Urban Issues & Challenges What is urbanisation? Urbanisation is an increase in the proportion of people living in towns and cities. Urbanisation in different countries High Income Countries: Most of the population in these countries already live in urban areas. Many people are moving out of cities. Newly Emerging Economies: Some NEEs are currently experiencing rapid urbanisation, however, some have already seen a mass movement towards cities. Low Income Countries: Only a small percentage of the people in these counties inhabit urban areas. The highlights global rates of urbanisation are found in LICs. What are megacities? Cities with more than 10 million people. Main causes of urbanisation: Rural-urban migration Natural increase Rural-urban migration push factors: People can’t afford to repair damage caused by natural disasters. Mechanisation of farming equipment – fewer jobs are available. Desertification – the land becomes less productive. Conflict Rural-urban migration – pull factors: Urban areas provide more jobs, and jobs which are often better paid. Health care and education are move easily accessible in urban areas. The thought of joining other family members that have already moved. There is a perception that urban areas provide a better quality of life. What is natural increase? Natural increase happens when the birth rate is greater than the death rate. Urban Greening The process of increasing and preventing open space such as public parks and gardens in urban areas. Brownfield site A derelict area cleared and used for new buildings. The Changing Economic World Reducing the Global Development Gap Aid Aid can come in the form of money or resources (e.g. food, water), and is given from one country to another. Using intermediate technology Intermediate technology refers to tools, machines and systems that improve quality of life, whilst being easy to use, affordable to get, and cheap to maintain. In the case of solar-powered LED light bulbs, this means that people can work and children can study when it’s dark. This leads to increasing skills, incomes, and industrial output of the communities. Fair trade Fair trade means that farmers in lower-income countries (LICs) get a fair price for their goods. This means that framers have enough money to support their families. Tourism Tourism can increase gross national income because more money will be brought into the country. Industrial Development Industrial Development helps improve: Gross national income Productivity Levels of skill Infrastructure Debt relief Debt relief is when either part or all of a country’s debt is cancelled, or interest rates are reduced. This means that poor countries have more money to spend on development instead of always worrying about paying off debt. Microfinance loans Microfinance loans are small loans that are given to citizens of low-income countries. This is important because these people may not be able to get bank loans. Microfinance loans help the recipients set up businesses and achieve financial independence. Microfinance loans do work for some people, but it’s unclear if they can reduce poverty on a bigger scale. Economic & Physical Causes of Uneven Development Trade links Trade is the buying and selling of goods and services. Poor trade links can cause uneven development. Economies are heavily affected by world trade patterns. Poor trade links will limit a country's revenue, and therefore the amount of money available to invest in development. Loans and debt Poor countries often have to get loans from wealthier countries. Borrowed money has to be repaid, often with interest. A country in debt can't spend its revenue on developing because it has to repay debts first. Primary production An economy dominated by primary production may have difficulty developing. Primary products are raw materials (e.g. wood, metal, stone, raw food goods). Countries that mainly export raw materials are usually less developed because these products are not very profitable. Climate A poor climate (too hot, too cold or too dry) means low food production. This can lead to malnutrition and a poor quality of life. Having fewer crops available to sell reduces the money available to spend on services and goods. Because less is sold and bought, the government receives lower taxes. This means that there is less money to be spent on development. Poor farming land Poor farming land (steep relief or infertile soil) means food production will be low. This can lead to malnutrition and a poor quality of life. Raw materials Raw materials are sold in exchange for money. If a country doesn't have many raw materials, then it will have to find alternative products to sell. Sometimes, countries may have lots of natural resources but can't exploit them because of a lack of the necessary infrastructure (for example road and rail lines). Natural hazards Frequent natural hazards impact development. Every time a natural disaster happens, countries have to spend large sums of money on repairing the damage. Natural disasters harm the quality of life of those affected and reduce the money available to the government to spend on developing. The Challenge of Resource Management What are the increasing demands from food consumers in the UK? Seasonal food all year round. More high-value foods. More organic produce. What are high-value foods? High-value foods are often more expensive and exotic, such as exotic fruits and spices. What is organic produce? Organic foods are produced according to strict regulations, including banning the use of artificial fertilisers. What is the carbon footprint of food? The carbon footprint of food is the quantity of greenhouse gases produced by growing, packaging and transporting food. What is agribusiness? Agribusiness is large-scale, industrial farming where processes from the production of seeds and fertilisers to the processing and packaging of food are controlled by large firms. What are the impacts of agribusiness in the UK? Increasing farm size. Increased use of chemicals. Decreased number of workers. Removal of hedgerows. Increased soil erosion. Where are areas of water surplus and deficit in the UK? Deficit: The south-east The midlands Surplus: The north The west What are problems with water transfers in the UK? Dams and aqueducts are expensive to build. River wildlife can be affected. There can be political issues. What are the main sources of renewable energy in the UK? Wind Bioenergy What are the economic issues with producing energy? The increasing cost of extracting fossil fuels. The expense of producing nuclear and renewable energy. The cost of researching alternative energy sources. Renewables energy can be unreliable, so energy sometimes must be imported. What are the environmental issues associated with energy production? Burning fossil fuels releases greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide. Fracking may cause mini earthquakes and pollute groundwater. Accidents such as oil spills can be catastrophic if toxic chemicals are leaked into the environment. Renewable energy generators can damage natural ecosystems. Many people consider wind farms and power stations to be eyesores. Food What is the new green revolution? The new green revolution aims to sustainably improve yields by using a mix of: Genetic modification of crops. Traditional and organic methods of farming. What is irrigation? Irrigation involves artificially watering land to help crops grow. What is aeroponics? In aeroponics, plants are hung, and their roots are sprayed with a fine mist of water. The roots absorb nutrients in the water before it drips off and is refused. It is a way to grow plants without soil. What are hydroponics? In hydroponics, plants are placed in a nutrient solution and are supported by materials like gravel or clay balls. It is a way to grow plants without soil. What is biotechnology? Biotechnology involves genetically engineering crops to increase their productivity What is appropriate technology? Appropriate technology means technology that is suited to the environment in which it will be used, as well as the people who will us it. It is also known as intermediate technology. Water What is water surplus? Water surplus is when supply is greater than demand. What is a water deficit? Water deficit is when water demand is greater than supply. What is water security? Water security is when there is enough clean water of a population to use and drink. What is water insecurity? Water insecurity is when there is not enough clean water for a population to use and drink. Which areas experience water surplus? Water surplus is experienced by areas that have low population densities and/or receive high levels of precipitation. Which areas experience water deficit? Water deficit in inflicted upon areas that are densely populated and/or receive high levels of precipitation. Increasing Water Supplies Water is a limited resource on the planet, and in some areas, there is not enough water to support all human activities. There are various ways humans have developed of increasing water supplies. Dams Building a dam traps lots of water. This body of water is called a reservoir. Reservoirs can be filled in times of surplus and then water can be released in times of deficit. Dams and reservoirs improve the reliability and consistency of water supply. But, farming land and settlements can be flooded and some of the necessary infrastructures can be expensive. Water transfers Water transfers move water from areas of surplus to areas of deficit. This helps to solve the common supply and demand problem experienced with water. Water transfers can improve water security for the receiving basin but can also lead to environmental, economic and social problems. Desalination Desalination makes seawater a useable source of water by removing the salt. There are two processes of desalination: Heating the seawater until it evaporates, and then condensing it to obtain fresh water. Passing seawater through a membrane that removes the salt. The disadvantages of desalination are that it's expensive and fossil fuels are used. Energy Burning fossil fuel alternatives can help improve energy security, reduce carbon footprints and diversify the energy mix. Biofuels Biofuels are fuels that come from living material, such as animal waste products and plants. Biofuels are less polluting than fossil fuels. If made from waste products, then total waste production is reduced. However, biomass sources must be sustainably managed. Deforestation is being carried out to make space for biofuels crops. As well as this, growing the crops is water-intensive and reduces food crop growth. Wind energy Wind energy uses turbines to generate electricity. Wind energy is a relatively inexpensive energy source. As well as this, once the turbines have been built, no greenhouse gases are emitted. There are some negatives to wind energy. Firstly, because wind is variable, the electricity supplied is not consistent. As well as this, transportation of electricity from offshore wind farms is costly. Wind energy can also cause environmental problems, such as killing birds. Solar energy Solar energy is generated using solar panels, which can be put on the roofs of buildings or in open spaces like fields and deserts. Once solar panels have been fitted, there are no emissions and low maintenance requirements. As well as this, the necessary technology is commonly available. Solar energy can be an unreliable source of energy in regions that don’t receive high levels of sunlight. As well as this, solar panel construction involves use of toxic metals, and the panels can cause environmental issues. Hydroelectric Power (HEP) To generate HEP, dams are created which store water. The water can then turn turbines which generates electricity. HEP plants don’t produce emissions when they generate electricity. As well as this, energy supply is reliable because the flow of water can be controlled. But, building dams is very expensive and can destroy environments. This is because dam construction is very land- and water- intensive. Methane can be released from the reservoirs behind the dams. Wave Waves can drive turbines to generate electricity. These particular turbines are expensive and only produce worthwhile amounts of energy in rough conditions. Tidal Turbines can harness tidal power to generate electricity. Power is not generated permanently, but the output is reliable because tidal cycles are predictable. Geothermal Geothermal power involves pumping water deep into the Earth's crust, where it is heated until it turns into steam. This steam then drives turbines to generate electricity. Geothermal power is cheap to set up but only works really well in areas that are tectonically active.
