Adult Learning Theory and Practice Index
Adult Learning Theory
How Individuals Learn
Multiple Intelligences and Learning Styles
Lifelong Learning
__________________________________
Penn State College of Education ©2000
Pennsylvania Literacy Corps
Institute for the Study of Adult Literacy
Sheila Sherow
105 Rackley Building, University Park, PA 16802
814-865-3777
sms20@psu.edu
Adult Learning Theory and Practice
There are certain considerations that must be taken into account when working with
adult basic and literacy education learners. While every adult’s history, needs, and
goals are different, there are some characteristics that are common among adult literacy
learners. These characteristics are critical in planning and delivering effective
educational services.
Profile of the Adult Literacy Learner
1. Adult learners who have experienced failure in past learning situations tend to have
low self-esteem and little confidence in their ability to learn—they may not perceive
themselves as learners or they may feel that they are unable to learn.
2. For most adults, being a student is not their primary role—many adult learners are
employed and have family responsibilities.
3. Many adults have difficulty scheduling classes and finding time to study due to
conflicts with job and family responsibilities.
4. Some adult learners have child care and transportation problems or may need help
with survival or life skills before addressing basic literacy skills.
5. Adult learners are most interested in learning things that have immediate application
and are relevant and meaningful to them—many must participate as part of welfareto-work programs.
6. Most adult literacy learners lack many of the skills necessary to learn including
critical thinking skills, communication skills, and effective study skills. This usually
includes a need for time management skills and strategies for reducing stress.
Adult Learning Principles
1. People move from dependency toward self-directedness as they mature, but at
different times, rates, and dimensions.
• As people grow and develop, they accumulate an increasing number of life
experiences. As such, adults bring to the learning process experiences, knowledge,
skills, and attitudes regarding themselves, education, and their own learning
process.
__________________________________
Penn State College of Education ©2000
Pennsylvania Literacy Corps
Institute for the Study of Adult Literacy
Sheila Sherow
105 Rackley Building, University Park, PA 16802
814-865-3777
sms20@psu.edu
2. Adults have a psychological need to be self-directed, although they may be
dependent in particular or temporary situations—the role of learner is often
perceived as being dependent on the teacher.
• Therefore, the goal of adult educators and tutors should be to involve learners in the
management of their own learning and to promote and guide independence.
3. As adults assume new or expanded roles as family members, workers, and citizens
their learning needs change or increase and their readiness to learn becomes
oriented to the developmental tasks of these roles.
• It is important, therefore, to continually assess the meaningfulness of educational
services in serving the needs and goals of learners.
4. Adults are voluntary learners and become ready to learn something when they feel a
need to learn it.
• When educational services are perceived as meaningless in terms of meeting their
needs and goals, adult learners are much more likely to see participation as a low or
no-priority activity—they will tend to engage in the learning process at minimal levels
or will terminate participation.
5. Adults want to be able to apply whatever knowledge or skill they learn today to living
more effectively tomorrow.
• Attainment of short-term goals encourages long-term participation in educational
services and the eventual attainment of longer-term goals.
6. People attach much more meaning to learning acquired through experience as
opposed to passive learning.
• Experiential learning is a very powerful way of teaching, but must be designed for
optimal results.
Teaching Principles
The adult educator or tutor:
1. Helps learners articulate personal, education, employment, and economic long and
short-term goals.
2. Helps learners identify individual learning needs as they relate to attainment of those
goals.
3. Exposes learners to new possibilities for increased self-esteem and self-confidence
as they engage in the learning process as a means to attain their goals.
4. Respects learners as partners in the teaching/learning process.
5. Provides learners with appropriate learning conditions.
6. Involves learners in a mutual process of formulating learning objectives.
__________________________________
Penn State College of Education ©2000
Pennsylvania Literacy Corps
Institute for the Study of Adult Literacy
Sheila Sherow
105 Rackley Building, University Park, PA 16802
814-865-3777
sms20@psu.edu
7. Provides learners with a range of learning opportunities in a variety of learning
styles.
8. Provides learners with options in the design of learning experiences and selection of
learning materials.
9. Assists learners in developing personal learning strategies and effective study
habits.
10. Provides learners with ongoing feedback regarding their progress.
11. Helps learners apply new knowledge and skills to their roles as family members,
workers, and citizens.
12. Promotes lifelong learning.
Applications of Theory for Teaching/Learning
1. Connect with and build on learners' prior knowledge and experiences.
2. Present new information in ways that encourage learners to be active in the learning
process.
3. Help learners recognize how new knowledge fits into the larger picture of learning
and meeting their goals.
4. Provide learners with ongoing feedback.
5. Provide learners with opportunities to practice and reflect.
6. Continually analyze, adjust, reflect, and refocus.
__________________________________
Penn State College of Education ©2000
Pennsylvania Literacy Corps
Institute for the Study of Adult Literacy
Sheila Sherow
105 Rackley Building, University Park, PA 16802
814-865-3777
sms20@psu.edu
How Individuals Learn
Learning is a process that requires knowing how to learn. Knowing how to learn
requires understanding how people learn. The human brain has many parts with a
wide range of capabilities. The most effective educational services engage all parts of
the brain in the learning process.
There are three different, but interrelated, parts of the human brain. Make a fist
with one hand. Wrap your other hand around your fist. The wrist of your first hand is
your brain stem or your reptilian brain. Your fist is your mammalian brain, and the hand
wrapped around it is your thinking brain.
1. The reptilian brain, or the brain stem, is located at the base of the skull and controls
many basic functions such as breathing, heart rate, and basic instincts such as the
“flight or fight” response to danger.
2. The mammalian brain controls emotions, the immune system, metabolism, and an
important part of long-term memory as emotion is a key factor in memory.
3. The thinking brain is the part that makes people most human. It controls what one
says, hears, thinks, and creates.
There is a right brain and a left brain. This is not a recent discovery; ancient
Egyptians knew that the left side of the brain controls and receives messages from the
right side of the body and vice versa. Modern theory suggests that the two different
sides of the brain control two different modes of thinking and that individuals prefer one
mode over another; although some individuals are “whole-brained” and appear to be
equally adept at both modes. Educators should use techniques that connect with both
sides of the brain.
It is important not to over- simplify the characteristics and differences between the right
and left sides of the brain. However, the right side of the brain tends to be random,
intuitive, holistic, synthesizing, subjective, and looks at wholes while controlling creative
activities, ideas, and conceptual thought. The left side of the brain tends to be logical,
sequential, rational, analytical, objective, and looks at parts while controlling academic
aspects of learning such as language and math processes, logic, sequence, and
analysis. It is also important to understand that there is constant communication
between the two sides of the brain and that both sides are involved in almost all
thinking.
__________________________________
Penn State College of Education ©2000
Pennsylvania Literacy Corps
Institute for the Study of Adult Literacy
Sheila Sherow
105 Rackley Building, University Park, PA 16802
814-865-3777
sms20@psu.edu
Memory
Memory is a vital part of learning and aspects of memory are located throughout the
brain. Memory only gets worse as people age when they fail to use their memories
properly—the more it’s used, the better it gets. Memory works by making links
between information, fitting facts into mental structures and frameworks. The critical
factor in remembering is structuring information. Another key feature is imagination that
allows an individual to construct structures and links between things to be remembered.
Below are brief descriptions of five types of memory.
1. The working memory which is no more than a few seconds long.
2. The implicit memory which does not require awareness after something is learned—
for example, swimming, riding a bike or driving a car.
3. The remote memory which is a lifetime accumulation of information.
4. The episodic memory which is memory of specific personal experiences that have
emotional meaning.
5. The semantic memory which is the memory of words and symbols and what they
mean.
__________________________________
Penn State College of Education ©2000
Pennsylvania Literacy Corps
Institute for the Study of Adult Literacy
Sheila Sherow
105 Rackley Building, University Park, PA 16802
814-865-3777
sms20@psu.edu
Multiple Intelligences
Howard Gardner (1983) has identified a group of intelligences which he defines as
distinct abilities to solve problems in different contexts. Gardner defines intelligence as
“the capacity to solve problems or to fashion products that are valued in one or more
cultural settings.” He believes that every individual has different abilities in each area
and that incorporating all intelligences in the learning process maximizes learning
potential. It’s important to recognize and utilize aptitudes and interests because they
motivate learning; adults learn faster and better when what is to be learned is relevant
and meaningful and can be applied to their lives and interests.
1. Verbal-linguistic intelligence is the ability to read, write, and communicate. These
learners have highly developed auditory skills and are generally elegant speakers.
They think in words rather than pictures. Their skills include listening, speaking,
writing, story telling, explaining, teaching, using humor, understanding the syntax
and meaning of words, remembering information, convincing someone of their point
of view, analyzing language usage. People with ability in this area tend to be
writers, poets, journalists, teachers, lawyers, politicians, translators, and comedians.
2. Logical-math intelligence is the ability to reason and calculate. These learners ask
lots of questions, like to do experiments, think conceptually in logical and numerical
patterns, and make connections between pieces of information. Their skills include
problem solving, classifying and categorizing information, working with abstract
concepts to figure out the relationship of each to the other, handling long chains of
reason to make local progressions, doing controlled experiments, questioning and
wondering about natural events, performing complex mathematical calculations, and
working with geometric shapes. People with ability in this area tend to be engineers,
scientists, computer programmers, researchers, accountants, mathematicians,
detectives, and attorneys.
3. Visual-spatial intelligence is the ability to think in pictures and see a future result.
These learners need to create vivid mental images to retain information. Their skills
include drawing, puzzle building, reading, writing, understanding charts and graphs,
the ability to navigate, creating visual metaphors and analogies, constructing, fixing,
designing practical objects, and interpreting visual images. People with ability in this
area tend to be architects, artists, navigators, inventors, interior designers,
mechanics, engineers, and photographers.
__________________________________
Penn State College of Education ©2000
Pennsylvania Literacy Corps
Institute for the Study of Adult Literacy
Sheila Sherow
105 Rackley Building, University Park, PA 16802
814-865-3777
sms20@psu.edu
4. Musical intelligence is the ability to produce and appreciate music. These learners
think in sounds, rhythms, and patterns, and immediately respond to music either
appreciating or criticizing what they hear. Their skills include singing, whistling,
playing musical instruments, recognizing tonal patterns, composing music,
remembering melodies, and understanding the structure and rhythm of music.
People with ability in this area tend to be musicians, disc jockeys, singers, or
composers.
5. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence is the ability to use your body to solve problems,
create products, or present ideas. These learners express themselves through
movement and have a good sense of balance and eye-hand co-ordination. They are
able to remember and process information through interacting with the space around
them. Their skills include dancing, sports, hands-on experimentation, using body
language, crafts, acting, using their hands to create or build, and expressing
emotions through the body. People with ability in this area tend to be athletes,
actors, dancers, physical education teachers, firefighters, artisans, and builders.
6. Social intelligence is the ability to work effectively with others. These learners try to
see things from other people's point of view in order to understand how they think
and feel and often have an uncanny ability to sense feelings, intentions and
motivations. Their skills are organization, communication, understanding other
people's moods and feelings, counseling, cooperating with groups, building trust,
conflict resolution, and establishing positive relations with other people. People with
ability in this area tend to be teachers, therapists, counselors, politicians,
salespeople, and religious leaders.
7. Intrapersonal intelligence is the ability to do self-analysis and reflect. These learners
try to understand their inner feelings, dreams, relationships with others, and
strengths and weaknesses. Their skills include recognizing their own strengths and
weaknesses, reflecting and analyzing themselves, awareness of their inner feelings,
desires and dreams, evaluating their thinking patterns, reasoning with themselves,
and understanding their role in relationship to others. People with ability in this area
tend to be counselors, theorists, and philosophers.
8. Naturalist intelligence is the ability to recognize flora and fauna—plants and animals.
People with ability in this area tend to be botanists, biologists, and environmentalists.
__________________________________
Penn State College of Education ©2000
Pennsylvania Literacy Corps
Institute for the Study of Adult Literacy
Sheila Sherow
105 Rackley Building, University Park, PA 16802
814-865-3777
sms20@psu.edu
Learning Styles
Individuals perceive and process information in very different ways. Everyone has a
learning style that can increase academic achievement, creativity, and productivity.
Learning style theories suggest that how much individuals learn is greatly influenced by
whether or not the educational experience is geared to their particular styles of learning.
Learning styles are a composite of characteristic cognitive, affective, and psychological
factors that serve as indicators of how a learner engages in the learning process. There
are many different approaches to assessing or identifying learning styles. Regardless
approach, the important thing to remember is that knowing and adapting educational
services to an individual’s learning style can enhance the learning outcomes.
The most basic approach defines the print-orientated student who prefers to learn
through reading, the aurally-oriented student who is likely to learn best through listening,
and the interactive student who enjoys discussions with other students on a one-to-one
basis or in small groups. At the other end of the spectrum are complex models that
integrate environmental, emotional, psychological, and social factors into the analysis of
learning style preferences. Dunn & Dunn’s Learning Style Model (1978) emphasize
individual differences in the learning process. There are cognitive/learning style models
that refer to the way an individual processes information as opposed to the models that
look at an individual’s abilities or typical mode of thinking (Messick, 1976). Educators
also use personality models, such as the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (Myers, 1978) or
the work on field dependence-field independence done by Witkin (1954), to identify a
learner’s orientation toward the world which affects their ability to learn and work. There
are also models that look exclusively at factors related to specific learner populations,
such as the development of college students, and others that focus on other types of
groups, such as women learners. There are critics and supporters for each model. The
following are brief descriptions of some of the more commonly used approaches.
References:
Dunn, R. & Dunn, K. (1999). The Complete Guide to the Learning Strategies Inservice
System. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Messick, S. (1976). Individuality in Learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Myers, I. (1978). Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists
Press.
Witkin, H.A (1954). Personality through Perception. An Experimental and Clinical Study.
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
__________________________________
Penn State College of Education ©2000
Pennsylvania Literacy Corps
Institute for the Study of Adult Literacy
Sheila Sherow
105 Rackley Building, University Park, PA 16802
814-865-3777
sms20@psu.edu
The Three Main Learning Styles: Visual, Auditory, and Kinesthetic Styles
Visual Learners
Visual learners make up about 65 percent of the population. They learn through seeing
and need to see the teacher's body language and facial expression to fully understand
the content of a lesson. They tend to prefer sitting at the front of the classroom, think in
pictures, and learn best from visual displays (diagrams, illustrated text books, overhead
transparencies, videos, flipcharts and hand-outs). During a lecture or classroom
discussion, visual learners often prefer to take detailed notes to absorb the information,
even when they have handouts in front of them.
Behaviors may include:
1. Believes the best way to remember something is to picture it in their head
2. Need for verbal instructions to be repeated; gets lost with verbal directions
3. Watches speakers' facial expressions and body language
4. Likes to take notes to review later; remembers best by writing things down several
times or drawing pictures and diagrams
5. Prefers information to be presented visually; good at solving jigsaw puzzles
6. Skillful at making graphs, charts, and other visual displays; good at the visual arts
7. Follows written instructions better than verbal ones; can understand and follow
directions on maps
To design effective instruction and learning conditions for visual learners:
• Use visual materials such as pictures, charts, maps, graphs, etc.
• Make sure learners have a clear view of teachers
• Use color to highlight important points in text
• Encourage note taking
• Provide handouts to illustrate ideas
• Provide a quiet place to study away from verbal disturbances
• Provide illustrated books
• Help learners visualize information as a picture to aid memorization
Auditory learners
Auditory learners make up about 30 percent of the population. They learn through
listening to verbal lectures, discussions, talking things through, and listening to what
others have to say. They tend to interpret the underlying meanings of speech through
listening to tone of voice, pitch, speed and other nuances. Written information may
have little meaning until it is heard. These learners often benefit from reading text aloud
and using a tape recorder.
__________________________________
Penn State College of Education ©2000
Pennsylvania Literacy Corps
Institute for the Study of Adult Literacy
Sheila Sherow
105 Rackley Building, University Park, PA 16802
814-865-3777
sms20@psu.edu
Behaviors may include:
1. Follows verbal directions better than written ones
2. Would rather listen to a lecture than read the material in a textbook
3. Understands better when reads aloud; prefers to listen to the radio than to read a
newspaper
4. Struggles to keep notebooks neat
5. Dislikes reading from a computer screen
6. Requires explanations of diagrams, graphs, or maps
7. Enjoys talking to others; likes to tell jokes, stories and makes verbal analogies to
demonstrate a point
8. Uses music to learn things
To design effective instruction and learning conditions for auditory learners:
• Encourage class discussions and debates
• Encourage learners to use a tape recorder during lectures instead of taking notes
• Read text out aloud
• Help learners create mnemonics to aid memorization; use music to aid memorization
• Discuss ideas verbally
• Use verbal analogies and story telling to demonstrate a point
__________________________________
Penn State College of Education ©2000
Pennsylvania Literacy Corps
Institute for the Study of Adult Literacy
Sheila Sherow
105 Rackley Building, University Park, PA 16802
814-865-3777
sms20@psu.edu
Kinesthetic or tactile learners
Kinesthetic learners make up about 5 percent of the population. They learn through
moving, doing, and touching. They learn best through experiential activities and a
hands-on approach. They may find it hard to sit still for long periods and may become
distracted by their need for activity and exploration.
Behaviors may include:
1. Touching things
2. Collecting things
3. Talking fast while using hands to communicate
4. Constant fidgeting ; playing with things such as tapping a pen or playing with keys in
pocket
5. Athletic ability
6. Preference for hands-on activities; explores environment
7. Takes things apart and puts things together
8. Moving about or standing while working; learns through movement
9. Likes to have music in the background while working
10. May be considered hyperactive
To design effective instruction and learning conditions for kinesthetic learners:
• Provide frequent study breaks
• Allow learners to move around to learn new things
• Allow learners to work in a standing position
• Use bright colors to highlight reading material
• Allow learners to decorate their work space with posters
• Allow learners to listen to music while they study
• Encourage learners to skim through reading material to get a rough idea what it is
about before reading it in detail
Kolb's Learning Style Theory
Kolb's Learning Style Theory is based on his Experiential Learning Cycle that involves
four stages of learning reflective observation (RO), active experimentation (AE),
concrete experience (CE), and abstract conceptualization (AC). Reflective observation
involves careful observation before making a judgement, looking at different
perspectives, and searching for meaning. Active experimentation is risk-taking, the
ability to get things done, and influencing people and events through action. Concrete
experience is learning from experiences and relating to people. Abstract
conceptualization involves the logical analysis of ideas, systematic planning, and acting
on the intellectual understanding of a situation. By looking at where learners are
positioned within these four stages, he identifies learners as divergers, assimilators,
convergers, and accommodators.
__________________________________
Penn State College of Education ©2000
Pennsylvania Literacy Corps
Institute for the Study of Adult Literacy
Sheila Sherow
105 Rackley Building, University Park, PA 16802
814-865-3777
sms20@psu.edu
•
Divergers ask “why?” and need time to reflect, especially through talking and feeling.
They brainstorm well in small groups, but get little from lecture-style instruction.
Divergers enjoy gathering information in creative ways, concluding and evaluating
implications and consequences, and making sense of ambiguity. Adult educators
should function as motivators.
• Assimilators ask “what?” and like information presented in a highly organized format
with time to think about the material. They learn best from reading, researching,
and listening to lectures. They are good at organizing information, building
conceptual models, designing experiments, analyzing quantitative data, inferring
causes, and predicting outcomes. Adult educators should function as information
providers.
• Convergers ask "how?" and like to understand how things work. They learn best
through experiential learning and trial-and-error experimentation with regular
feedback. They are good creating new ways of thinking, experimenting with new
ideas, testing theories, choosing the best solution, and setting goals. Adult
educators should function as coaches.
• Accommodators ask “what if?” and like discovery—experiential learning is the best
way for them to learn. They need to brainstorm and talk about what they are doing
and have accomplished or found out. They are action-oriented and are good at
unstructured activities. The adult educator should function as a monitor to keep the
assimilator focused.
References:
Kolb, D.A. (1984). Experiential Learning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Additional references: Chickering, 1981; Eubanks, 1997; & Felder, 1998.
__________________________________
Penn State College of Education ©2000
Pennsylvania Literacy Corps
Institute for the Study of Adult Literacy
Sheila Sherow
105 Rackley Building, University Park, PA 16802
814-865-3777
sms20@psu.edu
Lifelong Learning
The PA Literacy Corps strives to equip adult literacy students with the skills they need to
be lifelong learners, in addition to helping them master the basic skills they need today
in their roles as family members, workers, and citizens.
Knowledge is doubling every two to three years. As such, adults can no longer:
• Count on success tomorrow with what they know today.
• Rely on employers to provide a job for life.
• Rely on society to guarantee to provide for them in sickness or during
unemployment or in old age.
Learning how to learn must take priority over what we learn.
• It is impossible to predict what skills we will need.
• What we learn can become quickly outdated.
• Education must be a lifelong process.
Adult learners need to develop skills to make themselves independent and selfsufficient.
• Adult learners must strive to be masters of circumstance, not victims of
circumstance.
• Adult learners must master change, not resist it.
The quality of life is a direct outcome of the quality of learning and thinking.
Adult Learning
Lifelong learning is the key to self-sufficiency. Knowledge is doubling every two to three
years. Adults can no longer count on success tomorrow based on the skills and
knowledge they have today. Nor can they rely on employers to provide a job for life or
rely on society to provide for them in sickness, during unemployment, and in old age.
Unlike their grandparents who probably held one job, today’s and tomorrow’s adults will
face several career changes during their lifetimes.
However, only 12 percent of adults with less than a high school education have
participated in an adult education program of any type within the last year; 15 percent
have participated within the last two years (U.S. Department of Education, 1991).
__________________________________
Penn State College of Education ©2000
Pennsylvania Literacy Corps
Institute for the Study of Adult Literacy
Sheila Sherow
105 Rackley Building, University Park, PA 16802
814-865-3777
sms20@psu.edu
Approximately half of all adults who do participate in adult education attend employersponsored education programs that are job-related.
Despite their need for adult basic and literacy education, many low-literate adults have
not chosen to participate in literacy programs. Statistics reveal that only 8 percent of
eligible adults enroll in funded literacy programs and, of those who do, an alarming 75
percent leave during the first year (Quigley, 1997).
__________________________________
Penn State College of Education ©2000
Pennsylvania Literacy Corps
Institute for the Study of Adult Literacy
Sheila Sherow
105 Rackley Building, University Park, PA 16802
814-865-3777
sms20@psu.edu