General Sociology Prelim Reviewer Hafidah M. Buale The Promise (Separated) Ch.2 Sociological Investigation Why Is Sociological Research Necessary? ● Sociologists obtain their knowledge of human behavior through research ● Results in a body of information that helps us move beyond guesswork and commonsense in understanding society. Ways of knowing the world…. ● Personal: We discover for ourselves the things we know. ● Tradition: People hold to a belief because everyone knows it to be true. 1. Scientific sociology (structural functionalism) = Systematic observation of social behaviour using empirical evidence 2. Interpretive sociology (symbolic interaction) = Describing and interpreting social behaviour in depth 3. Critical sociology (social conflict) = Finding and using strategies to promote social change Principles of Scientific Sociology Concept: a abstract mental construct that represents part of the world in a simplified form Variable: a concept whose values change from case to case: a concept that can “vary” and be measured ● Authority: Experts tell us that something is true. Measurement: a procedure for determining the value of a variable in a specific case ● Religion: We accept the truths that our scriptures or religious officials advocate. Defining concepts and operationalizing a variable: ● Media: Accept reports as “true” even if we know some sources better than others – media has bias ● Science: We know what is true based on controlled, systematic observation. Science and sociological theory… - Science creates and supports theory: a statement that provides an explanation of a natural or social phenomenon based on well-documented evidence. - A theory must include the following criteria: ✔ tested by experimentation and observation of the natural world. ✔ is falsifiable (i.e. experiments must exist that could prove it false). ✔ cannot be proven, only confirmed or disconfirmed. ✔ subject to revision and change. Three main types of research… ● Specifying what one intends to measure in assigning a value to a variable ● Reliability: consistency in measurement ● Validity: measuring what one intends to measure Relationships among variables ● Stated as hypotheses and theories ● Cause and effect – A relationship in which change in one variable causes change in another ● Types of variables ⮚ Independent: the variable that causes the change ⮚ Dependent: the variable that changes (its value depends upon the independent variable) Correlation and Causation Correlation – A relationship in which two or more variables change together ● Spurious Correlation: An apparent but false relationship between two (or more) variables caused by some other variable – use “control” to investigate Conditions for causality ✔ Existence of a correlation or association ✔ Independent variable precedes dependent variable ✔ Non-spurious Limitations of scientific sociology ● The “ideal of objectivity” ⮚ Can social scientists be “value-neutral”? ⮚ Max Weber said not possible but can aim to be value-free through recognition of personal bias ● Human behavior is too complex to predict precisely any individual’s actions ● The mere presence of the researcher might affect the behavior being studied ● Social patterns change ● Sociologists are part of the world they study, making value-free research difficult Interpretive and critical sociology ● Collect qualitative data in the real world ⮚ Reality is socially constructed ● Can also be seen as “empirical” ● Data are systematically analyzed and then interpreted/questioned ● Methods include interviewing, observation or deconstruction ● More subjective than scientific sociology but no less valid ● Critical sociology aims to correct inequality but political overtones can create an agenda ● Double standards: Using different standards to judge males and females ● Interference: a subject under study reacts to the sex of the researcher Other limitations and problems in research ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Problem of working with human subjects Research motivated by ideology or blame “blame analysis” Overgeneralization Selective observation Premature closure of inquiry Halo effect: overall impression of a person influences the observer's findings ● Control: not same as in the natural sciences ● Hawthorne effect (esp. in experiments) Continuation… ● The HALO EFFECT ⮚ Edward Thorndike ⮚ 1874-1949 ⮚ Influence of impressions ● The HAWTHORNE EFFECT ⮚ Elton Mayo ⮚ 1880-1949 ⮚ change in behaviour caused by awareness of being studied Overcoming Bias: “Bracketing” First, make a list of your characteristics: 1. your gender; 2. your age; 3. your ethnic or national identification; 4. your religion or philosophy of life; 5. your political party or orientation; Limitations in Sociological Research 6. your favourite psychological theory. The Problem of Gender in Research: Add four more characteristics: words or phrases that are descriptive of you as an individual. ● Androcentricity/Gynocentricity: Approaching a topic from a male-only or female-only perspective ● Overgeneralization: Using data collected from one sex and applying the findings to both sexes ● Gender blindness: The failure to consider the impact of gender at all 1. Think of ways in which your characteristics might bias you in your efforts at research. 2. Think of how you might counteract these biases. 3. And then think of how these efforts to counteract your biases might themselves lead to other biases! Replication and Triangulation ● Replication of research by other scientistsreates greater reliability of results Triangulation ● Use multiple methods, researchers, data and/or theories to create fuller body of sociological knowledge ● Increases validity ● Triangulation seen as key to creating good, valid and reliable knowledge of the world around us Dimensions of Sociological Research A. Style of Research ⮚ Exploratory: to gain new knowledge ⮚ Descriptive: attempt to describe social reality ⮚ Explanatory: explain cause and effect relationships B. Purpose or Focus of Research ⮚ Basic: to add to existing body of knowledge ⮚ Applied: to solve a perceived societal problem C. Time Frame ⮚ Cross-sectional studies - which aims to find out what opinions research participants across sections of society have about a certain phenomenon at a given point of time his survey represents fixed reflections of one moment in time. ⮚ Longitudinal studies - is conducted on the same type of people over long period of time, as long as sometimes 20 to 30 years. ⮚ Assessed through words, images, and description Theory and Research Cycle ● A theory is a set of logically interrelated statements that attempts to describe, explain, and (occasionally) predict social phenomena ● Research is the process of systematically collecting information for the purpose of testing an existing theory or generating a new one. ● The theory and research cycle consist of deductive and inductive approaches. ✔ deductive: from theory to research observations ✔ inductive: from observations to theory creation Inductive and Deductive Inductive logical thought ⮚ Reasoning that transforms specific observations into general theory ⮚ Induction “increases” from specific to general Deductive logical thought ⮚ Reasoning that transforms general theory into specific hypotheses suitable for testing ⮚ Deduction “decreases” from general to specific The Wheel of Research D. Data Collection Technique ⮚ Quantitative (numbers) ⮚ Qualitative (words) ⮚ Quantitative and Qualitative Orientations Quantitative ⮚ Meaningfully expressed by numbers ⮚ Provides counts and measures Qualitative ⮚ Meanings, concepts, and definitions Research Methods for Collecting Data ● Research methods are strategies or techniques for systematically conducting research ● Methods are chosen according to whom we wish to study and what we wish to learn Quantitative research methods ● Surveys: polls in which researchers gather facts or attempt to determine the relationship between facts. Survey data are collected by using self-administered questionnaires, personal interviews, and/or telephone surveys. Respondents are persons who provide data for analysis through interviews or questionnaires. ● Secondary analysis (i.e. a content or historical analysis) of existing data, researchers use existing material and analyze data that originally was collected by others. ● Experiments are carefully designed situations in which the researcher studies the impact of certain variables on subjects' attitudes or behavior. Qualitative Research Methods Field research: study of social life in its natural setting: observe and interview people where they live, work, play. Case study: an in-depth, multifaceted investigation of a single event, person, or social grouping. Often involves more than one method, such as participant observation, unstructured or in-depth interviews, and life histories. Unstructured interview: extended, open-ended interaction between an interviewer and an interviewee. Used in Field Research and Oral Histories. ⮚ Feminist Research Methods: Feminist researchers use the same methods, but in a different way ⮚ women-centred. ⮚ provide explanations that will help women improve their situation. Multiple Methods ● Many sociologists use triangulation and use of multiple approaches in a single study. ● Often both quantitative and qualitative techniques used. Research Ethics The study of people (human subjects) raises vital questions about ethical concerns in sociological research. ● The Canadian Sociology and Anthropology Association (CSAA) has a Code of Ethics that sets forth certain basic standards sociologists must follow in conducting research ● SILLY VIDEO (computer generated) on research ethics in sociology Tri-Council Policy Statement: Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans The Research Ethics Framework: “Norms for the ethics of research involving human subjects are developed and refined within an everevolving societal context, elements of which include the need for research and the research community, moral imperatives and ethical principles, and the law.” Guiding Ethical Principles ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Respect for Human Dignity Respect for Free and Informed Consent Respect for Vulnerable Persons Respect for Privacy and Confidentiality Respect for Justice and Inclusiveness Balancing Harms and Benefits Minimizing Harm Maximizing Benefit Putting It All Together: Ten Steps in Sociological Investigation 1. Select and define topic 2. Review the literature 3. Develop key questions to ask 4. Assess requirements for study 5. Consider ethical issues 6. Select a research methodology 7. Collect the data 8. Interpret the findings 9. State conclusions 10. Publish the findings Community-Based Research (CBR) An increasingly popular form of research that is: Community-driven ⮚ practical relevance ⮚ promotes community self-determination. Participatory ⮚ community members and researchers share control of the research and results Action-oriented ⮚ Useful to the community in promoting social change Ch.3 Culture and Society Culture – the ways of thinking, the ways of acting, and the material objects that together form a people’s way of life. ● Only humans rely on culture rather than instinct to ensure survival. ● Nonmaterial culture – ideas created by members of a society. ● Material culture – tangible things created by members of a society. Society refers to people who interact in a defined territory and share culture. ● Culture shock refers to personal disorientation when experiencing an unfamiliar way of life. How Many Cultures? ● One indication of culture is language ● Global estimates document 7,000 languages ● In the USA, there are about 200 languages ● Upcoming decades will show the disappearance of hundreds of languages Box 2.1. Basic features of culture ● Culture is organic and supraorganic ● Culture is implicit and explicit ● Culture is stable and changing ● Culture is overt and covert ● Culture is learned and shared ● Culture is symbolic ● Culture is ideal and manifest The Elements of Culture Although cultures vary, they all have five common components: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Symbols Language Values and Beliefs Norms Ideal and Real Elements of Culture Symbols Symbols – anything that carries a particular meaning recognized by people who share culture. ⮚ collective creations. General Marketing ⮚ Aimed at a total population Segmented (section) Marketing ⮚ Aimed at a specific population Elements of Culture Language Language – a system of symbols that allows people to communicate with one another. ● Language allows for the continuity of culture. ● Cultural transmission (Oral traditions) – the process by which one generation passes culture to the next. ● Every society transmits culture through speech. ● Languages are not just different sets of labels for the same reality. ● All languages fuse symbols with distinctive emotions. ● The Sapir-Whorf Thesis – people perceive the world through the cultural lens of language. Elements of Culture Values and Beliefs Values – culturally defined standards by which people assess desirability, goodness, and beauty and that serve as broad guidelines for social living. ⮚ Values are abstract standards of goodness. Elements of Culture Values and Beliefs Beliefs – specific statements that people hold to be true. ⮚ Beliefs are particular matters individuals consider true or false. that High culture – cultural patterns that distinguish a society’s elite Popular culture – cultural patterns that are widespread among a population. Elements of Culture Norms Subcultures Norms – rules and expectations by which a society guides the behavior of its members. Subculture – cultural patterns that set apart some segment of society’s population. ⮚ Most important norms in a culture apply everywhere and at all times. Mores – norms that are widely observed and have great moral significance. Societal taboos such as: ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ Murder Treason Child sexual abuse Inspire intense reactions Punishment inevitably follows Folkways – norms for routine, casual interaction. Folkways (polite vs. rude) – ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ People chew quietly with mouths closed Accepting one’s place in line People avoid facing each other in elevators No written rules No one physically harmed (Ex: Amish and Mormons) Multiculturalism ● Multiculturalism – an educational program recognizing the cultural diversity of the United States and promoting the equality of all cultural traditions. ● Afrocentrism – the dominance of African cultural patterns. ● Eurocentrism – the dominance of European cultural patterns. ● Counterculture – cultural patterns that rejects and opposes those widely accepted within a society. Examples: ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ Hippies of the 60’s Street Gangs Hare Krishna Extreme right-wing religious groups Technology & Culture Cultural Change ● Material culture also reflects a society’s technology – knowledge that people use to make a way of life in their surroundings. ● Sociocultural evolution ✔ hunting and gathering societies ✔ horticultural & pastoralism ✔ agriculture ✔ industry ✔ postindustrial information technology Cultural integration – the close relationships among various elements of a cultural system. Cultural Diversity ⮚ Cultural diversity can involve social class. ⮚ Many cultural patterns are readily accessible to only some members of a society. ⮚ Some elements of culture change faster than others – cultural lag. Cultural integration Examples: ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ Women in the workforce Later first marriages Change in family patterns Increased use of day care Cultural lag Examples: Contraception ✔ Increased availability ✔ Use by adolescents Medical Advances ✔ Little or no ability to provide higher quality of life Cultural changes New cultural elements ✔ Cell phones ✔ Blackberry ✔ iPhones Diffusion ⮚ Spread of objects from one society to another Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism Ethnocentrism – the practice of judging another culture by the standards of one’s own culture. Cultural Relativism – the practice of evaluating a culture by that culture’s own standards. A Global Culture ● Global economy: the flow of goods ● Global communication: the flow information ● Global migration: the flow of people of Theoretical Analysis of Culture ● The structural–functional paradigm depicts culture as a complex strategy for meeting human needs. ● The social–conflict paradigm suggests that many cultural traits function to the advantage of some and the disadvantage of others. ● Sociobiology explores ways in which human biology affects how we create culture.
