [25]
proposed a new Bidirectional Inductive Power Technology
(BD–IPT) EV charger with back–to–back converter as
shown in Fig. 6. This novel design of the EV charger
configuration presented a more economical wireless EV
charging by excluding the bulky DC–link capacitor. Another
high efficient inductive EV charger was proposed in [37].
The concept behind this wireless EV charger was the
adoption of two intermediate coils with resonant capacitors.
This technique enabled the magnetizing impedance between
the transmitter and receiver of the coils with higher
efficiency.
E. Summary of the EV Charger Configurations
From the review of these recent charger configurations, it
is noticeable that no specific combination of the charger
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2018 IEEE 7th International Conference on Power and Energy (PECon)
Fig. 10. Control strategy of the power factor correction [22].
Fig. 7. Control block diagram of two switch DC/DC buck–boost converter
in a V2G charger [15].
Fig. 11. Control block diagram of the reactive power compensation [18].
Fig. 8. Control block diagram of the BE–FBC in an isolated V2G charger
[16].
Fig. 9. Control strategy of the single switch DC/DC buck converter with
CC/RCC charging operation [17].
characteristics makes the best EV charger that can adapt to
every situation. However, the configuration and converter
topology of the EV charger depend on the installation
location, user behavior and system requirement.
III. CONTROL STRATEGIES OF THE EV CHARGER
The importance of the EV charger’s converter topologies
to realize various EV application was presented in Section II.
This section intends to demonstrate the role of the control
strategies in enhancing the EV charger potentials by
managing the functions, operations and responses of the
charger converters. Various control concepts of the EV
charger are developed to achieve advanced EV charging
purposes, as well as to improve the power grid reliability.
The latest deployed control strategies of the EV charger
include bidirectional EV charging, unidirectional rapid
charging, power factor correction, reactive power
compensation and voltage regulation.
A. Bidirectional EV Charging
Demand response services offered by the V2G
technology have attracted the attention of many researchers.
A bidirectional EV charger is a core element in the V2G
framework, which is capable of charging and discharging the
grid–connected EV. A commonly utilized bidirectional EV
charger involves a two switch DC/DC buck–boost converter,
which can manage the battery charging and discharging
currents. The authors in [38] adopted a current control
strategy to manipulate the battery current’s direction and
magnitude in the DC/DC buck–boost converter. Fig. 7
presents the control block diagram of the DC/DC converter,
where the controller was designed to manage charging and
Fig. 12. Control block diagram of the voltage regulation [40].
discharging operations independently. This type of control
strategy is widely applied in the bidirectional EV charger as
it requires a less complicated approach and has good control
flexibility.
The authors in [21] and [39] also achieved a bidirectional
EV charging function by utilizing a Back–End Full–Bridge
Converter (BE–FBC), as shown in Fig. 2. Fig. 8 illustrates
the control block diagram of the BE–FBC proposed in [39].
During charging operation, BE–FBC stepped up the DC–link
voltage to charge the EV battery. Meanwhile, it performed
the discharging operation by synchronizing the battery
voltage with the DC–link voltage. The Front–End Full–
Bridge Converter (FE–FBC) performed the rectifying and
inverting works accordingly. Throughout the charging and
discharging operations, the controller was fed by the voltage
measurement from the EV battery to generate the four
control pulses (G5-G8) which will be sent to the BE–FBC. A
phase–shift control was practiced to realize the zero voltage
switching in the second H–bridge converter, in order to
increase the switching frequency for lower switching losses.
B. Unidirectional Rapid Charging
Rapid EV charging is a preferable charging method to
quickly charge up an EV battery. A Constant
Current/Constant Voltage (CC/CV) charging approach is the
most common charging technique used to fast charge an EV
battery. Initially, a constant high charging current (CC mode)
is fed to the battery for quick charging operation. As soon as
the battery voltage approaches the battery maximum voltage,
the charger switches to a constant voltage charging mode
(CV mode) to protect the battery against overvoltage
problems. For a normal CV mode, it usually takes three
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2018 IEEE 7th International Conference on Power and Energy (PECon)
times longer to complete the battery charging operation
compared to the CC mode. In order to further reduce the
charging time, authors in [40] proposed a Constant
Current/Reduced Constant Current (CC/RCC) charging
method. Fig. 9 illustrates the CC/RCC charging control
strategy for the single switch DC/DC buck converter. A
similar rapid charging operation was applied for the CC
mode using a direct–current control technique. Meanwhile,
instead of retaining the charging voltage, the controller in
RCC mode kept on reducing the battery current whenever
the battery voltage reached the battery maximum voltage.
This proposed charging method was able to safely recharge
an EV battery while reducing the overall charging time.
In order to reduce the EV charger cost, weight and size,
the authors in [41] proposed a novel control strategy that
allowed dual usage of the same power electronic converter in
an on-board EV charger. The controller supported EV slow
charging when the charger was connected to a single phase
source. Meanwhile, EV rapid charging was conducted when
three phase source was supplied to the charger. Another cost
effective EV charging station model was presented in [42],
where fast DC charging can be supplied to multiple EVs.
The proposed EV charging station consisted of a single
AC/DC inverter which converted the AC power source into
DC source. On the other hand, each connected EVs was
charged in decentralized mode that was controlled
individually by separate DC/DC converters.
C. Power Factor Correction
The latest EV charger’s control strategies also
concentrated on the improvement of power grid reliability.
This concept provides a great opportunity to utilize the EV
chargers for the benefit of the power grid, as well as for the
energy customers. One of the efficient methods to maximize
the power capability and reduce the power loss of power
system is by improving the power factor of the grid–
connected EV charger. The authors in [22] introduced an EV
charger configured using only a three–phase full–bridge
AC/DC converter with a voltage–oriented controller to
obtain the unity power factor for the power grid. Initially, a
decoupling transformation technique was adopted in this
controller to transform the grid currents into a synchronously
rotating dq–frame. In order to obtain the unity power factor,
the q–component of grid currents needed to be suppressed to
zero magnitude; whilst the d–component of the grid currents
can be utilized for other control objective. The detailed
control strategy of this power factor correction is illustrated
in Fig. 10. As the EV charger industry advances towards the
wireless charging technology, the authors in [43] introduced
a high-power wireless EV charger with power factor
correction function. The proposed wireless charger utilized a
single-stage bridgeless boost rectifier to achieve wireless
charging and power factor correction operations. This
innovative concept had higher efficiency and better
economic advantage as there was lesser semiconductor
component being used.
D. Reactive Power Correction
EV charging demands can lead to a serious voltage drop
issue, especially during a large scale fast charging event. One
of the economical solutions to solve this issue is by utilizing
the appropriate charging control and DC–link capacitor to
provide the reactive power compensation to the power grid.
The EV charger developed in [18] employed the three–phase
AC/DC converter to provide the reactive power
compensation function, which required a reactive power
command directly from the power utility. Hence, the power
utility was responsible in determining the proper amount of
reactive power required according to the real time power grid
conditions. The control strategy in this paper employed the
Park’s transformation technique to change the phase voltages
into the dq–components, which were later incorporated with
the decoupled active and reactive power control. The
comprehensive control block diagram of the proposed
reactive power compensation for the EV charger is shown in
Fig. 11. The discussion in [44] mentioned that the process of
reactive power compensation during EV charging will
induce a second-order harmonics ripple current and
switching frequency ripple current at the DC side of the
inverter. This ripple current can be harmful to the lifespan of
the connected EV battery. Hence authors in [44] designed a
single-stage boost inverter-based EV charger, where the
controllers were capable of eliminating the ripple currents to
protect the EV battery lifetime.
E. Voltage Regulation
The utilization of the EV charger control to regulate the
power grid voltage utilizing the reactive power compensation
technique is an intelligent and cost effective approach. This
concept was proposed in [18]. Instead of requesting a
reactive power command from the power utility, the authors
in [40] proposed a novel EV charger control which was
capable of determining the specific amount of reactive power
required for the power grid voltage regulation. Fig. 12
illustrates the control block diagram of the voltage regulation
in the EV charger [40]. The proposed controller detected and
converted the power grid voltage into dq–frames, where the
d–component was forced to follow the desired grid voltage
reference. The designed controller managed the output
voltages of the AC/DC inverter of the EV charger, which in
turn controlled the amount of reactive power supplied into
the power grid for grid voltage regulation. With the
implementation of voltage regulation control, the
complicated process to determine the exact amount of
reactive power for the power grid voltage regulation can be
eliminated. On the other hand, the authors in [45] developed
an analytical formulation to accurately estimate the terminal
voltage at the distribution line under specific loading and EV
fast charging condition. This analysis allowed the detection
of under voltage situation caused by the EV charging,
especially during fast charging. The proposed formulation
was also capable of determining the reactive power supply
required from individual grid-connected EV in order to
manage the power grid voltage issues.
F. Summary of the Control Strategies of the Chargers
The literature has reviewed numerous control functions
of the EV charger, which included bidirectional power flow
operations and power grid improvement functions. Each of
these control objectives requires a certain collaboration
between the specific controllers and EV charger’s power
interface. In other words, a different charger interface has the
potential to achieve different functions depending on the
employed control strategies. Moreover, an EV charger is also
capable of accomplishing more than a single objective. For
instance, the authors in [19] proposed an EV charger that
provided bidirectional V2G charging and power factor
correction simultaneously.
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2018 IEEE 7th International Conference on Power and Energy (PECon)
IV. CONCLUSION
[15]
This paper presented a comprehensive review on the
recently developed EV charger’s converter topologies and
control strategies for EV applications in smart grid. The
latest configurations of the EV charger available in the
market were classified according to various characteristics,
which included the power levels, power flows, placements,
connections and structures. The EV chargers with isolated,
integrated, high power level and inductive characteristics
were the new features to improve the existing technologies.
Furthermore, various advanced control strategies of the EV
charger were proposed in the literature, which enabled the
EV charger to support and improve power grid reliability.
The latest EV charger controls were capable of providing
bidirectional V2G charging, unidirectional rapid charging,
power factor correction, reactive power compensation and
voltage regulation. The literature has shown the great
potentials of EVs to provide numerous services and supports
to the power grid, which can be beneficial to energy
consumers and power utility. The thorough assessment and
analysis of the EV charging technologies are especially
crucial during the development process of this new
technology. Hence, this paper will help governments, policy
makers, manufacturers and researchers to determine the
appropriate selections of the EV charger technologies in
accordance to various system scenarios, scales and purposes.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
[29]
This research is supported by the Universiti Tenaga
Nasional Internal Grant (UNIIG 2017) – J510050694.
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