THE ANGLO-SAXON AND MEDIEVAL PERIODS
When people think of the Middle Ages, they often think of elegant kings and queens in grand
castles and shining knights on horseback. In reality, life was harsh, with diseases such as the
Black Death taking their toll. The Middle Ages (or medieval period) in England lasted about
1,000 years, from the fall of the Roman Empire to the rise of the Renaissance. This was a time of
religious, social, and political upheaval. Despite these challenges, it was also a time of cultural
development. By the end of the Middle Ages (around 1485), England had established its own
distinct literary tradition.
THE ANGLO-SAXONS
The Roman Empire had conquered all of the area now known as England (which they called
Britannia) by the year 90. By the year 200, though, the Roman Empire was in decline. Areas on
the edges of the empire, like Britannia, were under constant attack. One group of Germanic
invaders, the Anglo-Saxons, began to conquer Britannia around 450.
The Anglo-Saxons did not originally have written literature. Instead, they had poems and songs
that were passed down from generation to generation orally. These poems and songs were
composed in various dialects of Old English. They usually had heroic themes related to
important events of the past (such as Beowulf) or more recent battles and victories.
In 597, a monk, later known as St. Augustine, was sent to bring Christianity to the Anglo-Saxon
rulers of England. Christianity spread, and with it, written literature. Some early texts were
translated from Latin into Old English, and Anglo-Saxon poems and songs were written down
for the first time. Very few examples of Old English poetry remain, but those that do give
evidence of the rich oral tradition that preceded them. They also show the religious shift in
Anglo-Saxon culture as Christian themes were incorporated into heroic tales that referenced an
older pagan era.
THE NORMAN INVASION
In 1066, Normans led by William I “The Conqueror” defeated the AngloSaxons at the Battle of Hastings. Soon after, William I was crowned King of
England. The Normans came from Northern France, and under William I much
of the nobility of England now spoke French. With the introduction of French
influence, the English language continued to evolve from its Germanic roots
into Early Middle English.
Literature, too, was influenced by the blending of the Briton, Anglo-Saxon, and French cultures
that followed the invasion. Nobles in the court of William I and his successors were fascinated
by tales of King Arthur. These tales, based on an earlier Briton oral tradition, had been recorded
by historian Geoffrey of Monmouth in his Latin work History of the Kings of Britain. French
poets of the 12th and 13th centuries expanded on these legends in works called romances that
dealt with themes of chivalry and courtly love. Later, in the 15th century, the Arthurian romances
written by the French poets were translated into English and used by Sir Thomas Malory as
source material for his own versions of the legends, which remain popular to this day.
TURBULENT TIMES
Although William I’s conquest of England had created ties between England and France, which
had been strengthened by marriage alliances of later kings, these ties did not last. In 1337, war
broke out as French and English rulers fought over control of lands on the European continent.
The struggle continued on and off until roughly 1453, thereby earning the name the Hundred
Years’ War.
About the same time, a major event occurred that would forever change
European society—the Black Death. Between 1347 and 1351, a pandemic broke
out that killed an estimated one-third of Europe’s total population. The sudden
loss of so many lives created social instability. When combined with high taxes
for the wars in France and oppression by the church and the nobility, there was
widespread discontent in England’s lower classes. In 1381, the Peasants’ Revolt
broke out. Rebels marched on London, killing several royal officials before the
rebellion was put down.
Although the Peasants’ Revolt ultimately failed, it was against this backdrop of social unrest that
many major works of Middle English literature were written. Chaucer, for instance, was likely
living in London and employed by the court of King Richard II at the time. Later that same
decade, he would begin writing his best-known works, including The Canterbury Tales.
THE END OF AN ERA
In 1455 a civil war known as The War of the Roses broke out in England, as two branches of the
royal family struggled for control. In 1485 Henry VII defeated Richard II to ascend to the throne.
Some historians use this event to mark the end of the Middle Ages in England. Over the course
of a millennium, English literature had developed from a small collection of Old English poems,
based on an earlier oral tradition, to a much larger body of poetry and prose that reflected the
political, cultural, and linguistic shifts in English society. As England moved from the Middle
Ages into the Renaissance, the introduction of printing presses with movable type promised to
revolutionize reading, writing, and literature in ways that could not yet be imagined.
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