A LONG-TERM ATHLETE DEVELOPMENT PLAN FOR MALE SOCCER PLAYERS
TOBIAS CHRISTOPHER MATTHEWS
MODULE CODE: HSPV3W-15-6
STUDENT NUMBER: 50068393
i
CONTENTS
Chapter
Page
LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………………….………...iii
INTRODUCTION……………….…………………………………………….….…………..1
LTAD MODELS………………………………………………………………………………2
MATURATION ADAPTATIONS……………………………………………..…………......3
PREDICTING PHV…………………………………………………………………………..4
PROGRAM RATIONALE..…………………………………………………..……………...5
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………..…...9
APPENDIX………………………………………………………………………………...…14
ii
LIST OF TABLES
Table
Page
1) LTAD MALE SOCCER PLAYERS……………………………………………….14
2) FUNDAMENTAL (FMS) PROGRAM EXAMPLE…………….………………....15
3) CIRCA (STRENGTH) PROGRAM EXAMPLE ………………….……………...16
4) POST-PHV (POWER) PROGRAM EXAMPLE…………….…………………...17
iii
Introduction
The goal of this long-term athlete development (LTAD) plan for soccer players is
focused on highlighting training modalities for athletes pre peak height velocity (PHV),
circa, and post PHV. Players will be categorized into 5 stages; fundamentals, pre PHV,
circa, post PHV, and post PHV-adulthood. Additionally, this LTAD will focus on reducing
gaps in the systems of player development, assisting in planning for optimal
performance in an aging athlete, provide structure for programming, and align
recommendations with scientific literature (CSA, 2009). Furthermore, a LTAD program
should develop strong, technically competent youth, that can adequately meet and
maintain the motor skill demands of any sport or activity (Moliner-Urdiales et al., 2010;
Runhaar et al., 2010; Cohen et al., 2011). Lloyd and Oliver, (2020) suggest that models
should not be used as a rigid structure but rather as “flexible guidelines that can then
help with more detailed planning of long-term goals, and the macro-, meso- and
microcycles that can help achieve those goals.”
To develop proficient soccer players, it is essential to understand the demands of the
sport. Current literature suggests there are specific physical abilities that determine a
soccer players success (agility, repeated sprinting ability, endurance capacity and
power development) (Owen et al., 2014). Moreover, these specific abilities are reported
to differ between professional soccer players and their side-lined substitutes (this has
also been confirmed in game analysis) (Santisteban, Impellizzeri & Castagna, 2009).
On average a player performs 723 ± 203 cutting manoeuvres in a single competition
match (Bloomfield, Polman & O’Donoghue, 2007). Although, sprinting and quick
manoeuvres only represent 10-15% of the distance players travel, it is considered an
extremely decisive factor in the outcome of the game (Gabbett & Mulvey, 2008).
1
LTAD MODELS
The LTAD model created by Istvan Balyi focuses on implementing specific training
stress relative to maturation and growth timing, rather than relying on chronological age
(Balyi & Hamilton, 2004). Balyi’s LTAD is split into 7 stages; active start, fundamentals,
learning to train, training to train, training to compete, training to win and finally an active
for life stage (Way et al., 2016). This LTAD was intended to maximize athlete’s potential
in their sport of choice. However, it is often criticized for its focus on windows of
opportunity which is not rigorously supported in literature (Bailey et al., 2010; Ford et al.,
2011). This LTAD is further criticized for its focus on physiological factors of
performance, disregarding psychological, social or academic factors ( Ford et al., 2011).
The youth physical development (YPD) model is very similar to Balyi’s LTAD model,
prescribing training in respect to the maturation stage, specifically around the timing of
PHV (Lloyd & Oliver, 2020). However, it does not use windows of opportunity but rather
aligns with literature’s perspective, suggesting that all physical attributes are trainable
regardless of the individual’s stage of maturation. This ideology allows children to build
a high level of physical literacy, not limiting their acquisition new skills, providing a
holistic approach to athlete development. Furthermore, coaches will also be able to use
this model as a guideline to long term development, with freedom to incorporate training
that is applicable to the athlete’s weakness’s or strengths. This LTAD model for male
soccer players will be based off the YPD model, following a similar prescription system
and model outline. However, the training focus of each stage of maturation will be
specific to the athletic success of male soccer players. The model will incorporate
stages used in Lloyd et al. (2013) and Istvan Balyi’s LTAD models. Implementing
training guidelines in 5 stages; fundamentals, pre-PHV, circa, post-PHV, and post PHVadulthood. Furthermore, this LTAD will not include windows of opportunity but will rather
focus on implementing a training target that is most applicable to the stage of
maturation, similar to the YPD model. For example, prepubescent children during the
peak height of neural plasticity should focus on developing neural pathways for
fundamental motor skills (FMS) and force output (Myer et al., 2013). Moreover, it is
important to be attentive to an athlete’s mental and physical state. This can be achieved
2
through daily undulated periodization (Rana & Lehri, 2019). For example, if an athlete
did not get adequate sleep the night before a workout. It is imperative to adjust the
workout session around his present energy levels not causing too much stress on the
nervous system, predisposition the athlete to illness or diminished recovery time. Daily
undulated periodization will be used throughout this model.
Maturation Adaptations
To provide a valuable LTAD plan, it is vital to understand the effects that occur
throughout the maturation process. The journey of birth to adulthood is interchangeably
referred to as ‘growth’, ‘development’, or ‘maturation’ (Lloyd & Oliver, 2020). One of the
first effects of maturation is an increase of grey matter throughout the brain during
childhood. This has been known to decrease after the start of puberty, when the
development of the synaptic pruning occurs (Gogtay et al., 2004; Lenroot & Giedd,
2006). Although children have underdeveloped prefrontal activation in regard to
cognitive control (Bunge et al., 2002), they possess a greater opportunity to build new
synaptic pathways when a higher volume of grey matter is present (Sowell et al., 2001).
Therefore, it is vital to develop motor skills at the beginning stages of development
when children are young (Lloyd & Oliver, 2020).
Around the ages of 8-12, an increase of nearly 50% aerobic power (1.4–2.1 L/min) is
experienced in youth. This has shown to further increase Vo2 max in males at full
maturity (3.5 L/min) (Lloyd & Oliver, 2020). 18-24 months prior to PHV an increase of
limb speed occurs (Assaiante, 1998). Furthermore, close to the timing of the adolescent
growth spurt (around PHV), males experience a large increase in vertical jump velocity,
acceleration, and deceleration jump performance (Assaiante, 1998). Throughout
development, circulating androgens (hormones) play a large role in physiological
changes as well as the differentiating changes between genders. Androgens are shown
to increase fat-free mass (FFM) and increase fat mass (FM). Furthermore, males at the
end of their adolescent growth spurt are recorded to contain 25-30% more FFM than
females, as well as half the amount of FM (Lloyd & Oliver, 2020). Around the timing of
3
peak weight velocity (12-18 months post-PHV) when androgen circulation is high (Viru
et al., 1999), adolescence experience a large increase in muscle mass (Beunen &
Malina, 1988; Beunen & Malina, 2005). In the Post-PHV stage, youth enter a time of
slow deceleration, that is characterized by a decrease in growth. In the first year after
PHV, boys experience a mean growth rate of 7cm. Subsequently, in the following year
their growth rate is averaged around 3cm (Balyi & Way, 2005). It is very important to
understand maturation effects occur at different timings for each individual depending
on their age of development (Groove, 2007). Moreover, this describes the difference
between their development age and chronological age. It is very common for children to
be at the same chronological age but vary drastically in their development age.
Furthermore, it is important for soccer coaches to take this into consideration during
talent identification and program design. Sports that require varying components of
fitness, recommend athletes to specialize later in their development (soccer &
basketball). This allows the individual to build a high physical literacy prior to
specialization. Previous LTAD plans discourage soccer players to specialize before the
age of 10. This is recommended with the goal to reduce overuse injuries, minimise
imbalanced physiological development, and enhance broad foundational movement
development (Grove, 2007).
Predicting PHV
Milwain et al., (2002) developed an equation to predict age at peak height velocity
(APHV), taking into consideration sitting height, body mass, leg length and age. The
maturity offset recorded is able to predict how close the child is to PHV. However, the
calculation has shown a standard error of 0.56-0.59 years (7 months). The maturity
offset equation is a very common method to examine a child’s APHV. However, some of
the limitations to this method is a biased approach to chronological age during
prediction and inaccurate calculations have been found in individuals that are further
away from PHV (early or late matures) (Malina & Koziel, 2014; Moore et al., 2015).
Alternatively, two new maturity offset equations were proposed by Fransen et al. (2018)
and Moore et al. (2015). Subsequently, facing the same limitations as Milwain.
4
Moreover, an anthropometric method, used to predict the height of a child in adulthood
was conducted by Khamis and Roche (1994). However, this study only included white
American children reducing its ability to target different ethnicities. Furthermore,
Milwain’s equation has an estimated error ± 1 year (95% of the time), this is considered
satisfactory in its ability to predict APHV in adolescence (Milwain et al., 2002). For the
purpose of this LTAD plan, Milwain’s equation will be used to estimate APHV.
Program Rationale
The fundamental stage in this LTAD will focus on developing athleticism long term and
building the rudimentary foundations of motor skill performance and strength in the early
stages of childhood. Subsequently, current LTAD models are recommended to develop
fundamental and basic principles of motor skill proficiency in conjunct with strength
improvement during early childhood (Balyi & Hamilton, 2004; Lloyd et al., 2012; Lloyd et
al., 2015; Cattuzzo et al., 2016). Furthermore, this allows prospective training to build off
the laid foundation, towards more advanced and complex motor skill development
(Lloyd & Oliver, 2012; Myer et al., 2013; Kushner et al., 2015). A study completed by
Radnor et al. (2017) found that youth pre-PHV responded better to plyometric training
(neural adaptations) over traditional strength training. Alternatively, post-PHV youth
responded better to traditional strength training over plyometrics. Furthermore,
plyometric exercises are shown to mirror similar movements of intentional play in
children. This stage will consist of plyometrics, body weight movements, and/or
gymnastics. These exercise movements can be developed into fun, soccer specific
games that keep kids entertained and motivated to participate. Literature suggest
children prior to puberty should engage in a broad variety of sport and or movements,
allowing children to become physically literate prior to their growth spurt (Lloyd et al.,
2014; Bergeron et al., 2015; Lloyd et al., 2016). Furthermore, this has been shown to
instil a long-term enjoyment of physical activity in youth until adulthood. (Grove, 2007).
The FMS program found in table 2 of the appendix highlights prescribed movements in
the fundamental stage. Groove (2007) suggests that basic movement skills consist of
5
balance, agility and coordination, whereas sports skills involve jumping, running,
throwing, dribbling and catching (Grove, 2007). Lloyd and Oliver (2020) suggest that to
develop these basic skills at a high level of proficiency, children should focus on
mastering “trunk stability, balance, proprioceptive awareness and movements at
different speeds and levels.” This will allow easier integration into “complex capacities
(such as rhythmical, inter-limb coordination, agility movements, multidirectional strength
and power movements)” (Lloyd & Oliver, 2020). Thus, the FMS training plan found in
the appendix will follow Lloyd and Oliver’s recommendation.
Throughout prepubescent years, literature suggested that training should focus on
developing FMS, speed and suppleness (Balyi & Way, 2005; Grove, 2007). Literature
suggests that sport specific movement should be taught prior to puberty (Lloyd et al.,
2013). For instance, Elliott et al. (1980) noted that soccer players by the age of 11
experienced proficient muscle and sport specific movement pattern. Furthermore,
Chtara et al. (2017) conducted a study on male soccer players just prior to puberty,
concluding, plyometrics are the best way to improve power performance in the lower
limbs. Chtara, recommended the implementation of plyometrics, agility and repeated
sprinting exercises in place of certain soccer specific training to enhance youths’
explosive power, agility, speed and anaerobic ability. Subsequently, with an increase of
cutting manoeuvres in contrast to linear running, the medial knee can be placed under
great stress in a valgus position, predisposing the ACL to injury (Besier et al, 2001).
With an increased predisposition to injury, foundational movement mechanics focusing
on stabilizing the knee, ankle, hips and core are essential to LTAD training (Lloyd et al.,
2013). In the pre-PHV stage of maturation, athletes will be recommended to focus
training on FMS, SSS, speed and suppleness. However, strength, power, agility, and
plyometric training will be implemented.
In the Circa stage, circumpubertal children are going through the process of maturation.
This is known as puberty, which coincides with the adolescent growth spurt (Rogol,
Clark, & Roemmich, 2000). As children enter an LTAD plan they will develop motor skill
fundamentals, and as they age into adolescence there can be a greater emphasis
6
placed on sport specific movement/skills within their sport. This progressive ideology of
an LTAD can also incorporate strength and power development around the altered
hormonal years (Lloyd & Oliver, 2012). This approach requires adolescents to utilize the
FMS learned into greater application, expanding their ability to accelerate, decelerate
and finally reaccelerate in a safe, controlled environment (Lloyd et al., 2013). The Circa
stage should focus on developing reactive agility that is sport specific during the timeline
when the sensorimotor cortex is prone to rapid improvements (Rabinowickz et al., 1986;
Casey et al., 2005). The circa stage in this LTAD will target development of FMS, SSS,
agility, strength, and power. Furthermore, it is important to consider, as children
advance towards or experience puberty, they will undergo a large growth spurt that
increases limb length. This has been known to cause “adolescent awkwardness”
decreasing motor control proficiency (body control) (Philippaerts et al., 2006; QuatmanYates et al., 2012). Adolescent awkwardness has been known to affect some children,
decreasing specific movement patterns because the individual is not yet accustomed to
the change in limb length. Coaches should be aware of this, retraining specific
movement patterns when needed (Lloyd & Oliver, 2012).
The Circa program found in in the appendix (table 3), highlights a prescription of
strength-based exercises. Guidelines around strength training recommend intermediate
lifters to work within a 60-80% 1RM (repetition maximum) intensity for 2-3 sets x 8-12
repetitions (Avery et al., 2009). Coaches are recommended to start athletes at the
intensity that is most applicable to their lifting mechanics and abilities. However, in the
Circa stage youth should have developed the neural and biomechanical abilities of an
intermediate lifter. Therefore, in the Circa stage an intensity of 60-80% will be
implemented for strength gains, lifting for 2-3 sets x 8-12 repetitions. The exercises
chosen for the strength program are designed to target the full body, incorporating knee
and hip dominant exercises and horizontal/vertical push and pull movements.
In the post-PHV stage, an increase in aerobic strength and power is experienced. Thus,
aerobic training at a high training priority is suggested to be implemented at the start of
PHV, and maximal strength training should occur after PHV (Ross & Marfell-Jones,
7
1991; Beunen & Thomis, 2000; Balyi & Ross, 2009a; Balyi & Ross, 2009b). Strength
training (Julien et al., 2008), plyometrics (Meylan & Malatesta, 2009; Thomas, French, &
Hayes, 2009), and a combination of plyometrics and strength training (Faigenbaum et
al., 2007) has shown to produce an increase in change of direction (COD) performance.
COD ability has been linked to relative (Nimphius, McGuigan & Newton, 2010) and
reactive strength (Young, James & Montgomery, 2002). Therefore, the development of
force production is vital for COD improvements (Lloyd et al., 2013). Furthermore, power
development and strength training will be implemented in this stage to develop COD
ability. However, the main training focus of this stage is aerobic strength and power,
muscle strength and power, and sport specific skills.
The program found in table 4, in the appendix, highlights power specific training in the
post-PHV stage. Once youth reach the post-PHV stage it is assumed that they have
developed intermediate to advance lifting abilities. Therefore, aligning with guidelines
recommended by Avery et al. (2009), 30-60% 1rm intensity will be prescribed at 2-3
sets x 3-6 reps for intermediate lifters and, 30-60% 1rm intensity for ≥3 sets x 1-6 reps
for advance lifters. Avery’s lifting guidelines for power were used in the program found
in table 4. Exercises prescribed followed the rule of specificity, implementing exercises
that are most applicable to the movement demands of the sport. Therefore, multi-joint
exercises that require core control and lower body velocity were used.
The last stage of this LTAD is post PHV-adulthood. It has similar training goals to the
post-PHV stage. However, exercises will be prescribed at a greater intensity, increasing
the demand placed on SSS, strength, power, and stamina. By this stage,
lifting/movement mechanics should be well trained, allowing athletes to increase training
intensity.
8
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Appendix
Table 1.
The LTAD model for male soccer players. Bolded font indicates training priority over any un-bolded font. larger font size indicates
training priority over smaller font even if they are both bolded. PHV= peak height velocity; FMS = foundational movement skills; SSS =
sport-specific skills
*Below are program examples for a singular physical quality for pre-PHV, Circa, and post-PHV stage*
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Table 2.
Fundamentals (FMS training)
Cues
have children stand on BB and play catch
(make into game)
Jump off 2 feet and land on one
The objective is to get across the field as
quickly as possible, while not letting the wolf
see you move, so you can only move when the
wolf is looking away from you
don’t let spine compensate, keep it
straight/braced
Drive low back into the ground at all times
throughout movement
Sit in a deep squat and stomp the floor as loud
as you can (add in sound affects)
Warm Up:
Exercises
Jump Rope or Obstacle Course 10mins
Sets
Reps/Duration
Weight
Goal
Bosu Balance
3
30s per leg
Body Weight
Proprioception/Balance
Bilateral Jump
to Unilateral
landing
3
10 reps per
side
Body Weight
Landing Mechanics/
Balance
What time is it
Mr. Wolf
4
30 Metres
Body Weight
Bird Dog
3
20
Body Weight
Dead bug
3
15
Body Weight
Sumo-Wrestler
4
15
Body Weight
Cool Down:
Simon Says
(instructor leads
cool down)
Develop control of
movements at various
speeds, and incorporate
reaction time training
Trunk stability (posterior
chain)
Trunk stability (anterior
chain)
Hip mobility/Squat
mechanics/Balance
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Table 3.
Warm Up:
Cues
Brace Core/body prior to lift, Hip
extension & Trunk Extension
occurring simultaneously, Keep
spine straight
Create power through Hip thrust,
Plant feet hip width apart, catch
weight overhead in squat, squat
up
Hold Dumbbell or Kettlebell at
chest level, squat down, keeping
spine straight and upright
Control movement at all times,
starting with a slow tempo and
pause at the bottom of
movement
Drive chest towards bar, retract
scapula’s, squeeze and pause at
top and slowly lower body down
Arms Shoulder width apart, drive
chest up to bar, do not let
shoulders anteriorly rotate
Exercises
Circa (Strength)
Turkish Get ups (4 reps per side/Focusing on
movement mastery and control)
Sets
Reps
Weight/Intensity
Goal
Trap Bar Deadlifts
3
8
80% 1rm
Hip Dominant
movement
Single Arm Dumbbell
Snatches
3
10 per
side
75% 1rm
Posterior
Chain/Vertical Push
Goblet Squats
3
8
80% 1rm
Knee Dominant
movement
Dumbbell Chest Press
3
12
65% 1rm
Horizontal Push
Inverted Rows
3
10
Body Weight
Horizontal Pull
Pull ups
3
8
75% 1rm (use weight
belt if needed)
Vertical Pull
Cool Down:
Active Mobility
5-10mins
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Table 4.
Post PHV (Power)
Warm Up:
Cues
Exercises
Jump Rope 5mins
Sets
Reps
Weight
Keep a straight line from your hands to your hips
keeping spine straight, keep body movement in
the sagittal plane
Prowler Push
3
4
55% 1rm
Hip width stance, Drive through hips, after thrust
receive bar in a split stance (lunge stance)
Split Cleans
3
6
50% 1rm
Be aware of knee/ankle landing mechanics
keeping knees and ankle align
lateral single leg
bounds
3
5 per
side
Body Weight
land each jump as smoothly as possible, try to
get as much distance as you can per jump
Horizontal Broad
Jumps
3
5
Body Weight
Drive through hips and brace core throughout
movement
Med Ball scoop
Toss
3
6
30% 1rm
Place hands at shoulder width, control eccentric,
explode through concentric and absorb the
landing
Plyometric Pushups
3
6
Body Weight or
use weight vest to
increase intensity
Cool Down:
Active Mobility 5-10mins
Goals
Increasing
sprinting power in
the Horizontal
plane
Hip Thrust
power/velocity
development
Lateral
power/velocity
development
Horizontal
power/velocity
development
Core/rotational
power
Core control and
horizontal push
power/velocity
development
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