Analog-to-Digital Conversion
Terminology
analog: continuously valued signal, such as temperature or
speed, with infinite possible values in between
digital: discretely valued signal, such as integers, encoded in
binary
analog-to-digital converter: ADC, A/D, A2D; converts an analog
signal to a digital signal
digital-to-analog converter: DAC, D/A, D2A
An embedded system’s surroundings typically involve many
analog signals.
7.0V
6.5V
6.0V
5.5V
5.0V
4.5V
4.0V
3.5V
3.0V
2.5V
2.0V
1.5V
1.0V
0.5V
0V
1111
1110
1101
1100
1011
1010
1001
1000
0111
0110
0101
0100
0011
0010
0001
0000
proportionality
4
4
3
3
analog output (V)
Vmax = 7.5V
analog input (V)
Analog-to-digital converters
2
1
t1
0100
t2
t3
2
1
time
t4
0110 0110 0101
Digital output
analog to digital
Embedded Systems Design: A Unified
Hardware/Software Introduction, (c) 2000 Vahid/Givargis
t1
t2
0100
t3
1000 0110
Digital input
digital to analog
t4
time
0101
Proportional Signals
Simple Equation
Vmax
Assume minimum voltage of 0 V.
Vmax = maximum voltage of the
analog signal
a = analog value
n = number of bits for digital
encoding
1..1 = 2n-1
…
2n = number of digital codes
M = number of steps, either 2n or 2n – 1
d = digital encoding
a / Vmax = d / M
0V
0..0 = 0
Resolution
Let n = 2
Vmax
3=11
M = 2n – 1
r
3 steps on the digital scale
d0 = 0 = 0b00
dVmax = 3 = 0b11
3=11
2=10
M = 2n
2=10
4 steps on the digital scale
d0 = 0 = 0b00
dVmax - r = 3 = 0b11 (no dVmax )
r, resolution: smallest analog change
resulting from changing one bit
1=01
1=01
0V
0=00
0=00
DAC vs. ADC
DAC:
n digital inputs for digital encoding d
analog input for Vmax
analog output a
x0
x1
…
Vmax
DAC
Xn-1
ADC:
Given a Vmax analog input and an analog input a, how does the
converter know what binary value to assign to d in order to
satisfy the ratio?
–
–
–
may use DAC to generate analog values for comparison with a
ADC “guesses” an encoding d, then checks its guess by inputting d
into the DAC and comparing the generated analog output a’ with
original analog input a
How does the ADC guess the correct encoding?
a
ADC: Digital Encoding
Guessing the encoding is similar to finding an item in a list.
1.
Sequential search – counting up: start with an encoding of
0, then 1, then 2, etc. until find a match.
• 2n comparisons: Slow!
2.
Binary search – successive approximation: start with an
encoding for half of maximum; then compare analog result
with original analog input; if result is greater (less) than the
original, set the new encoding to halfway between this one
and the minimum (maximum); continue dividing encoding
range in half until the compared voltages are equal
• n comparisons: Faster, but more complex converter

Takes time to guess the encoding: start conversion input,
conversion complete output
ADC using successive
approximation
• Given an analog input signal whose voltage
should range from 0 to 15 volts, and an 8-bit
digital encoding, calculate the correct encoding for
5 volts. Then trace the successive-approximation
approach to find the correct encoding.
• Assume M = 2n – 1
a / Vmax = d / M
5 / 15 = d / (256 - 1)
d = 85 or binary 01010101
ADC using successive
approximation
Step 1-4: determine bits 0-3
½(Vmax – Vmin) = 7.5 volts
Vmax = 7.5 volts.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
½(7.5 + 0) = 3.75 volts
Vmin = 3.75 volts.
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
½(7.5 + 3.75) = 5.63 volts
Vmax = 5.63 volts
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
½(5.63 + 3.75) = 4.69 volts
Vmin = 4.69 volts.
Embedded Systems Design: A Unified
Hardware/Software Introduction, (c) 2000 Vahid/Givargis
ADC using successive
approximation
Step 5-8: Determine bits 4-7
½(5.63 + 4.69) = 5.16 volts
Vmax = 5.16 volts.
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
½(5.16 + 4.69) = 4.93 volts
Vmin = 4.93 volts.
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
½(5.16 + 4.93) = 5.05 volts
Vmax = 5.05 volts.
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
½(5.05 + 4.93) =
4.99 volts
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
Embedded Systems Design: A Unified
Hardware/Software Introduction, (c) 2000 Vahid/Givargis
Constructing ADC
Analog
input
Vmax
Vmin
Comparator
State
machine
Timing
control
SAR
BUF
DAC
SAR
SAR: Successive
approximation register
Digital
output
Bit Weight
Notice the concept of bit weight
in the last example:
bit 7 = 7.5 V = 15/2
bit 6 = 3.75 V = 15/4
Digital Bit
Bit Weight (V)
7
10/2 = 5
6
10/4 = 2.5
Each bit is weighted with an
analog value, such that a 1 in that
bit position adds its analog value
to the total analog value
represented by the digital
encoding.
5
10/8 = 1.25
4
10/16 = 0.625
3
10/32 = 0.313
2
10/64 = 0.157
Example: -5 V to +5 V analog
range, n=8
1
10/128 = 0.078
0
10/256 = 0.039
Bit Weight
Example (continued): -5 V to
+5 V analog range, n=8
Digital numbers for a few analog
values
–
–
Values shown increment by 6
bits (weight for bit position 5
is 1.25 V)
Maximum digital number
only approximates the
maximum analog value in the
range
•
Try (-5) + sum of all bit
weights
Analog (V)
Digital (hex)
-5
00
-3.75
20
-2.5
40
-1.25
60
0
80
1.25
A0
2.5
C0
3.75
E0
5-0.039 = 4.961
FF
Terms & Equations
Offset: minimum analog value
Span (or Range): difference between maximum and minimum analog values
Max - Min
n: number of bits in digital code (sometimes referred to as n-bit resolution)
Bit Weight: analog value corresponding to a bit in the digital number
Step Size (or Resolution): smallest analog change resulting from changing one
bit in the digital number, or the analog difference between two consecutive
digital numbers; also the bit weight of the
Span / 2n
(Assume M = 2n)
Let AV be Analog Value; DN be Digital Number:
AV = DN * Step Size + Offset = (DN / 2n )* Span + Offset
DN = (AV - Offset) / Step Size = (AV - Offset) * 2n / Span
MPC555 QADC64
QADC64 - Queued
Analog to Digital
Converter Module-64
• 16 analog channels via
internal multiplexing
• 10-bit ADC resolution
• Converts voltage to an
integer value (0-1023)
• Polling or interrupt driven
• Programmable channels
AN0-ANx
MPC555 QADC64
MPC555 QADC64
CCW Table
CCW0
CCW1
AN0
AN1
AN2
AN3
…
CCW63
A CCW tells the ADC
which channel to
scan and how long to
sample the signal.
ADC
QACR1: start a scan by setting SSE bit
QASR0: CF flag is set after conv is done
Result Table
Result0
A Result is stored for
Result1
each scan of a channel
when the conversion is
…
complete.
Result63
Scan Sequence and Conversion
• After the ADC is initialized, a sequence of scans is set up as a “queue”
in the CCW Table.
• Each channel to be scanned is added to the queue at successive
positions 0, 1, 2, etc. For example: CCW0, CCW1, CCW2, CCW3.
– An end-of-queue marker should be added at the next position.
• The ADC starts the scan and conversion when it is triggered by the
enable bit.
• The ADC reads the CCWs, one after another until end-of-queue is
reached, and for each CCW, it converts the signal on the specified
channel.
– A conversion on a channel stores a result in the respective position of the
Result Table, e.g., the result for CCW0 is stored at Result0, etc.
• When the scan and conversion is complete for all CCWs, then the ADC
sets the completion flag to 1. Now all digital results are available to be
read from the Result Table.
QADC Interface
• Programmability using a queue
– Scan a few channels quickly
– Scan a channel multiple times
– Scan large number of channels
• QACR1 – QADC64 Control Register 1
o 16 bit register at 0x30480C
o SSE1 – bit 2 – Single Scan enable (bit 0 is MSb)
o MQ1 – bits 3-7
o Set to binary 00001 to identify Queue 1
• QASR0 – QADC64 Status Register 0
o 16 bit register at 0x304810
o ADC sets a flag when the conversion is done
o CF1 – bit 0 – Conversion Complete flag (bit 0 is MSb)
QADC Interface
• CCW Table
o table of Conversion Command Words, where each command word specifies how
to perform a scan/conversion operation for an input channel
o CCW: 16 bit command word, starting at address 0x304A00
o A queue is a scan sequence of one or more input channels.
o A queue is started by a trigger event, which is a way to cause the QADC64 to
begin executing the command words.
o Each CCW requests the conversion of an analog channel to a digital result. The
CCW specifies the analog channel number, the input sample time, and whether
the queue is to pause after the current CCW.
CCW Table
Entry
00
16 bits
Begin Queue 1
0x304A00
0
5 6 7
Reserved
MSB
n
End Queue 1
P
BYP
8
9 10
IST
15
CHAN
LSB
QADC Interface
• Total conversion time: initial sample time, final sample time, and resolution
time
o Initial sample time – time during which the selected input channel is driven by
the buffer amplifier onto the sample capacitor (disabled by means of the BYP bit
in the CCW)
o Final sampling period – time to set up DAC array
o Resolution period – time to convert voltage in the DAC array to a digital value
QADC Interface
• Result Word Table
o table of Result Words, where each result word is the digital result of a
conversion
o Results from a sequence of conversions are placed in the Result Word
Table.
o RW: 16 bit result word, starting at address 0x304A80
• Programming the QADC:
– Reset the ADC queue
– Add (to the queue) each analog input channel to be scanned; e.g., four
channels, 0 through 3 (AN0-AN3)
– Add an end-of-queue marker to terminate the scan sequence
– Start a conversion on the ADC, which begins reading each analog
input and converting it to a digital value
QADC64 Memory-mapping Layout
0x30 4800
0x30 4802
0x30 4804
0x30 4806
0x30 4808
0x30 480A
0x30 480C
0x30 480E
0x30 4810
0x30 4812
Bit 0
Bit 15
Module Config. Reg.
Test Reg.
Interrupt Reg.
Port A Data Port B Data
Port A Direction Reg.
Control Reg. 0
Control Reg. 1
Control Reg. 2
Status Reg. 0
Status Reg. 1
0x30 4A00
64-entry 16-bit Conversion
Command Word Table
(Configurable: one queue
or two queues)
0x30 4A7E
0x30 4A80
64-entry 16-bit
Result Word Table
64-entry, 16-bit
0x30 4AFE
The above is the memory-mapping for the 1st QADC64.
The 2nd QADC64 using different starting addresses.
Programming QADC64
CCW Format:
6
P
7
BYP
8 9 10 11 12 12 14 15
IST
CHAN
Example: Write a CCW into CCW table to scan channel
nChannel with no amplifier bypassing and 4-cycle initial sample
time (16 cycles in total).
nQueueVal =
nQueueVal =
nQueueVal =
*(pCCWTable
nChannel;
nQueueVal & 0xFF3F;
nQueueVal | 0x0040;
+ nQueue) = nQueueVal;
The Control Registers
The Status Registers
CF1
Queue1 completion flag
PF1
Queue1 pause flag
TOR1
Trigger over-run
QS
Queue status
CWP
Command word pointer
Programming the ADC
• Initialize the QADC: reset queue to be
empty; set up interrupt driven mode,
interrupt levels, clock rate.
• Write into the command word queue (a
sequence of A to D conversion commands).
• In software triggered mode, initiate the
conversion by writing into QACR[SSE] bit.
• Monitor the conversion finished flag (CF).
• Read the results, and reset CF and PF flags.
Programming QADC64
Example: Reset QADC64 by writing END-OF-QUEUE (63 in decimal) as
the first word of CCW table.
void QADCR64_Reset()
{
g_nNumChannels = 0;
QADCR64_SetQueue(0, QADCR64_END_QUEUE,
QADCR64_QCKL_MAX);
}
QADCR64_SetQueue: Given CCW entry index, CCW channel/end-ofqueue command, and final sample setting, write the corresponding CCW.
Programming QADC64
Example: Start scanning in polling mode (interrupt disabled)
– Set up control register 1
void QADCR64_Start_Convert_Poll ()
{
unsigned short * pQACR1;
pQACR1 = (unsigned short *) 0x30480C;
// Bit 0 CIE1 Conversion Interrupt Enable 0
// Bit 1 PIE1 Pause Interrupt Enable 0
// Bit 2 SSE1 Single Scan Enable 1
// MQ=00001; software triggered single scan mode
*pQACR1 = 0x2100;
}
Programming QADC64
Example: Determine if all conversions has finished
–
Checking status register 0
unsigned short QADCR64_Is_Done()
{
unsigned short * pQASR0;
unsigned short nResult;
pQASR0 = (unsigned short *) 0x304810;
nResult = (*pQASR0 & 0x8000);
return nResult;
}
QADC Interrupt Sources
QADC64 Interrupt Programming
Set up interrupt register (0x304804 for 1st QADC)
0
45
IRL1
9 10
IRL2
15
Reserved
• IRL1, IRL2: interrupt levels for queue 1 and
queue 2, respectively.
• 5-bit interrupt level: QADC64 is IMB3 device
with interrupt level 0-31 (stored in UIPEND).
• Interrupt is generated at the completion of a CCW
if it is the end of queue or has the pause bit set.