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Response to Intervention: Implications for Spanish-Speaking
English Language Learners
by Elsa Cardenas Hagan, Ed.D., University of Houston
The Census Bureau estimates that approximately 5.5 million students in the
United States are English language learners (2000). They speak over 400
different languages but 80% of them speak Spanish in the home (U.S.
Department of Education, 2007). The Hispanic population is projected to
grow 166%, or 28 million persons, from 2005 to 2050 (Fry & Gonzales,
2008). They will represent every 1 out of 5 students in our public schools,
and yet how much do we know about them? Who are our English language
learners?
ADDITIONAL ARTICLES
Response to Intervention in Reading
for English Language Learners
Response to Intervention and the
Disproportionate Representation of
Culturally and Linguistically Diverse
Students in Special Education
Classroom Reading Instruction That
Supports Struggling Readers: Key
Components for Effective Teaching
A simple definition of English language learners is students for whom
English is a second language. However, there are specific classifications of
English language learners based upon their oral language proficiency skills.
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
That is, they may be classified as initially fluent English proficient, limited
Center on Instruction
English proficient, or reclassified English proficient. Students who are
Colorín Colorado
reclassified English proficient are ready for mainstream English instruction
National Clearinghouse for English
Language Acquisition
classrooms (Rivera, Lessaux, & Francis, 2009). These classifications help
us to better serve these students whose academic achievements have been
below their monolingual English-speaking peers.
The National Center for Culturally
Responsive Educational Systems
Results from the National Assessment of Educational Progress conducted in
2005 describes 73% of our English language learners as scoring below
basic level in reading when compared to non-Hispanic whites (NAEP, 2005).
In 2009, there was a 25-point score gap between white and Hispanic
fourth-grade students' reading achievement that was not significantly
different from the gaps in 2007, 2005, or 1992 (NAEP, 2009). To adequately
address this longstanding gap, educators must be knowledgeable in best
practices to help English language learners achieve their academic goals.
Response-to-Intervention Model for English
Language Learners
The Response-to-Intervention (RTI) model is a pledge to address individual
student needs and improve the outcomes of students who struggle with
learning to read, especially language minority students. In fact, there is
growing evidence that RTI can provide effective interventions for English
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language learners who struggle with reading (Linan-Thompson, Vaughn,
Prater, & Cirino, 2006; Vaughn, Cirino, Linan-Thompson, et al., 2006;
Vaughn, Linan-Thompson, Mathes, et al., 2006). General classroom
instruction is analyzed and modified to address student needs before they
are moved to the next level of a three-tiered model (Vaughn & Fuchs, 2003).
Historically, Hispanic students have been over-represented in special
education programs (Artiles, Trent, & Palmer, 2004). The RTI model may
help to avoid over-and under-identification of language-minority students in
special education programs (Bedore & Peña, 2008) because RTI
recommends universal screening and high quality instruction for all students
within the general education setting. In an RTI model, a special education
referral is recommended only after the student has been provided with
differentiated classroom instruction and intensive reading interventions.
Monitoring Progress
The RTI model requires ongoing progress monitoring tools to determine if a
student is making adequate progress. If he or she is not, then supplemental,
explicit interventions are provided within a small group setting, which is
referred to as the second tier of instruction. The student's response to the
intervention is measured to determine whether adequate progress has been
made or if further intervention is necessary. It may also be determined that
more intensive interventions are needed (Gersten et al., 2007).
For language minority students, progress monitoring helps to ensure that
they have received adequate and appropriate educational opportunities for
learning to read. The results of progress monitoring tools can be used to
guide and design instruction for English language learners. However, it is
important to keep in mind that English language learners should not be
penalized for slight differences in their responses which might include their
accents or a certain dialect. These are some modifications that are
necessary when determining an English language learner's progress. It is
clear that the language and literacy skills of English language learners are
not static and require adjustments and enhancements. A response-to
intervention model requires a careful match between the student’s
weakness and the intervention instruction.
In the RTI model student strengths and weaknesses are assessed to
determine the most effective instruction. For English language learners,
assessment that includes testing across languages is the gold standard. If a
student is only assessed in the second language, it is not clearly understood
if the weakness is one of limited second language development or lack of
knowledge of the particular concept. This is an important distinction for
instructors to determine if the focus of instruction should be on second
language development, concept development, or both. The challenge for
English language learners is that they are acquiring a new language and
learning new concepts at the same time.
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Finally, during the assessment process, it is important to use multiple
sources of data to determine the appropriate instructional program for the
English language learner. Some examples include determining the student’s
home language, cultural background, schooling, and language of instruction.
It is also important for school personnel to take into consideration the
reliability and validity of the measurement tools they have selected to
measure a student's level of performance. States such as Texas have
approved lists of assessment tools appropriate for language minority
students (Texas Education Agency, 2009).
Instruction
If during the RTI process, it is determined that English language learners
require Tier 2 interventions, then it is necessary for educators to become
familiar with the research on effective instruction for this population of
students. For example, Developing Literacy in a Second Language: Report
of the National Literacy Panel (August & Shanahan, 2006) includes a review
of the research for literacy instruction among English language learners.
The report suggests that what works for teaching struggling readers in
English can also benefit English language learners, but with modifications.
Careful planning is needed. Adjustments in curricular materials and
instruction to address their educational needs are essential for their
academic success. For example, it is observed that by the time English
language learners are ready to transition to the English language or enroll in
school, the general education classroom instruction is focused on reading to
learn rather than teaching the mechanics of learning how to read.
Instructors must also be aware of the each individual’s second language
development abilities as well as second language literacy skills. Therefore,
when providing literacy instruction it is necessary to include both language
and literacy opportunities. This is not always the case for monolingual
English speakers.
Flanagan, Ortiz and Alfonso (2007) emphasize that it is also important for
educators to remember that individuals who are bilingual are not simply two
monolinguals in one head. Being bilingual carries with it important
experiences that are very different from those with monolingual experiences.
Literacy in English Language Leaners
Languages that are alphabetic share many similarities when it comes to
instruction. These similarities and differences can serve as a resource for
instruction but must be understood fully to inform effective instructional
practices. A discussion of the similarities and differences across the key
components of literacy instruction: phonological awareness, phonics,
fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension for English language learners will
inform the use of RTI with this population.
Phonological Awareness
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Phonological awareness is a key component of literacy instruction across
many languages. Phonological awareness skills include the ability to
process and manipulate the sounds of a language. If a student is able to
process sounds in his or her native language, then it is possible to transfer
these same skills to the second language. For example, the Spanish
language consists of approximately 22 sounds as compared to English with
approximately double the number of sounds, or 44. English language
learners can benefit from exposure to the new sounds of the language. If a
student is able to master phonological awareness skills in the first language
then he or she is more likely to master this ability in the second language. In
an RTI model, a teacher evaluates and determines the sounds an individual
student can process and manipulate. Once this is determined, instruction is
designed to focus on the new and unfamiliar sounds. For Spanish-speaking
English language learners, unfamiliar sounds can include certain vowels,
consonants, and diphthongs. Figure 1 lists some of the English sounds not
present in Spanish.
Figure 1. Examples of unfamiliar English sounds for native Spanish speakers.
Phonics
Another key component of literacy instruction is grapho-phonemic
knowledge or phonics. For English language learners, phonics instruction
can address the concepts of English that are not present in the native
language. English language learners can transfer their phonics knowledge
from one language to the second language. However, for the transfer to take
place, the language must be similar in structure. For example, the Spanish
and English languages are both alphabetic languages. Therefore, the
transfer of knowledge between these languages is more likely to occur.
English language learners require explicit and systematic English phonics
instruction. Teachers may want to consider the similarities across languages
such as Spanish and English when designing reading instruction. For
example, we can teach English language learners the similar letter and
sound correspondences in Figure 2.
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Figure 2. Spanish and English letter-sound correlations.
Spanish speaking English language learners are not likely to be familiar with
English syllable types. Although, some of the same syllable patterns exist in
the Spanish language, Spanish speakers do not rely on these patterns
because vowel sounds are consistent and do not change. Therefore, these
similar syllable patterns are not directly taught during Spanish literacy
instruction. Once again, English language learners can benefit from explicit
phonics instruction that includes learning the following six syllable types in
the English language (see also Figure 3).
1) When an English syllable ends in a vowel and at least one consonant, the
English vowel sound is short. This is a closed syllable.
2) When a syllable ends in one vowel, it produces a long vowel sound,
which is called an open syllable.
3) A vowel, consonant-e pattern makes the vowel sound long and the e is
silent. Spanish speakers tend to pronounce the final e sound because this
pattern exists in Spanish.
4) English has syllables that consist of a vowel followed by the letter r.
5) English has diphthongs or vowel pair syllables.
6) English has final syllables that are stable, such as fle, sion, tion.
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Figure 3. English and Spanish syllable types.
In summary, English language learners can benefit from learning which
components of phonics knowledge transfer and what is similar or dissimilar
about the two languages. Instructors must not assume that the transfer is
automatic. It should be explicitly taught. It is also important to realize that
teachers do not have to have mastery of the home language of the student
to point out concepts that do or do not transfer. This can easily be
researched and included in the core reading instruction (Tier 1) lessons as
well as during reading intervention lessons (Tiers 2 and 3).
Remember, students who struggle with learning to read in their native
language are likely to exhibit similar difficulties in the second language.
Mastery of the native language literacy does not always ensure mastery of
second language literacy. It is evident that students with native language
literacy abilities are not at as high of a risk for second language literacy
development as those students who exhibit native language literacy deficits.
These students are considered at very high risk for second language literacy
deficits.
Fluency
There is less empirical evidence in the area of reading fluency among
English language learners. There are some studies that pair monolingual
English speakers with English language learners to practice and build
fluency skills. Thus, giving the students excellent models of English reading
fluency has helped to develop English reading fluency. The correlation of
reading fluency to comprehension among this population has not been as
well-established as it has been established for monolingual English
speakers developing English language literacy. But, practices such as
choral, partner, echo, and repeated reading are just a few of the practices
that have assisted monolingual English readers (NICHD National Literacy
Panel Report, 2000). These practices can be used with English language
learners as we await further studies in the area of reading fluency skills
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among English language learners. Some studies report that English
language learners can benefit from fluency practice (Kamps, Abbott, et al.,
2007; Vaughn, Linan-Thompson, et al., 2006).
Vocabulary
In the area of vocabulary development, it is well-established that English
language learners lag behind their monolingual English peers (August,
Carlo, et al., 2005). English language learners require explicit instruction in
common every day words as well as academic words. One resource for
native Spanish speakers is the fact that 60% of the English language is
derived from Latin. Many common words in the Spanish language are
high-level words in English. For example, facile in Spanish is the common
word fácil and edifice in English is the common word edificio in Spanish.
Teachers need to be aware of the similarities of words across languages
and use this as a basis for teaching new words in English.
Instructors must also be aware that students do not spontaneously
recognize cognates, or words in both languages that are similar as shown in
Figure 4 (August, Carlo, et al., 2005). They need explicit and purposeful
instruction in this area. Remember, words must be used in context and
practiced extensively for English language learners to master the
understanding and use of the new vocabulary words. It is important for
instructors to assess word knowledge within and across languages to better
understand English language learners' vocabulary knowledge. This
information will also guide instruction for English language learners in all 3
tiers of instruction within an RTI framework.
Figure 4.
Examples of cognates or words from different languages that are similar.
English language learners also need assistance with understanding words
with multiple meanings. The Spanish language has fewer words with
multiple meanings than English, so English language learners need many
opportunities to use these words in various contexts. Instructors should
choose words carefully. For example, the word run has many meanings.
Grammatically, it is typically a verb. However, the contexts in which we use
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the word run vary. I run to the store. I run copies of the handouts. Sam runs
the senator’s campaign. The word run can also be used as a noun. For
example, Sally will participate in the 5K run. The complexities involved in
using and understanding the multiple meanings and grammatical functions
of words such as run require explicit instruction for English language
learners.
It is also important for English language learners to learn basic vocabulary
words as well as academic vocabulary words. A few studies have described
the use of graphic organizers with visual illustrations of key terms,
vocabulary words, and the relationship among words as a method to
facilitate comprehension among English language learners (Kim, Vaughn,
Wanzek, & Wei, 2004; Merkley & Jeffries, 2001). In addition, having
students play games such as charades whereby the students are acting out
action words such as verbs is also helpful for learning the words. Having
students make their own glossaries as shown in Figure 5, is another way to
help students build their word repertoire. The glossaries can include the
word, the word meaning, and a picture or sentence to further understanding
of the word’s meaning. Finally, listing the word in the native language is also
helpful. Students can use their glossaries as resources for reviewing words
and their meanings.
Word in
Word
Usage
Picture
Native
Language
The musician
musician performed a
músico
concert last night.
soloist
The soloist sang
two songs.
solista
My mother's pearls
gleam
gleamed in the
brillo o reflejo
sunlight.
The flicker of the
flicker
candles made
shadows on the
parpadear
wall.
Figure 5. Sample student glossary for improving vocabulary skills adapted
from August and Carlo, 2005.
Comprehension
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In the area of reading comprehension, English language learners have great
difficulty. Their reduced vocabulary levels may be a factor contributing to
their difficulty with comprehension acquisition. There are few empirical
studies on effective comprehension studies among English language
learners. The National Literacy Panel Report (2000) cited strategies such as
questioning, comprehension monitoring, and summarizing to be effective for
monolingual English speakers. These same strategies can be integrated
during instruction with English language learners. English language learners
require intense and explicit instruction in this area. They may also benefit
from native language support to increase the depth of their understanding.
Summary
English language learners respond to instruction that is designed to meet
their individual language and conceptual needs. Designing that instruction is
a challenge for a number of reasons (e.g., paucity of research, differences
between languages). Research on interventions for English language
learners has had positive outcomes when instructors teach new skills
explicitly and intensely with minor modifications to general classroom
reading instruction.
In the future we will have more research to help educators better understand
the most effective methods for the assessment and intervention among our
English language learners. Yet, we cannot wait for an abundance of
research regarding the RTI model and its effectiveness among English
language learners to be readily available. Instead, we must make informed
decisions based upon what we do know. We do know the advantages of a
model that emphasizes universal screening, identifies students who struggle
with learning to read, and provides early and intensive reading interventions.
RTI’s ongoing progress monitoring informs adjustments to instruction and
programming, paving the way for all students to succeed in reading,
including those who belong to the fastest growing population in our schools
—English language learners.
Tips for Effective Instruction
As students are identified as requiring additional and more intensive
instruction, it is clear that English language learners can respond to explicit
and systematic instruction (Vaughn, Linan-Thompson, et al., 2006).
However, it is important to consider the instructional modifications listed
below:
1) Establish routines so that students understand what is expected of them.
2) Provide native language support when giving directions or when assisting
the student in making connections across languages.
3) Provide opportunities for repetition and rehearsal so that the new
information can be learned to mastery.
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4) Adjust the rate of speech and the complexity of the language used
according to the second language proficiency level of each student.
5) Provide opportunities for English language learners to practice using their
new second language skills. This practice can be designed during small
group instruction or during cooperative learning settings, which are less
intimidating environments for the second language learner to use the newly
acquired skills.
6) It is important to consider pairing an English language learner with a more
proficient English speaker. In this way, the student is assured of receiving
correct models of the second language.
7) English language learners need more time to process language during
the early stages of second language development. They also need extra
time to formulate their responses.
8) It is important to build upon what English language learners already know
and expand upon their knowledge.
9) Teachers should provide excellent models of oral language. If an English
language learner creates a simple sentence, then the instructor can build
upon this and focus on adding new grammatical structures such as
adjectives and adverbs.
10) Interventions are more effective when students new learning is
introduced and practiced. They are also effective when both content and
language skills are addressed.
11) English language learners respond better to text that includes familiar
content. They also understand text with more ease when they have
opportunities to preview, review, paraphrase, and summarize.
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This article was originally published in Perspectives on Language and
Literacy, vol. 36, No. 2, Spring 2010, copyright by The International
Dyslexia Association. www.interdys.org Used with permission.
Visit www.rtinetwork.org for more information on this topic.
Copyright © 1999-2012 National Center for Learning Disabilities, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
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