Persian Society 3.1-3.4 - Achaemenid Religion & Burial Main Concepts Main Concepts Achaemenid religious beliefs apply to the ruling class and aren’t representative of all of the subject peoples, many of whom were polytheistic. The Achaemenids were likely Zoroastrians, but this was an evolving/developing religion and thus the religious beliefs/practices also develop over time. Religious policy was largely tolerant of other beliefs. There is ongoing debate about the burial practices of Iranians (exposure vs burial). 3.1 - Religious Beliefs Religious Beliefs - Subject Peoples Polytheistic beliefs: Greek; Egypt; Mesopotamia (i.e. Marduk & Baal) Monotheistic: Judaism (Yahweh) Little evidence to suggest Achaemenids forced worship of Ahuramazda (Daeva Inscription?) Significant repercussions for any damage to religious sites under Persian protection. (Temple of Cybebe, Sardis, Ionian Revolt) Religious Beliefs - Zoroastrianism Zoroaster - Founder & Iranian prophet. Date & even existence is contested. Central text: Avesta (composite text, well after Achaemenid period) Ahura (Lord Creator) Mazda (Supremely Wise), chief of many gods. Two opposing forces: Truth/Lie. Strong connection with fire in acts of cult worship & sacrifice. Man has a moral responsibility to choose between truth/lie. Judgement on death. Other Comments Greek sources (Herodotus and Strabo) claim that the Persians did not build statues, temples, or shrines. Instead, worshipped at sacred places such as mountain peaks, or water sources, or in special walled gardens called pairidaeza (paradises). Common ceremony referred to in the PFT is the lan ceremony. There is little information about this. Winged Khvarenah, see HERE, a mixture of Egyptian, Persian, and Assyrian artistic styles. Representation/meaning still contested. Ezra 1 New International Version (NIV) Cyrus Helps the Exiles to Return 1 In the first year of Cyrus king of Persia, in order to fulfill the word of the Lord spoken by Jeremiah, the Lord moved the heart of Cyrus king of Persia to make a proclamation throughout his realm and also to put it in writing: 2 “This is what Cyrus king of Persia says: “‘The Lord, the God of heaven, has given me all the kingdoms of the earth and he has appointed me to build a temple for him at Jerusalem in Judah. 3 Any of his people among you may go up to Jerusalem in Judah and build the temple of the Lord, the God of Israel, the God who is in Jerusalem, and may their God be with them... ... 7 Moreover, King Cyrus brought out the articles belonging to the temple of the Lord, which Nebuchadnezzar had carried away from Jerusalem and had placed in the temple of his god. 8 Cyrus king of Persia had them brought by Mithredath the treasurer, who counted them out to Sheshbazzar the prince of Judah. How does this source support the concept of Persian tolerance towards the religions of its subject peoples? What are the issues with this source that impact the reliability? The winged Khvarenah from Persepolis. Perhaps an image of Ahuramazda (unlikely). Perhaps represents divine splendour and force/power of Ahuramazda. Shahbazi (1974) argues that it represents an aspect of the king, the ‘god given fortune’. 3.2 - Religious Policy Religious Policy Generally tolerant Protective of beliefs/sacred sites of subject peoples (Ezra, Nehemiah, Ionian Revolt) Daiva Inscription (XPh) potentially indicates lack of religious tolerance OR uses symbolic language, rebellion = demons Clear worship of other Mesopotamian gods found in PFT. 4. King Xerxes says: when I became king, there was among these countries one that was in rebellion. Ahuramazda bore me aid. By the grace of Ahuramazda I smote that country and put it down in its place. And among these countries there was a place where previously demons (daiva) were worshipped. Afterwards, by the grace of Ahuramazda I destroyed that sanctuary of demons, and I proclaimed: 'The demons shall not be worshipped!' Where previously the demons were worshipped, there I worshipped Ahuramazda at the proper time and in the proper manner. And there was other business that had been done ill. That I made good. That which I did, all I did by the grace of Ahuramazda. Ahuramazda bore me aid until I completed the work. You who may live hereafter, if you should think 'Happy may I be when living, and when dead may I be blessed,' have respect for that law which Ahuramazda has established. Worship Ahuramazda at the proper time and in the proper manner. XPh - Daiva Inscription PFT 339 - Elamite Tablet - Supplies for Ahuramazda and Humban “5 marris 7 QA wine, supplied by Ushaya, Turkama the ‘priest’ received: 7 QA for the god Ahuramazda, 2 marris for the god Humban…” 1 marris = approx. 10 litres 1 QA = approx 1 litre 1. 2. How much wine in litres is given out to Ahuramazda, and how much to Humban? What does this show about religious belief & policy towards other gods? 3.3 - Rituals & Practice: Magi & Fire Rituals Magi Zoroastrian priests, origin of the word magician Fulfilled a variety of roles: - tending sacred fire recorded and transmitted Iranian lore prophets interpreted omens and dreams and sometimes advisors. Waters: “Scholars are also divided on the extent to which practices and rituals attributed to the magi may be considered truly Zoroastrian or not…” (pg. 155) Rituals - Guarding the tombs of deceased kings - - Coronation of new kings - - Plutarch describes Artaxerxes going to Pasargadae for an initiation ceremony (see THIS slide) Ritual of ‘Haoma crushing’ - - Arrian: “Within the enclosure and by the ascent to the tomb itself there was a small building put up for the magi, who used to guard Cyrus’ tomb.” (Anabasis VI, 29.4-7) Divine floral plant supposed to bestow supernatural powers Participates in sacrifices - Herodotus 1.131-2 “Without the intervention of a magus no sacrifice is supposed to take place” Fire Rituals & Fire Cult Fire = representation of creation energy, and the pure light of Ahuramazda Magi were responsible for the maintenance of sacred fires Evidence from Pasargadae of ‘fire holders’, often mistaken to be fire altars. Followers were to stand before and pray 5 times a day. Height of fire-holders was to allow the king to rest his eyes from a position of dignity Held a deep bowl in the top to contain the ashes required for continually burning fire Plutarch Artaxerxes 3.1-2 A little after Darius’ death, the king went to Pasargadae to be initiated into the royal rite by the Persian priests. It takes place in the sanctuary of a warrior goddess, whom one might compare to Athena. The one who is to be initiated must enter it, take off his own dress, and put on that worn by Cyrus the Elder before he became king, eat a cake of figs, swallow terebinth, and down a bowl of sour milk… Plutarch goes on to talk about an attempt on the life of Artaxerxes by one of the magi responsible for overseeing the ritual. 3.4 - Royal Funerary Customs & Tombs Royal Funerary Customs Debate around burial beliefs: exposure vs. burial Early Iranian beliefs = inhumation (burial) Zoroastrian beliefs = exposure to flesh-eating animals. Bones gathered in astodan Zoroastrians believed corpses could not be polluted by fire, water, or earth. Evidence suggests a mixture/crossover of burial beliefs. Burial customs may have differed East/West. Eastern & Magi likely exposed the body, Western likely buried/inhumed the bodies (perhaps covered in wax). Tombs Three burial sites: Persepolis; Pasargadae; Naqsh-i Rustam Cyrus’ plinth tomb is unique. Darius instituted practice of rock-cut tombs. Later kings buried in tombs above Persepolis. Kings buried in coffins, Arrian suggests with valuable objects left in the tomb. Henkelmen (2003) suggests the existence of a ‘royal cult’, charged with caring for the tombs and conducting ritual sacrifices were offered. Draws evidence from the PFT. Tomb of Cyrus (Pasargadae) Darius II Darius I Artaxerxes I? Upper Register of Darius’ Tomb relief at Naqsh-i Rustam Conduct an analysis of this relief. What does it reveal about: - Achaemenid Religion - Roles and Images of the King - Subject Peoples of the Empire - The role of Art Practice Questions HSC Question 2015 (3 marks): What was the role of the magi? 2013 (4 marks): Why was Naqsh-i Rustam an important site in this period? 2017 (5 marks): Describe the features of royal funerary customs in this period. 2019 (6 marks): What does religious policy reveal about the empire in this period?
