Theory and Research
Chapter 2
Concepts, Variables and
Hypotheses
 Concepts

Words or signs that refer to phenomena
that share common characteristics
Concepts, Variables and
Hypotheses
 Conceptualization

The process of clarifying what we mean by
a concept
Concepts, Variables and
Hypotheses
 Variable


A characteristic that can vary from one unit of
analysis to another or for one unit of analysis
over time
A concept that varies
Concepts, Variables and
Hypotheses
 Hypothesis


A testable statement about how two or more
variables are expected to relate to one another
A hypothesis is simply a formal version of a
hunch or speculation that usually is based on
a theory.
Concepts, Variables and
Hypotheses
 Dependent variable

A variable that is affected or influenced by
another variable

What you are trying to predict or explain.
Concepts, Variables and
Hypotheses
 Independent variable

A variable that affects or influences another
variable
Social Science and Causality: A
Word of Caution
 Just because two variables are associated
with each other does not necessarily mean
that the change in one variable will create a
change in the other variable
 Establishing causality is difficult

Typical data gathering techniques make it
difficult to determine “cause” and “effect”
Social Science and Causality: A
Word of Caution
 Antecedent variable


A variable that comes before both the
independent variable and dependent variable
May explain the association between the
independent variables and the dependent
variable
Social Science and Causality: A
Word of Caution
 Spurious – non-causal

When an antecedent variable provides such an
explanation as in the fire fighter example, the original
association between the independent variable and
the dependent variable is said to be spurious, or
non-causal.
Social Science and Causality: A
Word of Caution

Establishing causality
1.
2.
3.
Empirical association
Temporal precedence
Elimination of alternative explanations
Social Science and Causality: A
Word of Caution
 Intervening variable

A variable that comes between an
independent and a dependent variable
Social Science and Causality: A
Word of Caution
 Extraneous variable

A variable that has an effect on the dependent
variable in addition to the effect of the
independent variable
The Relationship between Theory and
Research
 Theory

An explanation about how and why something
is

It allows you to go beyond the known facts,
suggesting what you might expect in the future,
and allowing you to organize the facts you
already have.
The Relationship between Theory and
Research
 Measurement

The process of devising strategies for
classifying subjects by categories to represent
variable concepts.
The Relationship between Theory and
Research
 Deductive reasoning

Reasoning that moves from more general to
less general statements.
The Relationship between Theory and
Research
The Relationship between Theory and
Research
 Empirical generalization

A statement that summarizes a set of
individual observations
The Relationship between Theory and
Research
 Inductive reasoning

Reasoning that moves from less general to more
general statements
The Relationship between Theory and
Research
 Grounded theory

Theory derived from data in the course of a study
The Relationship between Theory and
Research
The Relationship between Theory and
Research
Summary
 Relationships existing between research and
theory
 Ethics

Ethical assumptions and implications should
be considered throughout the whole research
process.
Quiz - Question 1
In our research, we are looking at how gender
(male or female) affects the amount of money
individuals leave for tips at restaurants.


What is the independent variable?
What is the dependent variable?
Quiz – Question 2
In our research, we are looking at how gender
(male or female) affects the amount of money
individuals leave for tips at restaurants.

What is a possible hypothesis that could be
generated?
Quiz – Question 3
_____ theory is a theory that is derived from
data collected.
a.
b.
c.
d.
Grounded
Inductive
Deductive
Empirical