Name: Nathan Rosenbeger
Period 3b
AP Biology
Date 9/1/2020
CORNELL NOTES — CHAPTER 3: THE STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS OF MACROMOLECULES
This area will be left blank for
Macromolecules
the sole purpose that to me it
 Three of the classes of life’s organic molecules are polymers
doesn’t make science if I had a
 Carbohydrates
question that my notes didn’t
 Proteins
answer then I should problem do
 Nucleic acids lipids are macromolecules but not polymers
better notes and add to them and
the main ideas of the notes are
highlighted red for each section
Polymer
 A long molecule consisting of many similar or identical building blocks
lined by covalent bonds called monomers
The Synthesis of Polymers
 Monomers form larger molecules by condensation reaction called
dehydration reactions i.e. lose water
The Breakdown of Polymers
 Polymers can disassemble by hydrolysis
 Hydrolysis: add water to break polymer bond
Carbohydrates
 Carbohydrates are comped of C, H, O
 Function: energy, energy storage, raw materials and structural materials
Sugars
 Most names for sugars end in -ose
 Classified by number of carbons
- 6C = hexose (glucose)
- 5C = pentose (fructose, ribose)
- 3C = triose (glyceraldehyde)
Sugar Structure
 Bonding determines shape (spherical or linear)
 5C & 6C sugars form rings in aqueous solutions
- In cells!
Numbered Carbons
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Adapted by Kim B. Foglia • www.ExploreBiology.com • ©2008
Name _____________________________
AP Biology
Simple & Complex Sugars
 Monosaccharides
- Simple 1 monomer sugars
- Glucose
 Disaccharides
- 2 monomers
- Sucrose
 polysaccharides
- large polymers
- starch
The Mighty Glucose
 A major source of nutrients for the cell
 What major process within our cells does glucose play a role in?
- Cellular respiration (formula)
1. The carbon skeletons of glucose serve as raw material for synthesis of
other types of small organic molecules i.e. amino acids & fatty acids
Building sugars: Disaccharides
 Dehydration synthesis
- Dehydration meant … LOSING WATER
Polysaccharides
 Polymers of sugars
- Costs little energy to build
- Easily reversible = release energy
 Function
- Energy storage
- Starch (plants)
- Glycogen (animals)
In Plants: Polysaccharides (Starch)
 Starch is the major form of storage for plants
In Animals: Polysaccharide (Glycogen)
 Glycogen
- Consists of glucose monomers
- Is the major storage form of glucose in animals
 Cellulose is difficult to digest
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Name _____________________________

AP Biology
- Cows have microbes in their stomachs to facilitate this process
Chitin, another important structural polysaccharide
- Is found in the exoskeleton of arthropods
- Can be used as surgical thread
What is Diabetes?
 Diabetes is a disease that affects how the body uses glucose
 The pancreas is a gland in your belly that helps your body digest
food/make insulin
 Diabetes make your body not produce insulin or make the insulin it
produces not work
Types of diabetes
 Type 1 Diabetes
- Called insulin dependent diabetes or juvenile diabetes
- Pancreas can’t make insulin so energy form glucose cant get to the
cells
- People whose suffer from type 1 diabetes get insulin regularly
through shots or a pump
- Type 1 is a genetic disorder
 Type 2 Diabetes
- Called adult onset diabetes
- Pancreas stull makes insulin but is doesn’t work like is should Can
be treated with lifestyle changes (exercise and diet)
These are notes of slides 1 to 23 and contains mostly molecules are sugar compounds and diabetes info etc.
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Name _____________________________
AP Biology
Macromolecules: Lipids
Lipids
 Lipids are composed of C, H, O
- long hydrocarbon chain
 Diverse group
- Fats
- Phospholipids
- Steroid
 Do not form polymers
- Big molecules made of subunits smaller molecules
- Not a continuing chain
Fats




Structure
- Glycerol (3C alcohol) + fatty acid
Triacylglycerol
- 3 fatty acids linked to glycerol
- Ester linkage = between OH & COOH
Long HC chain
- Polar
- Hydrophobic
Function
- Energy storage
 Very rich
 More than carbohydrates
- Cushion organs
- Insulates body
 Think whale blubber
Saturated fats
 All C bonded to H
 No C=C double Bonds
- Long, straight chain
- Most animal fats
- Solid at room temp
 Contributes to cardiovascular disease
 C=C double bonds in the fatty acids
- Plant & fish fats
- Vegetable oils
- Liquid at room temp
 The kinks made by double bonded C prevent the molecules
form packing tightly together
Phospholipids
 Structure
- Glycerol + 2 fatty acids + PO4
- Important in cells cell membranes
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Name _____________________________

AP Biology
Hydrophobic or hydrophilic
- Fatty acids tails = hydrophobic
- PO4 = hydrophilic head (charge, polar)
- Dual “personality”
Phospholipids in water
 Hydrophilic heads attracted to H2O
 Hydrophobic tails ‘hide’ from H2O
 (phobia = fear)
 The structure of phospholipids
- Results in bilayer arrangement found in cell membranes
Diversity in steroids
Recap
 Where are lipids found in cells?
- Cell membrane
 In our bodies?
- Hormones, fat cells
 How does a phospholipid behave?
- Hydrophobic & hydrophilic properties
 Why is this behavior important for a cell?
- Protects what goes into and out of the cell and keeps organelles
(machinery) INSIDE the cell
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Name _____________________________
AP Biology
Proteins
 Most structurally & functionally diverse group of biomolecules
 Function
- Involved in almost everything
 Enzymes
 Structure (keratin, collagen)
 Carriers & transport (membrane channels)
 Receptors & binding (defense)
 Contraction (actin & myosin)
 Signaling (hormones)
 Storage (bean seed proteins)
Type of Protein: Enzyme
 Enzymes
- Are a type of protein that acts as a catalyst, speeding up chemical
reactions
Proteins
 Structure
- Monomer = amino acids
- 20 different amino acids
- Polymers = polypeptide
- Protein can be 1 or more polypeptide chains bolded and bonded
together
- Large and complex 3d shapes
Amino acids (Bozeman)

Structure:

central carbon

amino group

carboxyl group (acid)

R group (side chain)

variable group

Chemical characteristic

Function determined by R-group!
Type of Amino Acids








20 different amino acids
Important functional groups (R-groups)
Non-polar/hydrophobic
Disulfide bridge (ex: methionine)
Polar/hydrophilic
Disulfide bridges (ex: cysteine)
Electrically charged
Acidic or Basic
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Name _____________________________
AP Biology
Building proteins
 Peptide bonds
 Dehydration synthesis linking NH2 of 1 amino acid to

COOH of another C–N bond
Polypeptide chains
 N-terminal = NH2 end
 C-terminal = COOH end
 repeated sequence (N-C-C) is the
polypeptide backbone
 grow in one direction
Protein structure & function


unction depends on structure
 3-D structure
 twisted, folded, coiled into unique shape
Function depends on structure
 all starts with the order of amino acids
 what determines that order of
amino acids?
 DNA!
Primary structure

Order of amino acids in chain
 amino acid sequence determined by DNA
 slight change in amino acid sequence can affect protein’s structure & it’s
function
 even just one amino acid change can make all the difference!
Secondary structure

“Local folding”
 Folding along short sections of polypeptide
 interaction between adjacent amino acids
 H bonds between
R groups
 α-helix
 β-pleated sheet
Tertiary structure

“Whole molecule folding”
 determined by interactions
between R groups
 hydrophobic
interactions
 effect of water
in cell
 anchored by
disulfide bridges
(H & ionic bonds)
Quaternary structure


Joins together more than 1 polypeptide chain
only then is it a functional protein
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Name _____________________________
AP Biology
Protein models

Protein structure visualized by

X-ray crystallography

extrapolating from amino acid sequence

computer modelling
Denature a protein


Disrupt 3° structure

pH  salt

temperature

unravel or denature protein

disrupts H bonds, ionic bonds &
disulfide bridges
Some proteins can return to their functional shape after denaturation, many cannot
This section is about lipids and protiens.
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Name _____________________________
AP Biology
Nucleic Acids



Function:
 store & transmit hereditary information
Examples:
 RNA (ribonucleic acid)
 DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
Structure:
 monomers = nucleotides
Nucleotide

3 parts
 nitrogen base (C-N ring)
 pentose sugar (5C)
 ribose in RNA
 deoxyribose in DNA
 PO4 group
Types of nucleotides

2 types of nucleotides
 different Nitrogen bases
 purines
 double ring N base
 adenine (A)
 guanine (G)
 pyrimidines
 single ring N base
 cytosine (C)
 thymine (T)
 uracil (U)
Building the polymer
Nucleic polymer

Backbone
 sugar to PO4 bond
 phosphodiester bond
 new base added to sugar of previous base
 polymer grows in one direction
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Name _____________________________
AP Biology

DNA is built along the sugar-phosphate backbone from 5’ to 3’
end, like a one way street
 N bases hang off the
sugar-phosphate backbone
RNA & DNA

RNA

DNA

single nucleotide chain

double nucleotide chain
 N bases bond in pairs
across chains
 spiraled in a double helix
double helix 1st proposed as structure of DNA in 1953 by James Watson & Francis Crick
Pairing of nucleotides

Nucleotides bond between
DNA strands
 Hydrogen bonds
 purine :: pyrimidine
 A :: T
 2 Hydrogen bonds
 G :: C
 3 Hydrogen bonds
Information polymer

Function
 series of bases encodes information
 like the letters of a book
 stored information is passed
from parent to offspring
 need to copy accurately
 stored information = genes
 genetic information
Copying DNA


Replication
 2 strands of DNA helix are complementary
 have one, can build other
 have one, can rebuild the whole
 why is this a good system?
 when in the life of a cell does replication occur?
Nucleic Acids--DNA
1. Create the complementary strand using the nucleotides
 Remember your base pairing rules
2. Circle 2 nucleotides—one on the template/parent strand and one on the
complementary/daughter strand
3. Label the 3 parts of a nucleotide on one of your nucleotides
4. Label where your would find a covalent bond and a hydrogen bond
5. On the back of your DNA molecule describe the “positioning” of the sides
of the DNA, relative to one another
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Name _____________________________
AP Biology
This is the entire chapter 3 notes on macromolecules.
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