Attachment
Paper 1
Paper 1
Candidates should be able to: 3.1.3
Attachment
1. Caregiver-infant interactions, reciprocity and synchronised
interactions, Schaffer - stages of attachment, multiple
attachments and the role of the father
2. Animal studies: Lorenz & Harlow
3. Explanations of attachment: learning theory and monotropy
(Bowlby) Critical period and internal working model
4. Ainsworth's Strange Situation; Secure, insecure-avoidant,
insecure-resistant. Van Ijzendoorn - Cultural variations
5. Bowlby's theory of maternal deprivation, Romanian orphan
studies
6. Influence of early attachment on childhood and adult
relationships: internal working model
GREEN
AMBER
RED
What is attachment?
What is attachment?
Write a definition using
the words bond,
reciprocal and
emotional (2 marks)
Why would
researchers ask
independent judges to
judge the interactions
between child and
parent? Why would the
researchers not do it
themselves? (2 marks)
Proud father Abdul was talking to his friend, as they were both watching Abdul’s wife,
Tasneem, interacting with their baby daughter, Aisha.
‘It’s amazing really’, said Abdul. ‘Tasneem smiles, Aisha smiles back. Tasneem moves her
head, Aisha moves hers, perfectly in time with each other.’
‘Yes’, agreed the friend. ‘It’s almost as if they are one person.’
With reference to Abdul’s conversation with his friend, outline two features of caregiverinfant interaction. (4 marks)
:
What do you think the
consequences might be
for a child who doesn’t
develop an attachment
to another human
being?
In pairs try to communicate without using words or hand gestures.
How do you show your intention to communicate?
Communication involves turn-taking. How can you achieve this with non-verbal
communication?
Define reciprocity
What is interactional synchrony?
Summarise briefly a study of interactional synchrony-
Murray and Trevarthen (1985)- asked
mothers to adopt a 'frozen face' and not
interact. 2 months old babies were very
upset and tried to draw mother back into
interaction.
Isabella et al (1989) found that securely
attached mother-infant pairs had shown more
instances of interactional synchrony in first
year of life.
Read the two studies above- Explain why reciprocity and interactional synchrony are
important in the formation of attachment.
Use your notes and complete the mind map for the following question: Outline and evaluate research
into caregiver-infant interactions 16 marks
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Caregiver-infant
interactions
Stages of attachment
1. What is a longitudinal study?
2. Separation anxiety is ‘unhappiness when separated from a certain person.’ How
would Schaffer and Emerson have judged whether the infant was unhappy?
3. At what age do infants develop a preference for a single attachment figure?
4. What is ‘sensitive responsiveness?’
5. Schaffer and Emerson found that the father was the main attachment figure for
only 3% of infants. How might these results be different if the study carried out
today? Explain your answer.
6. What does this study tell us about multiple attachments?
7. Do infants always attach to the person who feeds them? (Remember this for
future use!)
6
Apply Now
Laura is 7 months old she is looked after by a child minder, Jackie, while her
parents are at work. Recently she has started to show great distress when her
mother drops her off and cries inconsolably.
Use your knowledge of the stages of development of attachment to explain her
behaviour.
How long is this behaviour likely to last? Explain your answer.
7
Use your notes and complete the mind map for the following question: D e s c r i b e and evaluate Schaffer’s stages of
attachment 16 marks
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Stages of Attachment
8
Animal studies
Lorenz (1935)- Imprinting
Lorenz divided a clutch of eggs in two halves:
-
one half was left to hatch with the mother (the control group)
the other half were hatched in an incubator, the first moving thing they saw was
Lorenz.
Results: The control group followed their mother goose everywhere whereas the second
group followed Lorenz.
He marked the goslings to indicate which group of eggs they had hatched from and then let
them out together from an upturned box; each gosling went straight to its 'mother figure'.
Lorenz' goslings showed no recognition of their real mother.
Lorenz, in some of his experiments, got young ducks and goslings to imprint on inanimate
objects such as wellington boots.
Stephen Lea (1984) proposed that instinct gives the chicks the concept or template of the
mother but the environment has to supply the details.
What is imprinting?
What is a critical period?
What do these results suggest about the cause of attachment? (nature? Nurture?)
Explain your answer
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Why would it make sense from an evolutionary point of view for the offspring to be
programmed to get attached?
Can we generalise the results of Lorenz’s study to humans? Explain your answer
(hint: goslings are mobile as soon as they hatch it takes 6-7 months for human
babies to be mobile, do mother geese respond in the same way to their offspring
than human mothers?)
Sexual imprinting
Lorenz also observed that birds that imprinted on humans then displayed courtship
behaviour towards humans when adults. However Guiton (1966) found that though this
was the case with chickens imprinted on washing up gloves they eventually learnt to mate
with their own species.
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Harlow (1958) – Effects of privation
16 monkeys were separated from their mothers immediately after birth and placed in cages with
access to two surrogate mothers, one made of wire and one covered in soft terry towelling cloth.
1. Eight of the monkeys could get milk from the wire mother
2. Eight monkeys could get milk from the cloth mother
The animals were studied for various length of time.
Results
Both groups of monkeys spent more time with the cloth mother (even if she had no milk). The
infants of the second group would only go to the wire mother when hungry. Once fed they would
return to the cloth mother for most of the day. If a frightening object was placed in the cage the
infant took refuge with the cloth mother. The infant would explore more when the cloth mother
was present.
Then Harlow observed the difference in behaviour differences between the monkeys who had
grown up with surrogate mothers and those with normal mothers. They found that:
•
They were much more timid.
•
They didn’t know how to behave with other monkeys and could be aggressive.
•
They had difficulty with mating.
• The females were “inadequate” mothers some even killing their offspring.
These behaviours were observed only in the monkeys who were left with the surrogate mothers
for more than 90 days. For those left less than 90 days the effects could be reversed if placed in a
normal environment where they could form attachments.
Harlow concluded that “contact comfort” (provided by the cloth mother) was more important than
food in the formation of attachment. This also shows that contact comfort is preferable to food but
not sufficient for healthy development. He also concluded that early maternal deprivation leads to
emotional damage but that its impact could be reversed in monkeys if an attachment was made
before the end of the critical period. However if maternal deprivation lasted after the end of the
critical period then no amount of exposure to mothers or peers could alter the emotional damage
that had already occurred.
Can Harlow’s findings be applied to humans? Explain your answer
How could these findings be applied in real life?
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Why do we carry out animal studies?
What are the advantages of animal studies?
What are the ethical issues raised by this research?
Apply Now
In Japan mothers have great difficulties finding child care for their babies. Government
officials say that "eventually, robots will be able to take up and assume many of these tasks
that women are currently doing at present."
Based on Harlow’s research explain the effects this could have on children.
12
Use your notes and complete the mind map for the following question: D e s c r i b e and evaluate animal
studies of attachment 16 marks
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Animal Studies of
Attachment
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Explanations of attachment
Nature
Bowlby’s evolutionary
theory
Vs
Nurture
Learning approach:
conditioning
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Learning Theory
The learning theory argues that we are born ‘TABULA RASA’ (blank slate). Therefore the theory
states that attachments are no more than a set of learned behaviours
DOLLARD and MILER (1950) propose that attachments can be learnt through two processes (a)
Operant Conditioning and (b) classical conditioning.
The learning theories of attachment is also known as “cupboard love”.
There are two types of conditioning involved in learning theory:

Classical conditioning is learning by association (of the neutral stimulus with the
unconditioned stimulus)

Operant conditioning is learning by consequences. There are two types of reinforcement;
positive and negative.
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Classical Conditioning – learning by association
1. Before conditioning
Label each stage with the
appropriate stimulus or
response. The box below tells
you how many of each you
should use.
Food
Happy baby
2. During conditioning
Carer
Mother
Food
Food
Happy baby
3. After conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus x 2
Unconditioned response x 2
Neutral stimulus x 1
Conditioned stimulus x 1
Mother
Happy baby
Conditioned response x 1
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Operant conditioning – learning by consequences
If a behaviour has pleasant consequences (positive or negative reinforcement) then it is likely
to be repeated. If it has unpleasant consequences then it is unlikely to be repeated.
Positive reinforcement is when a
Negative reinforcement is when a
behaviour results in the addition
behaviour results in the
of something pleasant.
subtraction of something
E.g. when the baby cries he gets
unpleasant. E.g. when the child is
food, crying is reinforced.
fed the unpleasant sensation of
hunger stops.
.
Both positive and negative reinforcement make it more likely for the behaviour to be
repeated.
Attachment, according to Dollard and Miller, combines the two types of conditioning.
•
Infants are reinforced in the behaviours that will produce desirable responses from
others (i.e. fed when they cry)-Operant conditioning.
•
They learn to associate the caregiver with the feeling of pleasure when they are fed.
Classical conditioning.
This is called cupboard love
Cloze Activity – A01 Learning theory of attachment
…………………………………. (1950) proposed a learning theory of attachment; this states that attachment is based on
the principles of behaviourism (………………………………and ……………………. conditioning). The infant forms an
attachment with the individual who cares for it by forming an……………………………….. For example food brings
…………………… and an end to discomfort. The infants start to associate theses feeling with the person who brings
the food and feeds it and the caregiver.
In terms of operant conditioning any behaviour that produces a ………………………………(positive reinforcement) will
be repeated. Crying gets the baby food, so therefore crying will be repeated. Being fed also removes
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………………………………reinforcement (feeling hungry) and again makes the crying behaviour more likely to be
repeated.
In terms of classical conditioning the food becomes the ………………………………..as the milk gives pleasure, the
caregiver is the …………………………………However the caregiver becomes a conditioned stimulus
by………………………………….. Over time the caregiver comes to mean comfort and pleasure in the same way that
food does.
This theory is also known as the …………………………………………………..theory as it states that attachments only form
because of the infant’s love of food, according to this theory, no food would mean no attachment.
Does evidence support the learning theory of attachment?
The basis of the learning theory of attachment is that the infant attaches because it
needs food. However, this is not supported by evidence from research. Explain how the
following studies could be used to challenge the learning theory of attachment:
Schaffer and Emerson (1964):
Harlow’s monkeys (1958):
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Lorenz’s goslings
The learning explanation might not be the full explanation of attachment as it has very
little support but it is true that humans learn by conditioning so it might be that this
approach focused on food as reinforcement whereas the reinforcement is in fact the
attention and responsiveness of the caregiver.
19
Use your notes and complete the mind map for the following question: D e s c r i b e and evaluate learning
theory as an explanation of attachment 16 marks
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Learning Theory of
Attachment
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Bowlby’s evolutionary theory of attachment
Bowlby was mainly interested in the caregiver – child relationship. He
produced a new theory of attachment by combining Freud’s ideas with the
ethological concept of imprinting.
Bowlby’s theory of attachment is quite complex, and includes many specific
terms which you need to be able to understand and evaluate. Begin by matching the
descriptions of the key principles below to the terms in the boxes:
Bowlby Cloze Activity – A01
Bowlby’s theory of attachment (1940) involved 9 main ideas. The first
being that new borns have …………………..characteristics this is that they
possess characteristics that they are born with such as …………………………… (baby like
features; big eyes, round cheeks etc). He stated that forming a close relationship was
……………………………….as it helps us to survive, we are less likely to get separated and be
in danger if we are firmly attached. Bowlby believes infants have ……………………………….,
these are mechanisms used to ensure that the care giver attaches to the infant by signs
such as smiling and cooing. Bowlby stated that there is a ………………………………..in which
attachment will take place; he believes an infant must form an attachment in he first
three years of life or it will become an………………………………………, furthermore he stated
that this need to attach is similar to …………………that takes place in other animals.
Bowlby believes that we must form a single, deep relationship with our caregiver, this is
known as a ……………………………………………….and is used as the ………………………………………
for all future relationships (this is like a template or blue print that we refer to in
relationships, even those formed in adult life).
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Evaluation of Bowlby’s Theory
Did Schaffer and Emerson’s results support this theory? Explain your answer
Lamb (1982) studied the attachment children form and found that rather than being
hierarchical (one attachment more important than the others) the different attachments
served different purpose i.e. the child plays with father and tells stories with the mother.
Does this support Bowlby’s theory? Explain your answer
Do Harlow’s findings support Bowlby’s theory? Explain your answer
An alternative explanation for the apparent continuity in styles of attachment lies in
Jerome Kagan’s Temperament Hypothesis (1984). Kagan noted that innate temperamental
characteristics which made infants ‘easy’ or ‘difficult’ had a serious impact on the quality
of the mother-infant relationship and thus the attachment type. These innate
temperamental characteristics would influence the individual throughout life and thus
love relationships.
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Use your notes and complete the mind map for the following question: D e s c r i b e and evaluate Bowlby’s
monotropic theory of attachment 16 marks
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Bowlby’s Theory of
Attachment
23
Individual differences in attachment - The Strange
Situation (Ainsworth, 1978)
The Strange Situation is a procedure for assessing the quality of attachment
between the infant and mother. It was developed by Mary Ainsworth et al (1978)
and involves a series of episodes where the child is left alone and adults come in and out of
the room. The procedure lasts for 24 minutes in total (each stage lasted 3 mn).
 What was the main aim of the
study?
 Who were the participants?
 The Strange Situation uses a controlled observation methodology. Explain how this
differs from a naturalistic observation:
Ainsworth assessed the quality of attachment on the basis of the child’s
response to specific episodes of the procedure. Explain each of the
following terms, in relation to the Strange Situation:
 Separation anxiety:
 Reunion behaviour
 Stranger anxiety
 Exploration Behaviour
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The Strange Situation - procedure
The Strange Situation procedure involved the child experiencing eight ‘episodes’. Complete the
storyboard with a description and illustration of what happened during each episode:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
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The Strange Situation – results
Ainsworth identified three different types of attachment. Complete the table with a description of how each
attachment type responded to each episode of the procedure:
TYPE OF
ATTACHMENT
Mother present
(exploration)
Mother leaves
(separation anxiety)
Stranger enters
(stranger anxiety)
Mother return
(reunion behaviour)
Secure
------ %
Insecure avoidant
------ %
Insecure resistant
------ %
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Attachment Types Activity
Read the following and state which attachment type the child is according to Ainsworth’s Strange Situation.
Highlight the key phrases or words that helped you make your decision.
Afterwards, create your own descriptions of children with an attachment type in mind. Share it with another
group and ask them to tell you what type they are.
Child A
Sarah is at the park. Her mother quickly pops into a shop while Sarah is playing. Sarah cannot see her
mother and can only see strangers. She continues playing seemingly unbothered by the absence of her
mother.
Child B
Freddy is watching a television programme while playing. He becomes scared by the programme and
climbs onto his mother’s lap. He is comforted by his mother, and calms down. When he is calmer, he
climbs down and continues playing.
Child C
Sam is dropped off by his mother at the house of a new babysitter. When the mother leaves, he cries
incessantly. The babysitter cannot calm him down. Later on, when the mother comes to pick him up,
she tries to comfort him, but he still cries, and tries to push his mother away.
Child D
Gemma is in a shop. She wanders off and loses sight of her mum. She starts crying, and a stranger finds
her, and tries to comfort her. Gemma still cries and pushes the stranger away. When her mother finds
her, Gemma is relieved and hugs her mother. She calms down.
Child E
Katie is at playgroup with her mother. She seems disorganised and constantly keeps coming back to
her mother while playing. She cries a lot. When her mother leaves the room briefly, Katie cries loudly.
She won’t let any other adult pick her up. When her mother returns, Katie is clingy, but will not let her
mother hug her.
Child F
At a family get together, Bruce goes from adult to adult wanting attention. His mother is not favoured
over other adults. Later when he is taken upstairs to bed, he cries when the door is closed and he is by
himself.
Child G
Nancy is at the doctor’s getting an injection. When she is briefly left alone with the doctor, she is
uneasy but settles when her mother renters the room. When the doctor injects her, she cries and clings
to her mother. After a while her mother is able to calm her down.
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The Strange Situation – conclusions
What reasons can you think of to explain why some infants develop different types of
attachment than others?
Ainsworth suggested the ‘caregiver sensitivity hypothesis’ as an explanation for
different attachment types.
AINSWORTH’S maternal sensitivity hypothesis argues that a child’s attachment style is
dependent on the behaviour their mother shows towards them.

‘Sensitive’ mothers are responsive to the child’s needs and respond to their moods
and feelings correctly. Sensitive mothers are more likely to have securely attached
children.

In contrast, mothers who are less sensitive towards their child, for example those
who respond to the child’s needs incorrectly or who are impatient or ignore the
child, are likely to have insecurely attached children.
This theory is supported by research from, DeWOLFF and Van IJZENDOORN (1997) who
conducted a Meta- analysis (a review) of research into attachment types. They found that
there is a relatively weak correlation of 0.24 between parental sensitivity and attachment
type – generally more sensitive parents had securely attached children.
However, in evaluation, critics of this theory argue that the correlation between parental
sensitivity and the child’s attachment type is only weak. This suggests that there are other
reasons which may better explain why children develop different attachment types and
that the maternal sensitivity theory places too much emphasis on the mother. Focusing
just on maternal sensitivity when trying to explain why children have different attachment
types is therefore a REDUCTIONIST approach.
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An alternative theory proposed by KAGAN suggests that the TEMPERAMENT OF THE
CHILD is actually what leads to the different attachment types. Children with different
innate (inborn) temperaments will have different attachment types.
This theory is supported by research from FOX who found that...
Babies with an ‘Easy’ temperament (those who eat a sleep regularly and accept new
experiences) are likely to develop secure attachments
Babies with a ‘slow to warm up’ temperament (those who took a while to get used to new
experiences) are likely to have insecure-avoidant attachments.
Babies with a ‘Difficult’ temperament (those who eat and sleep irregularly and who reject new
experiences) are likely to have insecure-ambivalent attachments.
Again, in evaluation, the infant temperament hypothesis can be criticised as being
reductionist as it takes a very narrow view on what causes the different attachment types (it
only focuses on one factor – the temperament of the child). Research has shown that other
factors
are influential
in the
development
of attachment
type. develop different attachment
In
conclusion,
the most
complete
explanation
of why children
types would be an INTERACTIONIST theory. This would argue that a child’s attachment
type is a result of a combination of factors – both the child’s innate temperament and their
parent’s sensitivity towards their needs.
BELSKY and ROVINE (1987) propose an interesting interactionist theory to explain the
different attachment types. They argue that the child’s attachment type is a result of both
the child’s innate temperament and also how the parent responds to them (i.e. the parents’
sensitivity level). Additionally, the child’s innate temperament may in fact influence the way
their parent responds to them (i.e the infants’ temperament influences the parental sensitivity
shown to them). To develop a secure attachment, a ‘difficult’ child would need a caregiver
who is sensitive and patient for a secure attachment to develop.
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Evaluating the Strange Situation
 Validity
o Only measures attachment to mother
o
Doesn’t consider temperament of child
o
Demand characteristics
 Reliability
 The study lacks ecological
This is because the study takes place in a controlled, A___________________
environment. This means we cannot be sure that the behaviour of the child is
reflective of their N_______________, real life behaviour.
However, Ainsworth argues this point by saying that the
strange situation is actually very similar to many
situations a child encounters in their real life – such as
being left with a baby sitter or at a nursery.
The research has a SMALL, LIMITED SAMPLE
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This is because Ainsworth only uses 26 child-mother pairs, all of whom are
M_____________ C_________________ W_____________. This means the sample is UNR__________________________ and therefore results may not generalise to the wider
population.

Some critics argue the strange situation has ETHICAL ISSUES
This is because the research takes place in an unfamiliar environment and the
procedure will cause the child to experience DISTRESS.
Therefore there are issues with _____________________ of______________________
However, Ainsworth argues against this criticism by stating
again that the situations which occur in the research are no
more distressing than those a child will experience in their
everyday life.
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Use your notes and complete the mind map for the following question: D e s c r i b e and evaluate the
Strange Situation 16 marks
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Strange Situation
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Cross cultural variations in attachment
What do we mean by ‘culture?’
Explain the difference between individualist and collectivist cultures:
VAN IJZENDOORN and KROONENBERG (1988)
– Meta Analysis of cultural variations in attachment
Fill in the missing words
Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg conducted their meta- analysis in
_________. They compared the findings of _____ studies of the
strange situation as devised by _________________ in
_________. They found some variations between western and nonwestern cultures but overall the most common form of attachment
across all cultures was _______________ _______________.
They found a greater variation within __________________ than
between cultures. The findings suggest there is a need to
_____________for all infants, lending further evidence that is an
___________behaviour.
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RESULTS:
% of Each Attachment Type
Country
Germany
Israel
Japan
China
USA
Great
No. of Studies
B - Secure
A - Avoidant
C - Resistant
3
56.6
35.3
8.1
2
64.4
6.8
28.8
2
67.7
5.2
27.1
1
50
25
25
18
64.8
21.1
14.1
1
75
22.2
2.8
Britain
Make a bar graph of the Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg results (5 marks)
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CONCLUSIONS
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg found a large variation in the attachment types
of children in different cultures, which is likely to reflect the different child
rearing practices. Based on their findings they could make a number of additional
key conclusions.
1. Type B secure attachments are the most common type of attachment across
all cultures
2. There are different patterns of attachment between cultures
3.
Evaluation
How do these results support Bowlby’s theory? (hint: if attachment patterns are
similar in all cultures what does this suggest?)
How would Bowlby explain the cultural variations? (hint: if the attachment is
influenced by the behaviour of the caregiver, how might that influence
attachment?)
For example, there are a higher number of Insecure – Avoidant (type A)
attachments in GERMANY. This could be because...
Also, there are a higher number of Insecure – Ambivalent (type C) attachments in
ISRAEL, JAPAN and CHINA. This could be because...
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There is significant variation of attachments within cultures
Van Ijzendoorn looked at multiple studies in each country. However, he found that
every study produced different levels of each classification. This INTRACULTURAL VARIATION suggests that it is an over simplification to assume all
children are brought up in the same way in particular country. How could this be
explained?
EVALUATION of Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s study
STRENGTHS
WEAKNESSES
 The use of a META ANALYSIS is
 The use of the STRANGE SITUATION in
ETHICALLY SOUND
each study is an issue
Because there was no new data collection
This is because the strange situation is argued
involved in the study (only analysis of secondary
to be an ETHNOCENTRIC procedure. It was
data), no more children had to be put through
developed in America, based on American
the potentially traumatic ‘strange situation’
norms, so it may only be useful for studying
procedure.
Western children. Using it to assess the
attachments of non-western children could be
The study has significant APPLICATIONS
TO PSYCHOLOGY
argued to be inappropriate as it does not take
into account culturally specific elements. Its
use is therefore an IMPOSED ETIC when
This study was the first large scale comparative
used in non western cultures.
analysis of attachment studies in different
 The study may NOT BE TRULY
countries. The conclusions significantly
developed our understanding of not just the
different child rearing practices in different
cultures but how these different child rearing
practices can impact on a child’s attachment
type.
REPRESENTATIVE
In some countries, Van Ijzendoorn only looked
at a small number of studies (e.g.1 in china
compared to 18 in the USA). This means the
results for these countries may not be truly
representative and may not generalise to the
country at large.
Methodology link...
What is a meta-analysis?
36
What is ethnocentrism?
What did Van Ijzendoorn find about differences in attachment styles within
cultures?
37
Use your notes and complete the mind map for the following question: D e s c r i b e and evaluate
research into cultural variations in attachment 16 marks
A02/3
A01
Cultural Variations
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Maternal deprivation hypothesis
“Mother love in infancy is just as important for a child’s mental health, as
vitamins and minerals are for physical health” Bowlby, 1953
Bowlby (1951) considered that a strong attachment to a mother figure was essential for
the psychological, emotional and intellectual development of babies and toddlers. Loss
of an existing attachment, ‘maternal deprivation’ could result in serious and long-lasting
problems - even affectionless psychopathy. He argued that the first 2.5years of life, the
critical period, were crucial if the child was separated from their primary attachment
figure (often the mother) for an extended period of time and in the absence of substitute
care damage was inevitable.
Brief separations do not have any long lasting effects according to Bowlby, deprivation
only occurs if the child is separated from the person he/she has made a primary
attachment with for an extended period of time in the absence of substitute emotional
care.
Effects on of prolonged separation on emotional
developmentthe 44 juvenile thieves (Bowlby, 1944)
Bowlby was a psychoanalyst and psychiatrist, working at the London Child Guidance Clinic in the 1930s
and 1940s.
Aim: To investigate the long-term effects of maternal deprivation
Procedure:
He selected an opportunity sample of 88 children attending his clinic.
Group 1- thief group: 31 boys and 13 girls in the ‘theft group’ were referred to him because of their
stealing.
Group 2- control group: 34 boys and 10 girls were referred to him because of emotional problems.
The two groups were matched for age and IQ.
The children and their parents were interviewed and tested by a psychiatrist (Bowlby), a psychologist
and a social worker focusing specifically on their early life experiences.
Findings
Thief group: 14 children from the theft group were identified as affectionless psychopaths, 12 of those
had experienced prolonged separation of more than six months from their mothers in their first two
years of life whereas only 5 of the 30 children not classified as affectionless psychopaths* had
experienced separations.
Out of the 44 children in the control group, only 2 had experienced prolonged separations and none of
them were affectionless psychopaths.
*Affectionless psychopathy: a lack of normal affection, shame or sense of responsibility.
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What conclusion can we draw from this study? (link with the MDH)
Evaluate the 44 juvenile thieves
It was a correlational study
The data was obtained through interviews
The study used retrospective data
The study was a natural experiment therefore the participants were not allocated
randomly to the conditions
Extraneous variables could have affected the outcome (for example quality of the
substitute care, temperament of the child, reasons for separation)
Lewis (1954). She replicated the study on 500 participants but did not find evidence
of a link between early separation from the mother and criminality or difficulties in
forming relationships.
Effects of prolonged separation on intellectual development – Goldfarb (1955)
Goldfarb studied 15 children who had been raised in an institution for the first 3 years of their
lives and were then placed in foster care. He compared them to a group of children who had
been in foster care since early infancy. Goldfarb found that the institution group, even in
adolescence, were delayed intellectually compared to the foster care group, displayed more
problem behaviours, were socially less mature and had problems making and sustaining
relationships.
Goldfarb concluded that early institutionalisation resulted in developmental deficits that were
not overcome once children were placed in more stimulating and loving environments.
40
Apply Now
Laura is 2 years old, her mother died of cancer recently and she has not got any family to look
after her. Her social worker, Phil is considering Laura’s future. Based on your knowledge of the
maternal deprivation hypothesis what advice would you give Phil? Explain your answer.
41
Use your notes and complete the mind map for the following question: D e s c r i b e and evaluate
Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation 16 marks
A02/3
A01
Bowlby’s MDH
42
Effects of institutionalisation
An institution is a place where people live for a long time
(they do not go home in the evening) for example
orphanages.
In Romania, the Ceaușescu regime aimed to increase the
population by not allowing abortion or contraception.
Many families could not look after their children so they
were placed in orphanages where there was very little
physical or emotional care and no cognitive stimulation.
When the regime collapsed in 1989 these children were
found and many were adopted outside Romania i.e. in the
UK, France and Canada.
Privation occurs when children have never
formed an attachment. This is more likely to
happen in institutions if there is poor emotional
care although it can happen also outside
institutions in situations where there is severe
neglect.
Rutter and Songua-Barke (2010)
Sample: 165 Romanian children (previously lived in institutions) of these 111 adopted before the age of 2 and
54 adopted by the age of 4.
They were compared to 52 British children adopted by the age of 6 months.
The children were tested regularly for physical, social and cognitive development at the ages of 4,6,11,15.
Findings: at the time of adoption, the Romanian children were behind the British children in all three aspects.
Cognitively they were classified as mentally retarded. By 4, most of the Romanian children who had been
adopted by the age of 6 months had caught up with the British children. Many of the children adopted after
the age of 6 months showed disinhibited attachment* and had difficulties with peer relationships.
* Disinhibited attachment: The child doesn’t seem to prefer his or her parents over other people, even
strangers. The child seeks comfort and attention from virtually anyone, without distinction.
What conclusion can we draw from this study?
43
Evaluate Rutter & Songua-Barke (at least 6 points)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The Bucharest Early Intervention project
LeMare and Audet (2006)
Zeanah et al. (2005) assessed the attachment in 95
children aged between 12-31 months who had
spent an average of 90% of their life in an
institution and compared them to a control group
who spend their life in a “normal family”. The
attachment type was measured using the Strange
Situation.
Findings:
74% of the control group was found to be securely
attached but only 19% of the institutionalised
group. 65% of this group were classified as
disorganised attachment.
They carried out a longitudinal study on the
physical growth and health of 36 Romanian
orphans adopted by Canadian families and
compared them to a group of children raised
in normal Canadian families. Data were
collected for each child at three time points:
at 11 months after adoption, at 4.5 years of
age and at 10.5 years of age.
Findings:
The first two sets of results showed that the
adoptees were behind the noninstitutionalised group however by 10.5 years
old there was no difference between the two
groups. The Romanian orphans had caught up
with the children raised in normal Canadian
families.
Disorganised attachment: insecure attachment, the
children display an inconsistent pattern of
behaviour; sometimes they show strong attachment
other times they avoid the caregiver.
44
What do these two studies show?
Write a summary of the effects of institutionalisation.
Apply Now
Johan has been adopted at the age of 4. Before this he was in an orphanage where there
was very little emotional care. He is now 6 years old. His parents have noticed that he
behaves in the same way towards strangers than he does with them. Johan hurt himself
recently and he did not ask for them but accepted comfort from a man who stopped to
help him.
What type of attachment is Johan displaying? What is the reason for this?
45
Use your notes and complete the mind map for the following question: D e s c r i b e and evaluate
research into Romanian orphans 16 marks
A02/3
A01
Romanian Orphans
46
Influence of early attachment on later relationships
According to Bowlby’s theory when we form our primary attachment we also make a
mental representation of what a relationship is (internal working model) which we
then use for all other relationships in the future i.e. friendships, working and
romantic relationships.
This implies then that we should find a positive correlation between the quality of
primary attachment and later attachments.
The Love Quiz - Hazan and Shaver (1987)
Ethics briefing
This study involves questions that may be related to sensitive information about your early life
experiences and which may suggest problematic adult relationships. You do not have to complete this
questionnaire and you do not have to allow your data to be used in research. Please note that the
suggested correlation between early experience and later relationships is not 100 per cent – there are
many individuals who overcome early, unfavourable circumstances. In addition this correlation is not
proven.
Question 1: Which of the following best describes your parents’ relationships with each other?
a) My parents had a caring relationship and are affectionate with each other
b) My parents appear to have a good enough relationship with each other but are not especially
affectionate.
c) My parents have a reasonable relationship and are sometimes affectionate towards each other.
Question 2: Which of the following best describes your relationship with your mother?
a) My mother treats me with respect and is accepting and not demanding. She is confident about
herself
b) My mother is humourous, likable and respected by others. She treats me with respect.
c) My mother treats me with respect but is sometimes cold and rejecting.
Question 3: Which of the following best describes your relationship with your father?
a) My father is sometimes affectionate but can be unfair.
b) My father is caring, affectionate and humourous.
c) My father is reasonably caring.
47
Question 4: Select the statement that best describes your experiences of intimacy.
a) I find that others are reluctant to get as close as I would like.
b) I find it relatively easy to get close to others and am comfortable depending on them and having
them depend on me.
c) I am somewhat uncomfortable being close to others; I find it difficult to trust them completely,
difficult to allow myself to depend on them.
Question 5: Select the statement that best describes your experiences of intimacy.
a) I don’t often worry about being abandoned or about someone getting too close to me.
b) I often worry that my partner doesn’t really love me or won’t want to stay with me.
c) I am nervous when anyone gets too close, and often romantic partners want me to be more
intimate than I feel comfortable being.
Question 6: Select the statement that best describes your experiences of intimacy.
a) I enjoy relationships but am generally quite self-sufficient.
b) I have been lucky in love and most of my relationships are rewarding. I still like the people I was
involved with.
c) At times I wish I could just melt into someone so we could get beyond our separateness.
Question 7: Select the statement that best describes your attitudes towards love.
a) The kind of head-over-heels love that is depicted in novels and in the movies does not exist in real
life
b) It’s easy to fall in love and I often find myself beginning to fall in love, though I am not sure that it
really is love.
c) Love is a positive and real experience.
Question 8: Select the statement that best describes your attitudes towards love.
a) It is rare to find a person one can really fall in love with.
b) In some relationships romantic love never fades.
c) Most of us could love many people equally well, there is no ‘one true love’.
Question 9: Select the statement that best describes your attitudes towards love.
a) I think that romantic feelings do wax and wane.
b) Romantic feelings wax and wane but at times they reach the intensity experienced at the start of a
relationship.
c) Intense romantic love is common at the start of a relationship but rarely lasts.
48
However this is determinist and individuals who have had insecure childhood attachment have also
been found to have happy relationships in adult life.
Briefly describe a study that indicates this.
49
Use your notes and complete the mind map for the following question: D e s c r i b e and evaluate
research into the influence of attachment on childhood and adult relationships 16 marks
A02/3
A01
Influence of Early
Attachment
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Attachment word search
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Case study
Van Ijzendoorn
Kroonenberg
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51
Exam Questions (AS Level)
1. In van Ijzendoorn’s cross-cultural investigations of attachment, which one of the
following countries was found to have the highest percentage of anxious-avoidant
children? Pick one only.
A China
B Germany
C Great Britain
D Japan
[1 mark]
2. In van Ijzendoorn’s cross-cultural investigations of attachment, which one of the
following countries was found to have the highest percentage of anxious-resistant
children? Pick one only.
A China
B Germany
C Great Britain
D Japan
[1 mark]
3. In van Ijzendoorn’s cross-cultural investigations of attachment, which one of the
following attachment types was found to be most common in all of the countries
investigated? Pick one only.
A Anxious-avoidant
B Anxious-resistant
C Disorganised
D Secure
[1 mark]
4. In van Ijzendoorn’s cross-cultural investigations of attachment, which one of the
following statements is correct? Pick one only.
A Cross-cultural studies of attachment only investigate the variation between cultures and
not the variation within cultures
B There was no difference in the variation within cultures compared to the variation
between cultures
C The variation between cultures was greater than the variation within cultures
D The variation within cultures was greater than the variation between cultures
5. Read the item and then answer the question that follows.
Proud father Abdul was talking to his friend, as they were both watching Abdul’s wife,
Tasneem, interacting with their baby daughter, Aisha. ‘It’s amazing really’, said Abdul.
‘Tasneem smiles, Aisha smiles back. Tasneem moves her head, Aisha moves hers, perfectly
in time with each other.’ ‘Yes’, agreed the friend. ‘It’s almost as if they are one person.’
52
With reference to Abdul’s conversation with his friend, outline two features of caregiverinfant interaction.
[4 marks]
6. Read the item and then answer the question that follows.
Studies of attachment often involve observation of interactions between mother and baby
pairs like Tasneem and Aisha. Researchers sometimes write down everything that happens
as it takes place, including their own interpretation of the events.
Explain how such observational research might be refined through the use of behavioural
categories.
[4 marks]
7. Read the item and then answer the question that follows.
Joe was taken away from his alcoholic parents at six months old and placed in care. He was
adopted when he was seven years old, but has a difficult relationship with his adoptive
parents. He is aggressive towards his younger siblings and is often in trouble at school. His
last school report said, ‘Joe struggles with classwork and seems to have little regard for the
feelings of others.’
Discuss Bowlby’s maternal deprivation theory. Refer to the experience of Joe as part of
your discussion.
[12 marks]
53
Exam Questions (A Level)
1. Name three stages in the development of attachments identified by Schaffer.
1
2
3
[3 marks]
2. Read the item and then answer the question that follows.
A nursery school worker and her manager were chatting at the end of the day.
‘How did the new toddlers settle in today?’ asked the manager.
‘They behaved very differently’, replied the nursery school worker. ‘Max was distressed
when his mother left but was happy to see her at the end of the day.’
‘Jessica arrived clinging to her mother and I could not calm her down when her mother left.’
‘William barely seemed to notice when his mother left and did not even look up when she
returned to collect him.’
Name the attachment type demonstrated by each of the children in the conversation above
by writing the attachment type next to the name below.
Max
Jessica
William
[3 marks]
3. Briefly evaluate learning theory as an explanation of attachment.
[4 marks]
4. Read the item and then answer the question that follows.
A group of researchers used ‘event sampling’ to observe children’s friendships over a period
of three weeks at break times and lunchtimes during the school day.
Explain what is meant by ‘event sampling’.
[2 marks]
54
5. The investigation in question 09 is an example of a ‘naturalistic observation’.
Briefly discuss how observational research might be improved by conducting observations in
a controlled environment.
[4 marks]
Discuss research into the influence of early attachment on adult relationships.
[8 marks]
55