Follow us
(02) 8007 6824
Login
Search...
Courses (9-12)
Resources
Contact Us
HSC Chemistry Syllabus dot-point Summary – Industrial Chemistry
Home / HSC Resources / HSC Chemistry Syllabus dot-point Summary – Industrial Chemistry
Return to HSC Resources
Contents [hide]
1 Industrial Chemistry – Contextual outline
1.1 1. Industrial chemistry processes have enable scientists to develop replacements for natural products.
1.1.1 1. Discuss the issues associated with shrinking world resources with regard to one identified natural product that is not a fossil fuel,
identifying the replacement materials used and/or current research in place to find a replacement for the named material.
1.1.2 2. Identify data, gather and process information to identify and discuss the issues associated with the increased need for a natural
resource that is not a fossil fuel and evaluate the progress currently being made to solve the problems identified.
1.2 2. Many industrial processes involve the manipulation of equilibrium reactions.
1.2.1 3. Explain the effect of changing the following factors on identified equilibrium reactions: pressure, volume, concentration, temperature.
1.2.2 4. Interpret the equilibrium constant expression from the chemical equation of equilibrium reactions.
1.2.3 5. Identify that temperature is the only factor that changes the value of the equilibrium constant (K) for a given equation.
1.2.4 6. Identify data, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to gather information and qualitatively analyse an equilibrium reaction.
1.2.5 7. Choose equipment and perform a first-hand investigation to gather information and qualitatively analyse an equilibrium reaction.
1.2.6 8. Process and present information from secondary sources to calculate K from equilibrium conditions.
1.3 3. Sulfuric acid is one of the most important industrial chemicals.
1.3.1 9. Outline three uses of sulfuric acid in industry.
1.3.2 10. Describe the process used to extract sulfur from mineral deposits, identifying the properties of sulfur which allow its extraction and
analysing potential environmental issues that may be associated with its extraction.
1.3.3 11. Outline the steps and conditions necessary for the industrial production of H2SO4 from its raw materials.
1.3.4 12. Describe the reaction conditions necessary for the production of SO2 and SO3.
1.3.5 13. Apply the relationship between rates of reaction and equilibrium conditions to the production of SO2 and SO3.
1.3.6 14. Describe, using example, the reactions of sulfuric acid acting as: an oxidising agent and a dehydrating agent.
1.3.7 15. Describe and explain the exothermic nature of sulfuric acid ionisation.
1.3.8 16. Identify and describe safety precautions that must be taken when using and diluting concentrated sulfuric acid.
1.3.9 17. Gather, process and present information from secondary sources to describe the steps and chemistry involved in the industrial
production of H2SO4 and use available evidence to analyse the process to predict ways in which the output of sulfuric acid can be maximised.
1.3.10 18. Perform first-hand investigations to observe the reactions of sulfuric acid acting as: an oxidising agent and a dehydrating agent.
1.3.11 19. Use available evidence to relate the properties of sulfuric acid to safety precautions necessary for its transport and storage.
1.4 4. The industrial production of sodium hydroxide requires the use of electrolysis.
1.4.1 20. Explain the difference between galvanic cells and electrolytic cells in terms of energy requirements.
1.4.2 21. Outline the steps in the industrial production of sodium hydroxide from sodium chloride solution and describe the reaction in terms of
net ionic and full formulae equations.
1.4.3 22. Distinguish between the three electrolysis methods used to extract sodium hydroxide: mercury process, diaphragm process,
membrane process, by describing each process and analysing the technical and environmental difficulties involved in each process.
1.4.4 23. Identify, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to identify the products of the electrolysis of an aqueous solution of sodium
chloride.
1.4.5 24. Analyse information from secondary sources to predict and explain the different products of the electrolysis of aqueous and molten
sodium chloride.
1.5 5. Saponification is an important organic industrial process.
1.5.1 25.Describe saponification as the conversion in basic solution of fats and oils to glycerol and salts of fatty acids.
1.5.2 26. Describe the conditions under which saponification can be performed in the school laboratory and compare these with industrial
preparation of soap.
1.5.3 27. Account for the cleaning action of soap by describing its structure.
1.5.4 28. Explain that soap, water and oil together form an emulsion with the soap acting as an emulsifier.
1.5.5 29. Distinguish between soaps and synthetic detergents in terms of: the structure of the molecule, chemical composition and effect in hard
water.
1.5.6 30. Distinguish between anionic, cationic and non-ionic synthetic detergents in terms of: chemical composition and uses.
1.5.7 31. Perform a first-hand investigation to carry out saponification and test the product.
1.5.8 32. Gather, process and present information from secondary sources to identify a range of fats and oils used for soap-making.
1.5.9 33. Perform a first-hand investigation to gather information and describe the properties of a named emulsion and relate these properties to
its use.
Courses (9-12)
Resources
Contact Us
Follow us
(02) 8007 6824
Login
Search...
1.5.10 34. Perform a first-hand investigation to demonstrate the effect of soap as an emulsifier.
1.5.11 35. Solve problems and use available evidence to discuss, using examples, the environmental impacts of the use of soaps and
detergents.
1.6 6.The Solvay process has been in use since the 1860s.
1.6.1 36.Identify the raw materials used in the Solvay process and name the products.
1.6.2 1. Describe the uses of sodium carbonate.
1.6.3 3. Discuss environmental issues associated with the Solvay process and explain how these issues are addressed.
1.6.4 4.Process information to solve problems and quantitatively analyse the relative quantities of reactants and projects in each step of the
process.
1.6.5 5. Use available evidence and determine the criteria used to locate a chemical industry using the Solvay process as an example.
Industrial Chemistry – Contextual outline
Industry uses chemical reactions to produce chemicals for use by society. This module develops the ideas that some chemicals have been produced to replace
naturally occurring chemicals that are longer available or are not economically viable. The concepts of qualitative and quantitative equilibrium are further developed.
Industrial chemical processes cover the full range of reactions but concentration on some case studies is sufficient to illustrate the range of reactions and the role of
chemists and chemical engineers involved in these processes. This allows some insight into the qualitative and quantitative aspects of the chemicals industry and
allows a consideration of the analytical processes and monitoring that are necessary for efficient production.
This module increases students’ understanding of the history, application and uses of chemistry, and current issues, research and developments in chemistry.
1. Industrial chemistry processes have enable scientists to develop
replacements for natural products.
1. Discuss the issues associated with shrinking world resources with regard to one
identified natural product that is not a fossil fuel, identifying the replacement materials used
and/or current research in place to find a replacement for the named material.
Rubber is an important resource. It is used for many applications, including tyres, belting, hoses, tubing, insulators, valves and footwear. This is because rubber is
elastic, tough, impermeable, adhesive, easily mouldable and an electrical insulator.
Natural rubber is made from the sap of rubber trees. It takes 6-7 years before a rubber tree can be suited for harvest of such sap. Natural rubber must be processed
thoroughly so that its properties of flexibility and solidity are maintained in all conditions.
This involves:
softening by mastication (passing rubber between rollers or rotating blades)
grinding and dissolving in a suitable substance for compounding with other ingredients e.g. fillers and pigments, antioxidants, plasticisers
sheeting and extrusion into various shapes
vulcanisation (discovered in 1839 by US inventor Charles Goodyear) – heating of rubber with sulfur (and usually other accelerators and improvers) so that
cross-links between polymers are formed to improve the properties of rubber
cross-links cause rubber to spring back into shape when stretched
Until the 1940s, rubber trees were the primary source of rubber, especially trees in tropical areas such as Malaya and Burma. However, the conflict of World War II
interrupted natural rubber supplies, and also caused an increase in demand (for military vehicle tyres). German and US scientists developed synthetic polymers to
replace rubber.
After WWII, the demand for rubber could not be met by natural rubber tree plantations, and thus synthetic rubbers dominated the market instead. Approximately 80%
of the world’s rubber production today is from synthetic polymers, the most common one being SBR (styrene-butadiene rubber).
Natural rubber is a polymer of isoprene. The polymer is polyisoprene.
The first synthetic rubber was neoprene, or poly(chloroprene). Today’s most common synthetic rubber is SBR, made from two monomers: butadiene (B) and styrene
(S) in the pattern: …BBBSBBBSBBBSBBBS… It is used for its low cost and good properties.
2. Identify data, gather and process information to identify and discuss the issues
associated with the increased need for a natural resource that is not a fossil fuel and
evaluate the progress currently being made to solve the problems identified.
The increasing population of the world is leading to greater demand on all natural resources, and as they are being depleted, synthetic alternatives much be found.
One such resource is rubber. The massive demand for rubber in WWII could not be met by rubber trees in tropical areas and therefore synthetic substitutes were
required, such as poly(chloroprene), and more recently, styrene-butadiene-rubber (SBR). Today, synthetic rubber has become cheaper to produce than natural
rubber.
Even after WWII, traditional sources of natural rubber could not meet the demand and synthetic rubber began to dominate the market. SBR was particularly useful.
Both styrene and butadiene are by-products of petroleum refining, and SBR is less likely to deteriorate than natural
rubber. The
efficiency
of cost and quality
of
Courses
(9-12)
Resources
Contact
Us
Follow us
(02) 8007 6824
Login
Search...
synthetic rubber meant that it quickly overtook natural rubber. SBR used mainly for tyres.
In general, synthetic rubber has the following advantages over natural rubber:
Better aging and weathering
Greater resistance to oil, solvents, oxygen, ozone and certain chemicals
Resilience over a wider temperature range
However, synthetic rubber has a greater build-up of heat from flexing and not as much resistance to tearing when hot, compared to natural rubber.
Synthetic rubbers also include specialty elastomers which have been developed for specific purposes. NBR rubbers have good oil resistance and are used in flexible
couplings, hoses and washing machine parts. Neoprene is useful at elevated temperatures and is used for heavy-duty applications such as wetsuits.
2. Many industrial processes involve the manipulation of equilibrium
reactions.
3. Explain the effect of changing the following factors on identified equilibrium reactions:
pressure, volume, concentration, temperature.
Factor
Change
Effect
Pressure
Increase
Favours side of equation with less moles of gas
Decrease
Favours side of equation with more moles of gas
Increase
Favours side of equation with more moles of gas
Decrease
Favours side of equation with less moles of gas
Increase
Reaction using up the added species is favoured
Decrease
Reaction creating the removed species is favoured
Increase
Favours endothermic process
Decrease
Favours exothermic process
Volume
Concentration
Temperature
4. Interpret the equilibrium constant expression from the chemical equation of equilibrium
reactions.
aA + bB ⇌ cC + dD
5. Identify that temperature is the only factor that changes the value of the equilibrium
constant (K) for a given equation.
Temperature is the only factor that changes the value of the equilibrium constant K.
6. Identify data, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to gather information and
qualitatively analyse an equilibrium reaction.
Two pipettes (10mL and 5mL) were used to transfer water between two identical measuring cylinders.
First equilibrium was achieved with 40.8 mL in cylinder A and 56.0 mL in cylinder B.
Second equilibrium, after 15 mL was added to cylinder A to disturb the “system”, was achieved with 46.5 mL of water in cylinder A and 64.2 mL in cylinder B.
The equilibrium constant K remained around the same. K1 = 1.40 and K2 = 1.38.
Some water was lost in the process.
Follow us
(02) 8007 6824
Search...
Login
Courses (9-12)
Resources
Contact Us
Advantages
Limitations
Demonstrates quantitatively the progress of a system reaching equilibrium
Uses two measuring cylinders instead of one closed container
Clearly separates reactants and products in different cylinders
A loss of water through cohesion to pipettes or spillage disturbs the
process
Allows the analysis of the effects of adding or removing species
Cannot show the effect of temperature, volume or pressure
Allows analysis of the equilibrium constant
Works with volume rather than concentration or partial pressures
7. Choose equipment and perform a first-hand investigation to gather information and
qualitatively analyse an equilibrium reaction.
Fe3+ +
SCN–
⇌
Yellow colourless
[FeSCN]2+
ΔH<0
deep red
Change imposed
Observation
Explanation
Adding FeCl3
Mixture darkens
Extra Fe3+ ions cause a forward shift.
Adding NH4SCN
Mixture darkens
Extra SCN– ions cause a forward shift.
Adding Na2HPO4
Mixture turns white
Fe3+ ions are used up in reaction with phosphate hydrogen
phosphate, causing a backward shift.
Warming mixture
Mixture turns orange
The backward endothermic process is favoured to use up heat and
decrease temperature.
Cooling mixture
Mixture darkens
The forward exothermic process is favoured to create heat and
increase temperature.
8. Process and present information from secondary sources to calculate K from equilibrium
conditions.
3. Sulfuric acid is one of the most important industrial chemicals.
9. Outline three uses of sulfuric acid in industry.
Sulfuric acid is used in the manufacture of fertiliser. 70% of the world’s production of sulfuric acid is used in superphosphate manufacture.
Ca3(PO4)2 + 2H2SO4 → Ca(H2PO4)2 + 2CaSO4
Sulfate of ammonia is made from sulfuric acid and ammonia.
Dilute sulfuric acid is a catalyst in the hydration of ethene to make ethanol.
Sulfuric acid (4M) is the electrolyte in lead acid car batteries.
Viscose rayon and other synthetic fibres are manufactured with sulfuric acid as one of the chemicals.
Steel pickling (removal of surface rust) with sulfuric acid is part of the preparation process for galvanising.
Sulfuric acid is used in the manufacture of titanium dioxide. TiO2 is a white pigment.
Many unwanted impurities in oil refining are removed by reaction with sulfuric acid.
Follow us
(02) 8007 6824
Login
Search...
Courses (9-12)
Resources
Contact Us
10. Describe the process used to extract sulfur from mineral deposits, identifying the
properties of sulfur which allow its extraction and analysing potential environmental issues
that may be associated with its extraction.
The Frasch Process
A series of concentric tubes is drilled into the sulfur deposit.
Superheated water at 160°C is forced down the outer tube, melting the sulfur.
Compressed air forced down inner tube pushes sulfur-water emulsion up
middle tube.
On cooling, sulfur solidifies and separates from water, producing 99.5% sulfur.
Properties of sulfur
Relatively low melting point – superheated water is enough to melt it
Low density – can be forced up by compressed air
Insoluble in water – separates out on solidifying
Environmental issues
Caving-in of the deposit gap (earth subsidence) due to removal of sulfur beds
Oxidation of sulfur to sulfur dioxide
Reduction of sulfur to hydrogen sulphide
Thermal pollution due to superheated water being deposited into local
waterways
11. Outline the steps and conditions necessary for the industrial production of H2SO4 from
its raw materials.
Production of sulfur dioxide
Sulfur extracted by the Frasch process can undergo a combustion reaction with oxygen in the air:
S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g)
Sulfur dioxide can also be obtained from smelters, where it is a waste product in the smelting of sulfide ores
g. copper sulfide
CuS(s) + O2(g) → Cu(s) + SO2(g)
Contact Process: catalytic oxidation of sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide
SO2(g) + ½O2(g) ⇌ SO3(g) ΔH = -99 kJmol-1
Porous vanadium (V) oxide (V2O5) is used as a catalyst
Absorption Tower
Oleum is produced
SO3(g) + H2SO4 (l) → H2S2O7(l)
Dilution
H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l) → 2H2SO4(l)
Product is 98%(w/w) concentrated sulfuric acid
Environmental issues
Some SO2 inevitably escapes, causing acid rain
Exiting gases can be passed through a “scrubber” (containing the strongly oxidising Caro’s acid, H2SO5) to convert excess SO2 to sulfuric acid.
Spillage of acids in transport and acid rain decreases pH of waterways
Thermal pollution interferes with reproductive cycles and migratory cycles of aquatic life and increases the rate of weed growth. It also lowers levels of
dissolved oxygen and other gases.
12. Describe the reaction conditions necessary for the production of SO2 and SO3.
Gases are passed over the catalyst beds multiple times
550°C the first time – 70% of SO2 is oxidised quickly
400°C for second pass – yield increases to 97%
400°C for third pass, but SO3 is removed – yield now 99.7%
Excess heat removed through heat exchangers and used to evaporate water into steam for electricity generators.
SO2 and O2 present in a 1:1 ratio
100kPa
Follow us
(02) 8007 6824
Login
Search...
Courses (9-12)
Resources
Contact Us
Catalyst vanadium (V) oxide supported on silica
13. Apply the relationship between rates of reaction and equilibrium conditions to the
production of SO2 and SO3.
SO2(g) + ½O2(g) ⇌ SO3(g)
ΔH = -99 kJmol-1
A fast reaction rate is promoted through:
Use of V2O5 catalyst
High temperature to increase kinetic energy of particles, hence more collision
High pressure to promote collision
A high yield is promoted through:
Excess of reactants
Low temperature as the forward process is exothermic
High pressure as there are less moles of gas on the right (moles of gas on left: moles of gas on right = 3:2)
Therefore, the use of a catalyst increases reaction rate without affecting yield and a slight excess of oxygen ([SO2]:[O2] = 1:1) increases yield without affecting
reaction rate. These conditions are employed.
A high pressure (just above atmospheric pressure) promotes both reaction rate and yield.
However, a high temperature favours a high reaction rate but a low temperature favours a high yield. Thus, the first pass is done at 550°C (high rate, 70% yield) and
subsequent passes done at 400°C (lower rate, higher yield). To further promote yield, SO3 is removed after the second pass.
14. Describe, using example, the reactions of sulfuric acid acting as: an oxidising agent and
a dehydrating agent.
Oxidising agent
Sulfur is the oxidising agent in concentrated sulfuric acid.
Cu(s) + 2H2SO4(l) → Cu2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + SO2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
S(s) + 2H2SO4(l) → 3SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Hydrogen is the oxidising agent in dilute sulfuric acid.
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Dehydrating agent
Concentrated sulfuric acid acts as a dehydrating agent.
C12H22O11(s) → 12C(s) + 11H2O(l)
CH3CH2OH(l) → CH2=CH2(g) + H2O(l)
CuSO4.5H2O(s) → CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(l)
15. Describe and explain the exothermic nature of sulfuric acid ionisation.
The dissolution of concentrated sulfuric acid is more exothermic than the dilution of other strong acids. Concentrated sulfuric acid is 98% (w/w) while concentrated
nitric acid is 35%(w/w) and concentrated hydrochloric acid is 70%(w/w). In addition, sulfuric acid is diprotic, and even the 2nd ionisation is almost complete in very
dilute solutions.
H2SO4(l) + H2O(l) → H2SO4(aq)
ΔH = -90 kJmol-1
H2SO4 + H2O → HSO4– + H3O+
HSO4– +H2O ⇌ SO42- + H3O+
16. Identify and describe safety precautions that must be taken when using and diluting
concentrated sulfuric acid.
When diluting, add acid to water, and not water to acid. This is because the rapid protonation of water is highly exothermic, and can cause spillages through
damaging glassware.
Precautions for use:
Wear gloves
Wear safety glasses
Work near a supply of running water
Have a supply for Na2CO3 or NaHCO3 nearby
Avoid dribbling the acid down the outside of the bottle onto the label when pouring
Use a drip tray
For regular use, store in glass bottles no greater than 1 litre in volume
Storage and transport:
Courses
Resources
Contact
Us
us and does not attack
(02)iron
8007
6824
Login
Search...
Concentrated H2SO4 is mainlyFollow
molecular
and
steel. It can
be transported
and stored
in steel (9-12)
tankers which
are stronger than
glass or
plastic
Dilute H2SO4 is mostly ionic and is stored in glass or plastic containers.
17. Gather, process and present information from secondary sources to describe the steps
and chemistry involved in the industrial production of H2SO4 and use available evidence to
analyse the process to predict ways in which the output of sulfuric acid can be maximised.
18. Perform first-hand investigations to observe the reactions of sulfuric acid acting as: an
oxidising agent and a dehydrating agent.
Reaction
Observations
Equation
Dehydration of sucrose
The solid turned yellow, then red, then
black. Rising gas pushed it up towards
the edge of the beaker.
C12H22O11(s) → 12C(s) + 11H2O(l)
Dehydration of copper sulfate
pentahydrate
The solid became a paler blue, then
white
CuSO4.5H2O(s) → CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(l)
Oxidation of zinc
Bubbles of gas were formed, the metal
slowly disappeared
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Precipitation of barium sulfate
White precipitate
Ba(NO3)2(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2HNO3(aq)
19. Use available evidence to relate the properties of sulfuric acid to safety precautions
necessary for its transport and storage.
Concentrated H2SO4 is mainly molecular and does not attack iron and steel. It can be transported and stored in steel tankers which are stronger than glass or
plastic.
Contamination with water must be avoided.
Some ions are present. Linings on the insides of steel containers protect them.
Dilute H2SO4 is mostly ionic and is stored in glass or plastic containers.
Lids must be kept tightly sealed as sulfuric acid absorbs water from air.
HAZCHEM labels provide identification of the acid and required actions in the event of a spillage.
4. The industrial production of sodium hydroxide requires the use of
electrolysis.
20. Explain the difference between galvanic cells and electrolytic cells in terms of energy
requirements.
In a galvanic cell, a spontaneous chemical reaction produces electricity (chemical energy to electrical energy).
In an electrolytic cell, electricity is used to cause a non-spontaneous chemical reaction to happen (electrical energy to chemical energy).
21. Outline the steps in the industrial production of sodium hydroxide from sodium chloride
solution and describe the reaction in terms of net ionic and full formulae equations.
A saturated brine solution is purified by precipitation:
Calcium ions are removed by adding sodium carbonate
Ca2+(aq) + CO32-(aq) → CaCO3(s)
Magnesium ions are removed by adding sodium hydroxide
Mg2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq) → Mg(OH)2(s)
Iron ions are removed by the Follow
sodiumuscarbonate and sodium
hydroxide
(02) 8007 6824
Fe2+(aq) + CO32-(aq) → FeCO3(s)
2+
Fe
(aq)
+
2OH–(aq)
Login
Search...
Courses (9-12)
Resources
Contact Us
→ Fe(OH)2(s)
Sulfate ions are removed by adding calcium chloride
SO42-(aq) + Ca2+(aq) → CaSO4(s)
The concentration brine solution (about 30%) is electrolysed.
At anode: 2Cl–(aq) → Cl2(g) + 2e–
At cathode: 2H2O(l) + 2e– → H2(g) + 2OH–(aq)
Overall ionic equation: 2Cl–(aq) + 2H2O(l) → Cl2(g) + H2(g) + 2OH–(aq)
Full formulae equation: 2NaCl(aq) + 2H2O(l) → Cl2(g) + H2(g) + 2NaOH(aq)
Finally the sodium hydroxide is separated out.
22. Distinguish between the three electrolysis methods used to extract sodium hydroxide:
mercury process, diaphragm process, membrane process, by describing each process and
analysing the technical and environmental difficulties involved in each process.
Mercury process
Cathode: mercury
Anode: graphite or titanium (coated with mixture of ruthenium (IV) oxide and titanium (IV) oxide)
Electrolyte: brine
Reduction: 2Na+(aq) + 2e– → 2Na(Hg)
Then: 2Na(Hg) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
Oxidation: 2Cl–(aq) → Cl2(g) + 2e–
Overall : 2Na+(aq) + 2Cl–(aq) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g) + Cl(g)
Description
In the mercury process, the cathode is made of flowing liquid mercury. This means that instead of water being reduced, sodium ions are reduced to sodium metal
which dissolves in the mercury to form an amalgam. The sodium cannot react with the water in the brine solution because the flowing mercury removes it before this
can happen. Mercury is recycled in the process.
The sodium-mercury amalgam is removed from the cell and sprayed into water, where the sodium reacts with water vigorously to produce sodium hydroxide. Water
and mercury flow in opposite directions. Hydrogen is also produced and is sold or piped into nearby factories for other industrial uses.
At the anode, chloride ions are oxidised into chlorine gas. Chlorine is also sold or piped into other factories.
Technical difficulties
The flow rate of mercury needs to be such that all the sodium has reacted by the time the mercury exits the tank with water in it, so that it can be pumped back
into the electrolysis cell for re-use.
Tens of thousands of amperes are drawn, leading to high electricity costs.
Chlorine is toxic.
Environmental difficulties
Mercury will inevitably escape into the environment. Mercury is insoluble and would cause little harm at the bottom of the ocean, but some bacteria are able to
convert mercury into compounds such as dimethyl mercury (Hg(CH3)2) which can be taken up by organisms and bioamplification Mercury can cause
Minamata disease in humans, which leads to brain damage.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Follow us
Very pure NaOH is produced as there is no contact
between the chloride ions and the NaOH being
produced.
The process avoids asbestos which was previously
the main problem of the diaphragm cell.
(02) 8007 6824
Login
Search...
Courses (9-12)
Resources
Contact Us
Mercury inevitably escapes into the environment through leakage,
vaporisation or when electrolytic cells are cleaned. Even the most modern plants
lose two kilograms of mercury per day. Mercury can cause Minamata disease in
humans.
High electricity costs (tens of thousands of amperes a drawn in a typical plant).
Chlorine is also produced.
Diaphragm process
Cathode: steel mesh
Anode: graphite or titanium (coated with mixture of ruthenium (IV) oxide and titanium (IV) oxide)
Electrolyte: brine
Reduction: 2H2O(l) + 2e– → H2(g) + 2OH–(aq)
Oxidation: 2Cl–(aq) → Cl2(g) + 2e–
Overall : 2H2O(l) + 2NaCl(aq) → H2(g) + Cl2(g) + 2NaOH(aq)
Description
An asbestos diaphragm lines a steel mesh cathode to prevent product gases from mixing (asbestos is not damaged by hydroxide solution). However, the electrolyte
solution can soak through the asbestos to the cathode.
At the cathode, water is reduced in preference to sodium ions. Hydrogen gas and hydroxide ions are formed. Hydrogen gas can be collected or piped into other
factories.
At the anode, chloride ions are oxidised to chlorine gas in preference to water due to their high concentration. Chlorine gas can be collected or piped into other
factories.
As sodium ions move towards the cathode (to balance charge due to OH– ions), they are washed to the bottom of the cell with the hydroxide ions produced in the
cathode reaction. This is achieved by passing steam over the cathode screen. The condensed steam washes out the ions and forms a hot solution of sodium
hydroxide at the bottom of the cell.
Technical difficulties
Keeping the gases H2 and Cl2 separated as they react vigorously if they come into contact
Minimising contact between the hydroxide ion and chlorine in solution (OH– and Cl2 formes unwanted chlorite, ClO–)
Minimising the amount of chloride present in the final hydroxide solution – diaphragm cell
Total currents of tens of thousands of amperes are drawn (at low voltages), resulting in high electricity costs.
Chlorine is toxic.
Environmental difficulties
There are many health concerns with small losses of asbestos that are inevitable. Asbestos is a known carcinogen, inducing asbestosis and mesothelioma.
–
Hypochlorite (ClO–) may be Follow
presentusin the waste brine solution
– ClO
oxidant and
can damage
the environment.
Courses
(9-12)
(02) 8007
6824is a strong
Login
Search...
Advantages
Chlorine is also produced.
Resources
Contact Us
Disadvantages
Asbestos is a health concern.
NaOH is inevitably contaminated with chloride ions which must be removed by
fractional crystallisation for high-purity purposes.
Hypochlorite (ClO–), a strong oxidant, may be present in the waste brine solution and
needs to be removed before discharge to environment.
High costs of electricity
Membrane process
Cathode: steel mesh
Anode: titanium (coated with mixture of ruthenium (IV) oxide and titanium (IV) oxide)
Electrolyte: brine
Reduction: 2H2O(l) + 2e– → H2(g) + 2OH–(aq)
Oxidation: 2Cl–(aq) → Cl2(g) + 2e–
Overall : 2H2O(l) + 2NaCl(aq) → H2(g) + Cl2(g) + 2NaOH(aq)
Description
A membrane cell is similar to a diaphragm cell but with cation exchange membrane. This is made from synthetics polymers such as Teflon (PTFE:
polytetrafluoroethylene) which have been modified to incorporate anionic groups. In this way, sodium ions can pass through it but not chloride or hydroxide ions, or
water. This prevents contamination of NaOH by chloride and prevents the formation of ClO–.
Most countries have replaced mercury and diaphragm cells with membrane cells.
Technical difficulties
Brine required needs to be very pure (less than 20 ppb of magnesium and calcium combined)
Membrane separator is easily damaged and has a shorter life time than the asbestos diaphragm.
Chlorine is toxic.
Follow us
(02) 8007 6824
Advantages
Search...
Login
Courses (9-12)
Resources
Contact Us
Disadvantages
Pure NaOH is produced.
Membranes are easily damaged.
Lower electricity requirements than the mercury cell and
diaphragm cell.
Membranes are expensive
No mercury or asbestos – avoidance of environmental problems.
Chlorine is also produced.
23. Identify, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to identify the products of the
electrolysis of an aqueous solution of sodium chloride.
Location
Procedure
Observation
Explanation
Cathode
Electrolysis
Solution turned from green to purple.
Bubbles of gas were produced.
Water was reduced to OH– ions and hydrogen
gas. OH– ions rendered the solution basic so
the universal indicator turned purple.H2O(l) + e–
→ ½H2(g) + OH–(aq)
Anode
Electrolysis
Solution turned colourless. Bubbles of gas
were produced.
Chlorine gas was produced by oxidation of
chloride ions.
Anode
Addition of KI
Thin layer of brown liquid formed on top of
water.
Iodide ions were oxidised to brown iodine by
the chlorine gas.2I–(aq) → I2(aq) + 2e–Cl2(g) + 2e–
→ 2Cl–(aq)2I–(aq) + Cl2(g) → I2(aq) + 2Cl–(aq)
Anode
Addition of starch
Brown layer turned dark purple.
Starch indicates the presence of elemental
iodine by turning it purple.
24. Analyse information from secondary sources to predict and explain the different
products of the electrolysis of aqueous and molten sodium chloride.
Nature
Anode reaction
Cathode reaction
Overall reaction
Dilute
H2O(l) → ½O2(g) + H+(aq) + e–
H2O(l) + e– → ½H2(g) + OH–(aq)
H2O(l) → H2(g) + ½O2(g)
Concentrated
Cl–(aq) → ½Cl2(g) + e–
H2O(l) + e– → ½H2(g) + OH–(aq)
NaClaq) + H2O(l) → ½Cl2(g) ½H2(g) +
NaOH(aq)
Molten
Cl–(l) → ½Cl2(g) + e–
Na+(l) + e– → Na(l)
NaCl(l) → Na(l) + ½Cl2(g)
5. Saponification is an important organic industrial process.
Follow us
(02) 8007 6824
Login
Search...
Courses (9-12)
Resources
Contact Us
25.Describe saponification as the conversion in basic solution of fats and oils to glycerol
and salts of fatty acids.
Saponification is the conversion in basic solution of fats and oils to glycerol and salts of fatty acids.
Fat or oil + sodium hydroxide ⇌ glycerol + sodium salt of fatty acid (soap)
Fat or oil + potassium hydroxide ⇌ glycerol + potassium salt of fatty acid (soap)
For example, for the formation of sodium palmitate:
glyceryl tripalmitate + sodium hydroxide ⇌ glycerol + sodium palmitate
26. Describe the conditions under which saponification can be performed in the school
laboratory and compare these with industrial preparation of soap.
Feature
Industrial Process
School Laboratory
Starting material
Mixture of fats and oils
Relatively pure fat or oil
Sodium hydroxide
Regularly monitored so only small excess
Simply added in all at once
Heating and stirring
Achieved with steam
Hot plate and spatula for manual stirring
Separation of soap and glycerol
Addition of brine
Not separated
Fate of glycerol
Purified and sold
Remains as part of soap
Temperature of saponification
130°C
35°C
Pressure
Pressurised container
Atmospheric pressure
Soap product
Flakes or bars
Bars
27. Account for the cleaning action of soap by describing its structure.
Soap has a non-polar hydrophobic hydrocarbon tail and a polar hydrophilic ionic head. The non-polar part can interact with oil and grease through dispersion
forces. The polar part can interact with water through dipole-dipole interactions. This means that soap forms a “bridge” between oil and water, allowing water to
wash away oil and grease.
Follow us
(02) 8007 6824
Login
Search...
Courses (9-12)
Resources
Contact Us
28. Explain that soap, water and oil together form an emulsion with the soap acting as an
emulsifier.
An emulsion is the dispersion of one liquid in another.
Soap, water and oil together form an emulsion. The soap, with its non-polar and polar parts, can interact with both oil and water and thus acts as an emulsifier,
stabilising the emulsion by forming a bridge between water and oil.
The non-polar tails of soap molecules gather around oil droplets, so that the negatively charge polar ends face outwards. This creates a negative charge on the
droplet of oil which repels other negatively charges soap and oil droplets, preventing the formation of large clumps of oil. This also allows water to interact with the oil
droplets. Thus oil droplets are distributed through the water. Inversely, the water may be distributed among the oil, with tails facing outwards from water droplets,
where polar heads congregate.
29. Distinguish between soaps and synthetic detergents in terms of: the structure of the
molecule, chemical composition and effect in hard water.
Feature
Soap
Synthetic detergent
Synthesis
Fatty acids in animal and vegetable oils
Hydrocarbon chains from petroleum
Composition
Sodium or potassium salts of long chain fatty
acids
Usually hydrocarbons with a sulfate or sulfonate end
Structure
Ionic or polar head and long, non-polar
hydrocarbon tail
Similar structure to soap: may be anionic, cationic or
non-ionic
Action in hard water
Does not lather well as soap anions form
precipitates with calcium and magnesium ions,
forming a scum
Lathers in hard water as sulfonate groups do not
precipitate as much with calcium and magnesium salts
Biodegradability
Biodegradable
Biodegradable only if hydrocarbon chain is linear
Phosphates
No phosphates
May be mixed with phosphates esp. laundry detergent.
Phosphates pollute the environment and increase
chance of eutrophication
Cost
Cheaper to make
More expensive
Solubility in water
Not very soluble
Soluble
Deterioration with age
Deteriorates
Remains stable for a long time
Action in acidic solutions
Precipitates as COO– group takes on H+ to form
COOH in acidic conditions
Does not precipitate as sulfonate group does not take
on H+ so easily
30. Distinguish between anionic, cationic and non-ionic synthetic detergents in terms of:
Courses (9-12)
Resources
Contact Us
Follow us
(02) 8007 6824
Login
Search...
chemical composition
and uses.
Characteristic
Anionic detergents
Cationic detergents
Non-ionic detergents
Structure
Non-polar hydrocarbon tail with
polar head, usually a sulfate
(SO42-) or sulfonate ion(SO3–).
Often a benzene ring at end of
hydrocarbon chain.
Positively charged ionic head,
usually ammonium compounds
with long non-polar hydrocarbon
tail
Polar end formed by many oxygen
atoms but it is not actually ionic, long
hydrocarbon tail. Traditionally poly
(ethylene oxide) is used for the polar
part
Common uses
Dishwashing liquids, laundry
detergents, shampoos
Fabric softeners (help solve
problem of static electricity),
germicides in mouthwash,
antiseptic soap, hair conditioner
Laundry detergents, automatic
dishwashers, washing cars, washing
synthetic fabrics, cosmetics, froth
flotation
Properties
Highly sudsing, excellent
cleaning properties especially
for natural fabrics
Slightly irritating to the skin, mildly
antiseptic
Low sudsing (less foam than anionic
detergents), does not ionise in water,
mild on the skin
Other
Typically used with non-ionic
detergents
Not used in dishwashers as glass
has negative charge and attracts
positive heads of detergent,
making glass slippery
Example
alkylphenol ethoxylates
quarternary ammonium salts
sodium dodecylbenzene
sulfonate
31. Perform a first-hand investigation to carry out saponification and test the product.
Coconut oil was used. This contains mostly lauric acid (n=10) (48%), myristic acid (n=12) (19%) and palmitic acid (9%).
Red food colouring meant that the resultant bars were pink.
A peppermint scent was added.
Soap
Control (water)
Solubility in water
Soluble after some shaking
N/A
pH of aqueous solution
9
7
Effect of acid on solubility
Soap precipitates
No effect
Emulsifying action
Emulsifies water and oil
No emulsifying action
32. Gather, process and present information from secondary sources to identify a range of
fats and oils used for soap-making.
Most soaps are made from vegetable oils. Some are made from animal fat.
Oil or fat
Follow us
Use
(02) 8007 6824
Login
Search...
Courses (9-12)
Resources
Apricot kernel
Cosmetics e.g. skin softening agents
Avocado oil
Cosmetics for rich and emollient soaps
Castor oil
Rich and mild soap
Cocoa butter
Improvement of soap consistency – creamy and hard, makes soap softening to the skin
Coconut oil
Creamy lather, medium-hard soaps, dry on skin, high in lauric acid
Olive oil
Hard, brittle, mild, long-lasting soaps that lather abundantly, high in oleic acid
Palm oil
Long-lasting bubbles, kind to skin, good for facial soap
Beef tallow
Laundry soap
Mutton tallow
More brittle soap that beef tallow
Large (pig fat)
Laundry soap, mild to skin, does not lather (needs to be combined with other oils and fats)
Suet (fat surrounding cow kidneys)
Mild soap
Contact Us
33. Perform a first-hand investigation to gather information and describe the properties of a
named emulsion and relate these properties to its use.
Emulsion
Reaction with HCl
Reaction with water-soluble
dye
Sensitivity to heat
Cream
Emulsion was destabilised and
creamy mixture coagulates
Dye spread easily throughout
Bubble occurred in cream, water
evaporated leaving yellow solid
Butter
No visible reaction
Dye formed dispersed droplets
Butter melted and formed two layers
Emulsion
Reaction with HCl
Reaction with water-soluble
dye
Sensitivity to heat
Cream
Emulsion was destabilised and
creamy mixture coagulates
Dye spread easily throughout
Bubble occurred in cream, water
evaporated leaving yellow solid
Butter
No visible reaction
Dye formed dispersed droplets
Butter melted and formed two layers
Follow us
(02) 8007 6824
Login
Search...
Courses (9-12)
Resources
Contact Us
34. Perform a first-hand investigation to demonstrate the effect of soap as an emulsifier.
Test tube with soap
Test tube without soap
Initial
Oil and water form two distinct layers with oil on top
Oil and water form two distinct layers with oil on top
Final (after shaking)
Bubbles formed and one homogenous mixture
produced
Oil and water form two distinct layers with oil on top
35. Solve problems and use available evidence to discuss, using examples, the
environmental impacts of the use of soaps and detergents.
Substance
Property
Problem
Solution
Soap
Made from naturally occurring fats
and oils
Anionic detergent: alkyl
benzene sulfonates
Branched chain alkylbenzene
sulfonates had long branched
hydrocarbon chain, benzene ring
and sulfonate head
Not easily biodegradable and built
up in waterways leading to
problem of “rivers of foam”
Replaced by linear chain alkylbenzene
sulfonates in 1970s which have similar
biodegradability to soap
Cationic detergents
Biocidal, used in disinfectants and
sanitisers
May kill decomposers if present in
overly high concentrations
Discharged in small amounts which
are monitored. They are broken down
by bacteria in sewage treatment works
when present in low concentrations.
Phosphate builders in
laundry detergents
(anionic and/or nonionic)
Phosphate builders enhance
cleaning effect bybinding Ca2+ and
Mg2+ ions to free up detergent
molecules and making washing
water alkaline, helping make
grease soluble
Increased chance of
eutrophication as phosphates are
usually limiting nutrients
Most countries limit amount of
phosphate that can be put in laundry
detergent. Other chemicals e.g.
zeolites can be used instead. Australia
has voluntary code of operation.
Non-ionic detergent:
alkylphenol ethoxylates
Long hydrocarbon chain with
benzene ring and oxygen atoms
distributed among it at one end
Transformed to alkyl phenols
through biological degradation.
Alkyl phenols are toxic and have
hormone-like effects on marine
and freshwater life.
Naturally biodegradable by bacteria
6.The Solvay process has been in use since the 1860s.
36.Identify the raw materials used in the Solvay process and name the products.
Raw materials are sodium chloride (NaCl, in brine), ammonia (NH3) and calcium carbonate (CaCO3, limestone).
Products are sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) and calcium chloride (CaCl2, waste).
2NaCl(aq) + CaCO3(s) → Na2CO3(aq) + CaCl2(aq)
1. Describe the uses of sodium carbonate.
Sodium carbonate is used:
in the manufacture of glass – a mixture of Na2CO3, CaCO3 and SiO2 is melted together for window and bottle glass. Carbonates decompose to produce mixed
oxide glass.
Courses (9-12)
Resources
Contact Us
Follow us
(02) 8007 6824
Login
Search...
as a water softener – CO32- ions can precipitate Mg2+ and Ca2+ ions to prevent them forming precipitates with soap
in the manufacture of paper – used to produce the NaHSO3 necessary for the sulfite method of separating lignin from cellulose
in the manufacture of sodium hydrogen carbonate (bicarbonate of soda) – for cooking and fire extinguishers
in the manufacture of soap, ceramics and sodium hydroxide
in petroleum refining
as a cleaner and degreaser in washing compounds e.g. removing grease from wool
for removing sulfur dioxide from waste gases in power stations
2. Identify, given a flow chart, the sequence of steps used in the Solvay process and describe the chemistry involved in: brine purification, hydrogen carbonate
formation, formation of sodium carbonate and ammonia recovery.
Brine purification
Salt water (brine) is pumped into shallow ponds, allowing the sun to efficiently evaporate the water. The salt left behind includes calcium and magnesium salts as well
as sodium chloride. The Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions must be removed.
Calcium salts are precipitated by the addition of sodium carbonate.
Ca2+(aq) + CO32–(aq) → CaCO3(s)
Magnesium salts are precipitated by the addition of sodium hydroxide.
Mg2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq) → Mg(OH)2(s)
A flocculant is added (this causes suspended particles to clump together and fall out of solution) and the precipitates are skimmed off the brine.
Hydrogen carbonate formation
Calcium carbonate is heated in a kiln so that it decomposes into carbon dioxide and calcium oxide.
CaCO3(s) → CO2(g) + CaO(s)
The calcium oxide is removed, to be used in ammonia recovery.
Coke is also present in the kiln, producing more carbon dioxide when heated, as well as providing heat to decompose the calcium carbonate.
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)
Ammonia and carbon dioxide are dissolved in the purified brine (NaCl).
NaCl(aq) + NH3(g) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) → NH4Cl(aq) + NaHCO3(s)
Ionic equation: NH3(g) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) → NH4+(aq) + HCO3–(aq)
This reaction is carried out at a low temperature (close to 0°C) so that the sodium hydrogen carbonate, which is relatively insoluble at low temperatures, precipitates
out.
The mixture is filtered, and the sodium hydrogen carbonate is washed, dried and used to make sodium carbonate. The ammonium chloride filtrate is sent to the
ammonia recovery plant so that ammonia can be recovered and reused.
Formation of sodium carbonate
Sodium hydrogen carbonate is heated to about 300°C and decomposes into sodium carbonate and carbon dioxide. Sodium carbonate is removed and sold. Carbon
dioxide is reused.
2NaHCO3(s) → Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Ammonia Recovery
Calcium oxide (from the decomposition of calcium carbonate) is dissolved in water to form calcium hydroxide.
CaO(s) + H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq)
Ammonium chloride is reacted with this calcium hydroxide forming calcium chloride and ammonia. The ammonia is reused, but calcium chloride is waste.
2NH4Cl(aq) + Ca(OH)2(s) → 2NH3(g) + CaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
3. Discuss environmental issues associated with the Solvay process and explain how these
issues are addressed.
Compared to previous processes for producing sodium carbonate, the Solvay process produces less pollution, as by-products such as ammonia, calcium oxide and
carbon dioxide are re-used.
However, there are still environmental issues associated with the process:
Calcium chloride
Calcium chloride is produces as a by-product. It has limited uses, including use as a drying agent in industry, as an additive for concrete, as an additive in soil
treatment and to melt ice on roads. CaCl2 left unused is disposed of by pumping it into the oceans or evaporating to dryness and disposing of the solid.
Previously, the calcium chloride was pumped into rivers and lakes, causing an unacceptable increase in calcium and chloride ion concentrations and affecting local
ecosystems.
Courses (9-12)
Resources
Contact Us
Follow us
(02) 8007 6824
Login
Search...
Heat
The Solvay process is exothermic and waste water must be cooled before it is returned to rivers or ocean to prevent thermal pollution.
Ammonia
Although the Solvay process aims to recycle ammonia, some is lost to the atmosphere, and is a pollutant. Ammonia is a toxic gas. Ammonia losses are
minimised to reduce the release of ammonia as a pollutant, and also to reduce plant operational costs.
Calcium hydroxide
Excess calcium hydroxide must be neutralised before disposal as it is basic. It is neutralised with hydrochloric acid.
Solid waste
Solid waste includes unburnt calcium carbonate and sand and clay from the kiln. These could possibly be made into fertiliser, bricks, landfill or road base. Previously,
there were often disposed of in rivers and waterways. Although this is not toxic, it is not aesthetically pleasing and is a nuisance as it blocks shipping channels.
Noise
Noise is being reduced by enclosure of noisy areas, using silencers to dampen noise and community monitoring to identify sources of noise.
4.Process information to solve problems and quantitatively analyse the relative quantities of
reactants and projects in each step of the process.
Sample questions from HSC Chemistry Online:
A company in South Australia, called Penrice Soda Products Pty Ltd, produces 325 000 tonnes per year of soda ash (sodium carbonate). How many tonnes of
calcium carbonate are needed to produce this? Take the overall equation as:
CaCO3(s) + 2NaCl (aq) Na2CO3(aq) + CaCl2(aq),
Answer:
n(Na2CO3) = n(CaCO3)
n(Na2CO3) =
= 3 066 327 012 mol
n(CaCO3) = 3 066 327 012 mol
m(CaCO3) = 3 066 327 012 mol × 100.09 g/mol
= 3.0691 × 1011 g
= 306 910 t (5 s.f.)
Therefore, 306 910 tonnes of calcium carbonate is needed.
Evaporative basins at Dry Creek near Adelaide produce an average of 650 000 tonnes per year of salt. This is purified, then dissolved to form a saturated brine
solution that is pumped to the Solvay plant.
Ammonia is dissolved in the brine solution and then the ammoniated brine is reacted with carbon dioxide.
Write an equation for this reaction.
If 50% of the original salt is sodium chloride, what mass of ammonia will be needed to react with it?
Answer:
a) NaCl(aq) + NH3(g) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) → NH4Cl(aq) + NaHCO3(s)
b) Original salt had mass 650 000 tonnes
m(NaCl) = 50% × 650 000 t = 325 000 t
n(NaCl) =
= 5 561 259 411 mol
n(NH3) = n(NaCl) = 5 561 259 411 mol
m(NH3) = 5 561 259 411 mol × 17.034 g/mol
= 9.473 × 1010 g
= 94 730 t (4 s.f.)
Therefore, 94 730 tonnes of NH3 is required.
5. Use available evidence and determine the criteria used to locate a chemical industry
using the Solvay process as an example.
Until recently, Australia’s supplies of Na2CO3 came from Osborne, South Australia. The plant was closed mid-2013 to make way for cheaper imports.
Follow us
(02) 8007 6824
Login
Search...
Courses (9-12)
Resources
Contact Us
Criteria
Solvay Plant (Penrice Soda Products) in Osborne, SA
Proximity to raw materials
Osborne’s coastal location allows easy access to sea water, pumped into
ponds for purification and crystallisation. Limestone is delivered by train
from a quarry in the Barossa Valley.
Proximity to market
Sodium carbonate made in Osborne is supplied to Australia. Osborne is in
Australia.
Availability of transport for raw materials and products
Osborne is connected to limestone sources by rail. 48 000 tonnes of
sodium bicarbonate and 325 000 tonnes of sodium carbonate transported
annually throughout Australia by road, rail and sea.
Availability of accommodation, transport, schools and shops for
workers and their families
Osborne is a western suburb of Adelaide, a major city, where all this is
available.
Facilities for waste disposal
Until recently, solid wastes were discharged into the Port River, but new
uses e.g. landfill will reduce solid waste discharge. The ocean is where
CaCl2 is discharged.
Book your first lesson. It's FREE!
Dux College
Parramatta
30 Cowper St
Parramatta, NSW 2150
Courses
Why Choose Us
Contact Us
Year 9 Courses
About Us
Fee Schedule
Year 10 Courses
Past Results
Workshop
Year 11 Courses
FAQ
Marking Services
Year 12 Courses
New Accounts
Free Trial Lesson
Ph: 02 8007 6824
Dux College Bondi
Junction
Class Times
Parramatta
Level 1, 237 Oxford St
Bondi Junction
Bondi Junction, NSW
2022
Term Dates
HSC Resources
HSC Info
HSC Course Summaries
ATAR Calculator
Buying Course Materials
Book Free Trial Lesson
Receive Our Monthly Newsletters
Receive study guides, note, exam tips and bits of wisdom
from our tutors each month.
Your name
News
Careers
Your email
In the Community
Dux Private Tutoring
Sign up
/**google code below*/ /**google code above*/
Follow us
(02) 8007 6824
Login
Search...
Courses (9-12)
Resources
Contact Us