Introduction
Writing is ta difficult skill even in the first language or native language. This is due to the fact
that is invokes more than lexical and syntactic knowledge. Writers must also understand
principles of organization and coherence. As such writing in a foreign or second language is
surely more challenging owing to the constraints imposed by the second or foreign language.
When writing a composition, the second language writers faces problems with generating and
organizing ideas as well as communicating. These problems are caused by the inability of the
second language writer to distinguish between ideas on the topic and language of expressions.
Therefore, students need explicit guidance in this undertaking.
This chapter reviews related literature pertaining to the study. The discussion starts from basic
issues involving writings and move onto looking at the use of L1 in L2 instruction. This chapter
also discusses several findings related to the study in the recent past. The chapter is then summed
up and juxtaposed to the notion of generating ideas using the L1 for L2 writing among lower
proficiency learners.
2.1 what makes writing difficult?
Writing is an act of organizing and packaging information and knowledge for the readers. This
act is not only intellectual and verbal but also an adventurous physical experience that has
material aspects ( various media used e.g. paper, computer0, visual aspects ( the colour and the
fonts)
a) Narrative writing
Narrative Writing Narratives entertain and engage the reader in an imaginative experience.
Narrative texts are organised according to setting, event leading to a problem and solution. The
main features of narrative writing are: defined characters, descriptive language, past tense.
b) Recount writing
Recount Writing Recount tells the reader what happened and this may involve the author’s
personal interpretation of events. There are different types of recounts which including personal
(my trip to the farm), factual (retelling an accident) and imaginative recounts (a day in the life of
a puppy). Recount writing is organised by setting, events in chronological order and a concluding
statement. The main features of recount writing are specific participants, action verbs and past
tense.
c) Procedural writing
Procedural Writing Procedures are written to explain how something is done, in a series of
sequenced steps. They are organised by goal, material, method and evaluation. Features of
procedural writing include: detailed factual description, reader referred to in a general way (draw
a line), linking words to do with time, tense is timeless.
d) Report writing
Report Writing Reports are written to describe or classify the way things are or seem to be. They
organise and record information. Reports are organised by; classification, description and
summarising comment. The features of report writing are; generalised participants, impersonal
objective language, timeless present tense and subject specific vocabulary.
e) Persuasive writing
Persuasive Writing Persuasive texts are written to argue or persuade. They promote the writers
point of view. Persuasive texts are organised with: Proposition to be argued, arguments in logical
order, reiteration. The features of persuasive writing are: generalised participants, passives to help
text structure, linking words associated with reasoning, nominalisation (actions become things)
e.g. To pollute becomes pollution.
f) Descriptive writing
These forms of writing can be formal or informal in tone depending on the relationship between the writer
and the audience. Different text forms used to socialise include apologies, thank you notes, invitation,
greetings, notes and messages. The framework for this genre will vary depending on the form and topic
but will include the orientation, body and prompt.
Orientation: This will include a greeting, establish the purpose and may include the time and place.
Body: The body of the text consists of the ‘message’, stating the details of communication.
Prompt: This is often a call to action and involves instructions about what to do e.g. RSVP. It may include
how, by when and where that information is to be passed on. If the prompt is not a call to action, it is
most likely to be a formal farewell e.g. yours sincerely. Language features include: first and second person
pronouns (I, me, you), specific participants, questions or statements of inquiry, concise language, simple
past tense, call to action, action verbs, signal words to show time, formal or informal tone and may include
abbreviations or pictograms.
Sometimes, writing is performed simply to express emotion, display feelings or merely as a fun
exercise. Writing as art encompasses many topics and may or may not have a deep meaning or
purpose. The value, appreciation and translation of this work can vary greatly by who reads it.
Poetry is the classic example of this genre, although fiction, nonsense writing and text-message
emoticons can also fall into this category. This category can spill into the other genres but will
typically look much different in the process.
2.2 Approaches to the teaching of writing.
There are several approaches are available for the teaching of writing in English. Although, the
approaches differ but many agree that attention to the writing process is important as the final
product. Among the most common approaches as outlined by Donovan and McClelland ( 1980)
are as follows :
2.2.1 The process approach
The process approach focusses on what students need to experience rather than what they need to
know. Teachers and students collaborate to make meaning.With this approach, writing shifted
from mere sentence combination and controlled composition to focus on meaning, invention and
multiple drafs. In the ESL classroom, writing started to be characterized by the use of various
forms of collaboration focusing on content first and then form. The Process writing approach has
changed the focus of writing in the ESL classroom. It has shifted from merely reinforcing oral
patterns of the English Language to paying more attention onto meaning which is developed
through intervention and multiple drafts. A typical example of a process approach class would be
as stated as below.
i.
The class focuses on the process of writing and not solely on the finished product.
ii.
The class develop writing in stages which often overlap and can be recursive.
iii.
The class is t emphasise on the act of writing.
iv.
The writing class is often involved in workshops where students share or collaborate with
their work.
v.
Teacher intervenes regularly to correct mistakes as well as to give praises for things done
well.
vi.
The class does not emphasize much on grammar especially at the outset or initial sessions.
2.2.2 The experiential approach
The experiental approach is based on four principles :
i.
A good piece of writing is motivated by personal feelings and experience.
ii.
Writing from experience can be carried out in several modes of discourse including
expository and academic modes.
iii.
Writing from experience usually requires students to write for a readership that is often
someone other than teacher
iv.
As one shapes ideas for oneself and for an audience, the structure of writing is learned.
This approach integrated the Process Approach because it focusses on learning by doing ( rather
than studying rules), peer editing, and self-assessment
2.2.3 The rhetorical Approach
The rhetorical approach views writing as a process which is not mysterious but rather an art that
canbe taught. This approach by ( Lauer 1980) states that students need to begin writing by asking
questions, not answers as they organize and develop their thoughts. Lauer continues that teaching
writing as a rhetorical art involve showing students how description, narration, classification and
evaluation can be used to structure any piece of writing.
2.2 Approaches to the teaching of ESL writing.
In the ESL classroom, the instruction of writing underwent several major changes. However, issues
confronting writing instruction in the ESL classroom have been more diverse and
complicated.Raimes ( 1986) discussed on six different approaches on teaching writing in ESL.
i.
The controlled to Free Approach
Grammar, syntax and mechanics are stressed in this approach. Generally, writing is taught
sequentially. Teaching writing begins with sentence development exercise moving onto
paragraphing. Most of the writing is controlled by having students change words or clauses
or combine sentences.
ii.
The free writing approach
The emphasis of the free writing approach is on quantity rather than quality. Error
correction is also minimal. Content and audience are the focus in this approach. According
to Raimes ( 1986), fluecy is stressed upon students in this approach as over time,
grammatical accuracy will develp.
iii.
The pattern-paragraph approach
Analysis and imitation of model texts and organization is the apex of the pattern-paragraph
approach. The belief in this approach is that, by imitating model texts, rearranging jumbled
up sentences, identifying or writing topic sentences and inserting and deleting sentences,
awareness of the English features of writing could be culminated.
iv.
The Grammar-syntax-organisation approach
Writing tasks in his approach is focused on grammar and syntax. Additionally, the use of
logical or sequence connectors such as first, then and finally to organize text is required in
this approach.
v.
The communicative approach
Real life purposes is the paramount important in this approach. Purpose and audience are
the focal points. As such, real life tasks such as writing formal and informal letters, post
cards, memos and notes are typical in this approach.
Conclusion
The LR in this chapter has illustrated various issues in the teaching of writing. The
approaches reviewed highlight the change in the writing pedagogy. The present trend calls
for more process orientated approach which emphasizes on the writing process rather than
the product. However, this does not lead to the notion that the product is less important.
Each stages are important.
Product approach
For several years, the teaching of writing to ESL students has given the greatest importance to
producing errors free writing of different genre, e.g. letters, stories, et. At the end of each days
writing activity, students manage to produce some kind of writing product. But very often the
writing task involves little in terms of composition as other in the classroom. The task usually only
requires the students to write out sentences from linked substitution tables or fill in the gas in a
text in which all the decisions about choice of content, organization have been made by the teacher
or the text book writers. With these minimal contributions, however, the students would all have
produced a sample of the target genre. This approach to writing in which the process of writing is
neglected and the focus is on obtaining a sample of the target product is called the product approach
to writing.
The shortcomings of this approach are quite clear. The student never get an opportunity to learn
the various processes that successful writers use in the production of written document. Writing
skills are underplayed and writing is merely used to provide a context for practicing grammar. This
kind of writing is also demotivating it does not cater to students need for self-expression.
Process approach
In a process approach to writing, a teacher focuses on students’ attention on the process of writing
thinking of something to write about, selecting what to include, giving shape to these ideas by
organizing them into an outline or plan, writing a draft, revising and editing the draft and producing
a final version.
Guided writing
Guided writing activities act as a bridge between controlled and free writing. There is more learner
input in guided writing than controlled writing. The context and form of the sentences do not have
to be imposed by the teacher, but can be generated by the class together as pre-writing activity.
The product of the discussion should be recorded on the board. This could be in the form of short
notes, a list of questions, arguments for/against an issue. Pupils use the ideas to complete their
task. The products of guided writing from a class will be similar but not exactly alike.
Writing genre
"Written genres" (more commonly known as "literary genres") are those works of
prose, poetry, drama, hybrid forms, or other literature that are distinguished by
shared literary conventions, similarities in topic, theme, style, tropes, or common
settings, character types, or formulaic patterns of character interactions and events,
and an overall predictable form. Genres are not wholly fixed categories of writing,
but their content evolves according to social and cultural contexts and contemporary
questions of morals and norms. The most enduring genres are those literary forms
that were defined and performed by the Ancient Greeks, definitions sharpened by
the proscriptions of our earliest literary critics and rhetorical scholars such as Plato,
Aristotle, Socrates, Aeschylus, Aspasia, Euripides and others. The prevailing genres
of literary composition in Ancient Greece were all written and constructed to explore
cultural, moral, or ethical questions; they were ultimately defined as the genres
of epic, tragedy, and comedy. Aristotle's proscriptive analysis of tragedy, for
example, as expressed in his Rhetoric and Poetics, saw it as having six parts (music,
diction, plot, character, thought, and spectacle) working together in particular ways.
Thus Aristotle establishes one of the earliest delineations of the elements that define
genre.
Literary genres are often defined by the cultural expectations and needs of a
particular historical and, cultural moment or place.
The major literary genres defined by topic are: