An Analysis of the Multiculturalism Hypothesis
HIGHER SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS
Department of Psychology
Multiculturalism Hypothesis.
An analysis.
Louise Gyasiwa Arhin.
An Analysis of the Multiculturalism Hypothesis
Introduction
In an increasingly globalized world where plural societies are the norm rather than the
exception, all countries will eventually grapple with the reality of ethno-cultural pluralism (Teng
& Leong, 2018) and as such Multiculturalism has become an increasingly common characteristic
of contemporary societies and in culturally diverse social contexts almost every person experiences
intercultural contact on a daily basis (Berry, 2016). Due to the increase in migration, many western
countries are having to rethink their approach to citizenship because these migrants often retain
close ties with their country of origin (Kymlicka, 2003). According to Kymlicka (2003) while
some commentators argue that in the world of migration, a national identity is no longer relevant
and that a new way of assigning rights and responsibilities will be more fruitful; others argue that
the increasing ethnic and religious diversity within modern states requires an effort by the state to
create and sustain a sense of common national identity.
Berry (2011) describes two visionary models of intercultural relations and acculturation in
plural societies – melting point where there is one dominant society as practiced in France and the
USA and the multicultural model where there is a larger society that accommodates the interest
and needs of the numerous cultural groups, and which are fully incorporated as ethno cultural
groups rather than minorities. Canada, a country which has seen lots of migration and has many
diverse ethno cultural groups, adopted the latter option, a multicultural policy in 1971 under Prime
Minister Trudeau and this policy identified programmes including ones for Multicultural Grants,
Culture Development, Ethnic Histories, Canadian Ethnic Studies, Teaching of Official Languages,
and Federal Cultural Agencies among others (Guo & Wong, 2015). It is also from this policy that
a multicultural hypothesis was derived.
An Analysis of the Multiculturalism Hypothesis
Multiculturalism Hypothesis – Viewpoint 1.
The multicultural hypothesis by Berry, Kalin and Taylor (as cited in Teng & Leong, 2018)
states that when an individual feels secure in his/her economic livelihood and socio-cultural
identity, it will lead to being more accepting of other groups and so encourage a more positive
intergroup relation. In contrast, threats to or the lack of economic and cultural security will result
in negative attitudes and intergroup hostility.
Empirical support for the multiculturalism hypothesis
According to Berry (2011), there is now substantial evidence to support this hypothesis. In
a research examining intercultural relations in the Republic of North Ossetia-Alania (RNO-A) by
Galyapina & Lebedeva (2016), the multiculturalism hypothesis was tested. They discovered that
RNO-A is the most favorable place for Russians living in the North Caucasus because attitudes
toward the Russian minority are not discriminatory. With a sample of 318 Ossetians and 327
Russians and using SEM, Galyapina & Lebedeva (2016) found results consistent with the
multiculturalism hypothesis, the levels of support for multicultural ideology and tolerance among
the Ossetians could be predicted by their perceived security (.44 and .32 respectively). In addition,
perceived security among the Ossetians positively and significantly affected their acculturation
expectation of integration (.49). This result supports the multiculturalism hypothesis because the
Ossetians and the Russians, who had a strong mutual perceived security, preferred the integration
but not the assimilation strategy (Galyapina & Lebedeva, 2016). In another study measuring the
intercultural relations in Russia and Latvia, Lebedeva, Tatarko & Berry (2016) tested the
multiculturalism hypothesis with two dominant groups - Russian Muscovites and Latvians in Riga
- and two non-dominant groups - migrants from the Caucasus in Moscow and the Russian minority
in Riga. Results showed that the higher the perceived security, the higher are the support of
An Analysis of the Multiculturalism Hypothesis
multicultural ideology and ethnic tolerance (for both the minority group and the members of the
larger society). For both samples in Moscow, higher perceived security predicted higher levels of
ethnic tolerance while for the two samples in Riga, higher perceived security was seen for both the
dominant and the Russian minority groups even though the result was only significant for the
dominant group.
More empirical support for this hypothesis can be seen from a research conducted by Ward
and Masgoret (2008) in New Zealand examining attitudes toward immigrants and immigration
policy. Ward & Masgoret (2008) measured a variety of ideas including multicultural ideology,
perceived threat (symbolic, realistic and zero – sum) and acculturation expectations. The findings
revealed that New Zealanders strongly endorse a multicultural hypothesis with 89% agreeing that
it is a good thing for a society to be made up of people from different races, religions and cultures.
According to Ward & Masgoret (2008) on the whole attitudes towards immigrants were positive.
The researches described above confirm the result of two national surveys carried out in Canada
by Berry and others in 1977 and 2000 (as cited in Berry, 2016) that created measures of cultural
security/threat and economic security/threat with respect to extant diversity and the continuing
flow of immigration. Cultural security was negatively correlated with ethnocentrism, and
positively with multicultural ideology and with perceived consequences of multiculturalism.
Economic security had a similar pattern of correlations with these variables.
From the empirical evidence presented above, it is possible to conclude that security in
one’s own identity predicts the possibility of accepting “others” … (Berry, 2016).
Viewpoint 2
Other researchers posit that integration (one identity) rather than multiculturalism will promote
positive intergroup relations and conversely reduce intergroup hostility (Koompmans, 2009).
An Analysis of the Multiculturalism Hypothesis
Evidence from empirical studies.
A huge backlash has risen against multiculturalism especially from countries which have
practiced multiculturalism for a while. Multiculturalism is blamed for the residential ghettoization
and social isolation of immigrants; poor economic integration of immigrants; poor educational
outcomes for their children; high dependence on welfare; the perpetuation of illiberal practices
amongst immigrant groups, often involving restricting the rights and liberties of girls and women;
political radicalism, especially among Muslim youth among other (Banting & Kymlicka, 2013).
Also, the Netherlands, long regarded as an exemplary case of successful multiculturalism is now
regarded as a prime example of the failure of such policies; an example of how multiculturalism
can lead to socioeconomic marginalization occurred when local authorities denied social welfare
benefits to a woman wearing full facial covering stating that it was impossible for colleagues and
customers to see her face which made her unemployable (Koompmans, 2009).
A research was conducted by Koompmans (2009) to investigate how multiculturalism
policies and welfare-state regimes have affected the socio-economic integration of immigrants of
eight European countries: Germany, France, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Switzerland,
Sweden, Austria and Belgium. The researcher measured residential segregation in the eight
European countries and hypothesized that residential segregation of immigrants will be more
pronounced in countries with multicultural integration policies such as the Netherlands, Sweden,
the UK and Belgium, and less pronounced in countries that put more emphasis on the assimilation
of immigrants to the majority culture - Austria, Germany, France and Switzerland. Findings
revealed a connection between multicultural integration policies and social segregation, as
suggested by the high levels of residential segregation found in Belgium, Sweden, the Netherlands
and the UK even though it was more pronounced among immigrants with Muslim backgrounds.
An Analysis of the Multiculturalism Hypothesis
There is the assumption that in countries that practice multiculturalism there would be
positive intergroup contact and from this it can be assumed that there would be less crime
especially
among
immigrants.
Koompmans
(2009)
however
found
the
opposite,
overrepresentation of inmates from an immigrant background was the strongest in the Netherlands
(among the countries investigated, it was the one which practiced the strongest form of
multiculturalism) where foreign born prisoners made 53% of the prison population as compared
to the UK where foreigners and racial minorities made up 18%.
Koompmans (2009) concluded his investigations by stating that the eight countries he
investigated adopted different forms of integration or multiculturalism policies with Netherlands
adopting and practicing the strongest multiculturalism, however, taking the Dutch results of
whether state-sponsored multiculturalism is a successful recipe for the integration of immigrants
provides dismal evidence. From the multicultural hypothesis, the Netherlands should have been
comparatively successful in solving problems of integration and combating exclusion and
segregation, on the contrary, the Netherlands is faced with low labour market participation, strong
segregation and comparatively high levels of crime among immigrants. The Netherlands shares
these disappointing integration outcomes with two countries that have followed a similar
integration philosophy, Sweden and (particularly the Flemish part of) Belgium.
The final empirical evidence I would give against the multicultural hypothesis is a research
conducted by Verkyuten (2008) investigating support for multiculturalism and minority rights in
ethnic Dutch citizens. Study 1 examined the relationships among national identification, out-group
threat, and support for multiculturalism among a sample of Dutch adolescents. Results showed
stronger national identification predicted reduced support for multiculturalism mediated by
increases in out-group threat. Thus, national identification is associated with higher out-group
An Analysis of the Multiculturalism Hypothesis
threat and, via threat, to more strong rejection of multiculturalism. Study 2 attempted to generalize
the findings from the first study but the emphasis was on immigrants and ethnic minorities more
generally and whether participants supported their cultural recognition and rights. Results showed
that national identification and out-group threat were negatively associated with support for
multiculturalism. In study 3, Verkyuten (2008) investigated whether these findings generalize to
an older sample by analyzing data collected among a national sample of Dutch adults. In this study
the focus was on participants’ endorsement of equal rights of immigrants and ethnic minority
groups and also on the authoritarian personality. In agreement with self-categorization theory, it
was found that perceived out-group threat mediated the relationship between national
identification and, this time, support for equal rights for immigrants and ethnic minority groups
while authoritarianism had an independent positive effect on perceived out-group threat and a
negative effect on the support for equal rights.
An Analysis of conflicting views (Pros & Cons).
Migration is a phenomenon which has come to stay and many countries have diverse ethno
cultural groups. The question here is if these groups should maintain their own identity or adopt
the culture of the host or dominant group. Proponents of the multicultural hypothesis posits that
confidence in one’s identity will lead to sharing, to respect for others and to the reduction of
discriminatory attitudes. The case of Canada is held up as a model of how multiculturalism can be
successfully implemented and even though that is true it is argued that multiculturalism was
adopted in Canada as a response to the agitations of the Quebecois who wanted their own national
state. Also, not all ethno cultural groups especially the indigenous peoples accept multiculturalism;
they often prefer maintaining themselves as distinct peoples and often want their lands and cultures
protected. Many national minorities like the Catalans or the Flemish want have a strong sense of
An Analysis of the Multiculturalism Hypothesis
identity but fight to maintain their own public institutions, operating in their own national language
and culture (Kymlicka, 2002), in this case a strong sense of identity does not lead to improve
intergroup prejudice but increases it as that identity wants to be maintained.
On the other hand, critics of multiculturalism argue that it has led to separatism and the
inability of immigrant groups to successfully acculturate in their new country. The UK faces this
problem especially as many immigrants have communities of their own and do not fully interact
with the larger society. Unfortunately, recent terrorist attacks mostly by second and third
generation immigrants (e.g. 2005 London terrorist bombings by British – bred immigrants, 2017
Manchester Arena bombings, 2017 Westminster attack) have not helped the case for
multiculturalism. However, supporters of multiculturalism argue that countries like the UK and
France practice a kind of multiculturalism which is distinctively different from that practiced by
Canada. The kind practiced by France and the UK has led to exclusion and marginalization rather
than integration and a respect for cultures of immigrant groups.
Conclusion
In my opinion, empirical evidence abounds on the positive effects of multiculturalism.
What more as an African, I live in a multicultural society where ethno cultural identities are
respected but a national identity is also shared. I realize however that Africa’s multicultural climate
is radically different from that of European and Western countries because of its quite
homogeneous nature. European and Western countries on the other hand have to deal with race,
religion, political ideologies among others. Nonetheless, the importance of the multicultural
hypothesis which encourages economic and socio –cultural identity in promoting positive
intergroup relations cannot be underestimated. According to Alexander (2013) the second world
war was fueled on racial and religious terms which promoted among other things ‘internal’, intra-
An Analysis of the Multiculturalism Hypothesis
national genocidal campaigns against entire categories of people, Jews, Slavs, and Romani,
homosexuals and the disabled. This led not only to the formation of the European Union but
perhaps the acceptance of a multicultural policy which respected the unique identities of
individuals.
Finally, for the multiculturalism hypothesis to work effectively, certain conditions must be
met. In the special issue “Multiculturalism and Intercultural Relations: A Comparative Analysis”,
Berry (2016) states that multiculturalism hypothesis will be effective if equal participation,
diversity and equity are present. He says “A view of multiculturalism that considers only the
existence of cultural diversity may lead to the emergence of separate cultural groups within a
diverse society. Diversity without equal participation will lead to separation or segregation; equal
participation without diversity will result in assimilation or the pursuit of the melting pot. In the
absence of diversity and equity, marginalization and exclusion will likely occur, but when both
diversity and equity are present, integration and multiculturalism are found”. I agree with this view.
References
Alexander, J. (2013). Struggling over the mode of incorporation: backlash against multiculturalism
in Europe. Ethnic And Racial Studies, 36(4), 531-556. doi:
10.1080/01419870.2012.752515
Banting, K., & Kymlicka, W. (2013). Is there really a retreat from multiculturalism policies? New
evidence from the multiculturalism policy index. Comparative European Politics, 11(5),
577-598. doi: 10.1057/cep.2013.12
Berry, J. (2011). Intercultural Relations in Plural Societies: Research Derived from Canadian
Multiculturalism Policy. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 43(3-1), 5-18. doi:
10.1353/ces.2011.0033
Berry, J. (2016). Comparative analysis of Canadian multiculturalism policy and the
An Analysis of the Multiculturalism Hypothesis
multiculturalism policies of other countries. Psychology In Russia: State Of The Art, 9(1),
4-23. doi: 10.11621/pir.2016.0101
Galyapina V. N., Lebedeva N. M. (2016). Is multiculturalism in Russia possible? Intercultural
relations in North Ossetia-Alania. Psychology in Russia: State of the Art, 9(1), 24-40.
Koopmans, R. (2009). Trade-Offs between Equality and Difference: Immigrant Integration,
Multiculturalism and the Welfare State in Cross-National Perspective. Journal Of Ethnic
And Migration Studies, 36(1), 1-26. doi: 10.1080/13691830903250881
Kymlicka, W. (2002). Contemporary Political Philosophy (2nd ed., p. 330). Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Kymlicka, W. (2003). Immigration, Citizenship, Multiculturalism: Exploring the Links. The
Political Quarterly, 74(s1), 195-208. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-923x.2003. 00590.x
Lebedeva, N., Tatarko, A., & Berry, J. (2016). Intercultural relations in Russia and Latvia: the
relationship between contact and cultural security. Psychology In Russia: State Of The
Art, 9(1), 41-56. doi: 10.11621/pir.2016.0103
Guo, S., & Wong, L. (2015). Revisiting Multiculturalism in Canada Theories, Policies and
Debates. [Place of publication not identified]: Sense Publishers.
Teng, E., & Leong, C.-H. (2018). Localised differences in the conception of cultural and economic
security: Examining the multiculturalism hypothesis in Singapore. In M. Karasawa, M.
Yuki, K. Ishii, Y. Uchida, K. Sato, & W. Friedlmeier (Eds.), Venture into cross-cultural
psychology: Proceedings from the 23rd Congress of the International Association for
Cross-Cultural Psychology.https://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/iaccp_papers/151/
Ward, C., & Masgoret, A. (2008). Attitudes toward Immigrants, Immigration, and
Multiculturalism in New Zealand: A Social Psychological Analysis. International
Migration Review, 42(1), 227-248. doi: 10.1111/j.1747-7379.2007. 00119.x
Verkuyten, M. (2008). Support for Multiculturalism and Minority Rights: The Role of National
Identification and Out-group Threat. Social Justice Research, 22(1), 31-52. doi:
10.1007/s11211-008-0087-7