ARGOMENTI ESAME DI STATO
LINGUA INGLESE
→MODULO I
E-MAILS AND BUSINESS LETTERS
The term e-mail is short for electronic mail and is used to describe the transmission of
messages or information from one computer to another via an electronic network,
normally the Internet. E-mails provide high-speed, almost instant channel of
communication at very low cost, so today they are the most common form of written
business communication between companies. An e-mail reaches its destination
immediately and can be saved on the computer.
A business letter is a letter written in formal language, usually used when writing
from one business organization to another, or for correspondence between such
organizations and their customers, clients and other external parties. The most
important parts of the business letter are:
- The letterhead or heading is printed at the top of the firm’s notepaper and contains
the firm’s name, the full address, the telephone and fax numbers, and the e-mail
address.
- The references are written in letters or in figures and are used for filing and
reference purposes.
- The date can go on the left-hand or right-hand side of the letter under the sender’s
address.
-The inside address is the address of the person or firm you are sending your letter to
(addressee or recipient).
- The salutation (or greeting) in a business letter is always formal. It often begins
with “Dear {Person’s name}”.
- The body of the letter contains the text of the letter and is divided into paragraphs.
- The complimentary close is a short and polite remark that ends your letter.
- The signature is the name of the person, it is typed and is often followed by his or
her position in the firm.
- The enclosures are other documents contained in the letter.
JOB APPLICATION AND CURRICULUM VITAE
When you apply for a job you are typically asked to complete an employment
application. Once you have found one or more ads which might be suitable for you,
the next step is send you CV. A CV, curriculum vitae or résumé is a document that
outlines and summarizes your qualifications, interests, experience and training. You
submit it to obtain an interview when seeking employment.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TRADE AND COMMERCE
Commerce is concerned with facilitating the exchange of goods and services in the
economy. Commerce includes the exchange of goods and services along with
activities as banking, insurance, advertising, transportation, warehousing, etc. to
complement the exchange.
Trade is selling and buying of goods and services between two or more parties. There
are different kinds of trade: home trade (within a state) and foreign trade (divided in
import and export trade). The scope of commerce is wider than that of trade, which
not only refers to the exchange of goods and services but also includes all those
activities that are vital for the completion of that exchange.
Trade occurs when goods between two parties have been exchanged for the money
or its equivalent. Trade is a specific subset of all activities necessary to exchange
good between two parties. These other activities relate to, for example:
transportation, storing, advertising, payment facilities or insurance possibilities. The
important feature of trade is the exchange of money (currency) or its equivalent, e.g.
the selling and purchasing of a security. Trade between countries is related to the
exchange of currency. In that sense, trade is the extension of domestic economic
activities generally driven by industries.
Commerce is not simply the exchange of goods and services, but also all other
activities that are essential for the effective exchange like transport, insurance,
banking or advertising. In other words commerce embraces all efforts which are
necessary to exchange goods between producer and ultimate consumer. It means, that
within commerce you are expected to produce (or acquire) a product, find a customer,
execute a trade and report it. Commerce must be considered in the larger context of
the entire economy. It can be treated as a process that is designed to extract financial
benefits. Commerce has six main functions. It creates a link between the producers
and consumers. It removes a place and time gap between the producers and
consumers. It helps the buyers and sellers in making and receiving payments and
provides them with credit facilities. By involving insurance commerce provides
protection and compensation to the insured against various types of risks. And
finally, through advertising, it makes people aware about the product and related
particulars.
→MODULO II
BANKING SERVICES
Banking services means any banking deals, services and products provided by the
Bank. Banking services include borrowing money (operazioni di credito passive, io
cliente presto i soldi alla banca e li deposito), lending money (operazioni di credito
attive, io cliente chiedo soldi alla banca attraverso un mutuo per esempio), foreign
exchange, investement.
THE BANK OF ENGLAND
The Bank of England is the central bank of the United Kingdom and the model on
which most modern central banks have been based. It is the world's eighth-oldest
bank. It was established in 1694 to act as the English Government’s banker. In
Britain there are four main types of banks: commercial banks, saving banks (cassa di
risparmio), merchant banks (banca mercantile) and building banks (società di credito
edilizio).
THE STOCK EXCHANGE
The Stock Exchange is a market for the buying and selling of securities (titoli, valori
mobiliari) of all types. A stock exchange, securities exchange or bourse, is a
facility where stock brokers and traders can buy and sell securities, such
as shares of stock and bonds and other financial instruments. The prices of the
securities depend on supply and demand which are influenced by many factors such
as general state of trade, economic situation, government’s policy. Companies must
first register with a Stock Exchange if they wish to have their shares listed, bought
and sold on the Exchange. The biggest and most influential Stock Exchanges in the
world are historic Stock Exchanges in New York (Wall Street), London, Paris,
Amsterdam, Frankfurt, Milan and Zürich.
THE LONDON STOCK EXCHANGE
London Stock Exchange is a stock exchange located in the City of
London, England. As of April 2018, London Stock Exchange had a market
capitalisation of US$4.59 trillion. It was founded in 1571, making it one of the oldest
exchanges in the world.
London Stock Exchange is one of the world's oldest stock exchanges and can trace its
history back to 1571.
The Royal Exchange had been founded by English financier Thomas Gresham on the
model of the Antwerp Bourse, as a stock exchange. It was opened by Elizabeth I of
England in 1571. During the 17th century, stockbrokers were not allowed in the
Royal Exchange due to their rude manners. They had to operate from other
establishments in the vicinity, notably Jonathan's Coffee-House. At that coffee house,
a broker named John Castaing started listing the prices of a few commodities, such as
salt, coal, and paper, and exchange rates in 1698. Originally, this was not a daily list
and was only published a few days of the week. The Royal Exchange housed not only
brokers but also merchants and merchandise. This was the birth of a regulated stock
market, which had teething problems in the shape of unlicensed brokers. In order to
regulate these, Parliament brought out an Act in 1697 that levied heavy penalties,
both financial and physical, on those brokering without a licence. It also set a fixed
number of brokers (at 100), but this was later increased as the size of the trade grew.
This limit led to several problems, one of which was that traders began leaving the
Royal Exchange, either by their own decision or through expulsion, and started
dealing in the streets of London. The street in which they were now dealing was
known as 'Exchange Alley', or 'Change Alley'; it was suitably placed close to
the Bank of England. Parliament tried to regulate this and ban the unofficial traders
from the Change streets.
In 2004 London Stock Exchange moved to a brand-new headquarters in Paternoster
Square, close to St Paul's Cathedral.
In 2007, the London Stock Exchange merged with Borsa Italiana, creating London
Stock Exchange Group (LSEG). The Group's headquarters are in Paternoster Square.
→MODULO III
THE EUROPEAN UNION
The European Union is a political and economic union of 28 member states that are
located in Europe. The EU’s members are Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia,
Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece,
Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands,
Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, and the United
Kingdom. The EU was created by the Maastricht Treaty, which entered into force on
November 1st, 1993. The treaty was designed to enhance European political and
economic integration by creating a single currency (the euro), a unified foreign and
security policy, and common citizenship rights and by advancing cooperation in the
areas of immigration, asylum, and judicial affairs. The EU was awarded the Nobel
Prize for Peace in 2012, in recognition of the organization’s efforts to promote peace
and democracy in Europe. The government of the European Union consists of a
number of institutions which share legislative, executive and judicial powers. The
most important institutions are the European Parliament and the European
Commission.
THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT
The European Parliament (EP) is the only parliamentary institution of the European
Union (EU) that is directly elected by EU citizens aged 18 or older. Together with the
Council of the European Union (also known as the 'Council'), which should not be
confused with the European Council and the Council of Europe, it exercises the
legislative function of the EU. The Parliament is composed of 751 members (MEPs).
The European Parliament is elected by the people of the member states every five
years. The European Parliament has three places of work – Brussels (Belgium),
Luxembourg City (Luxembourg) and Strasbourg (France). Luxembourg City is home
to the administrative offices (the "General Secretariat"). Meetings of the whole
Parliament ("plenary sessions") take place in Strasbourg and in Brussels. Committee
meetings are held in Brussels. The President of the European Parliament
(Parliament's speaker) is Antonio Tajani (EPP), elected in January 2017.
THE EUROPEAN COMMISSION
The European Commission (EC) is an institution of the European Union, responsible
for proposing legislation, implementing decisions, upholding the EU treaties and
managing the day-to-day business of the EU. The European Commission is the EU’s
executive body and has its official seat in Brussels. It consists of one commissioner
for each member state, a president and two vice-president. It is elected every five
years and each commissioner is responsible for a specific area.
THE EUROZONE
The European Single Market, Internal Market or Common Market is a single
market which seeks to guarantee the free movement of goods, capital, services,
and labour – the "four freedoms" – within the European Union (EU). The market
encompasses the EU's 28 member states, and has been extended, with exceptions,
to Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway through the Agreement on the European
Economic Area and to Switzerland through bilateral treaties. The Single European
Market opened on 1st January 1993 with the Maastricht Treaty or the Treaty on
European Union. The Treaty contained the decision to adopt a single European
currency called euro which would stabilize trade relations inside the Single European
Market called also Eurozone.
→MODULO IV
BUSINESS ORGANIZATION
Private Businesses are of many different types and sizes, from a small shop owned
and run by a single person to a multi-national company. Smaller businesses tend to be
sole traders (imprenditore), partnerships or cooperatives (società di persone). Larger
businesses are all limited companies (società per azioni).
The public enterprises are: government departments, local authority and public
corporations.
SOLE TRADER
A sole trader is the simplest form of business structure and is relatively easy and
inexpensive to set up. As a sole trader you will be legally responsible for all aspects
of the business. You’ll generally make all the decisions about starting and running
your business and you can employ people. He is a person who owns and runs a
business for himself. They have no business partners and they do not trade through a
company. He has unlimited liability (responsabilità illimitata) so he bears all the
risks and losses of the business but also all the profits.
PARTNERSHIP
A partnership is a formal arrangement by two or more parties to manage and operate
a business and share its profits. There are several types of partnership arrangements.
In particular, in some partnerships, all partners share liabilities and profits equally,
while in others, partners have limited liability. There also is the so-called "silent
partner," in which one party is not involved in the day-to-day operations of the
business. A partnership is a business owned by two or more people or partners. The
main advantages of the partnership are: more owners mean more money for the
business, risks and losses are shared among the partners; the disadvantages are:
profits are shared among the partners and no single partners have a full control of the
business.
FRANCHISING
Franchising is a business relationship; wherein the owner authorises another party to
use their brand, product, business system and process in return for adequate
consideration. In finer terms, franchising is an arrangement, in which the
manufacturer permits another firm, the right to use its diverse intellectual property
rights such as trademark, brand name, technical know-how, designs, etc., in addition
to the proven name, goodwill and marketing strategies, for a certain sum. E.g. Mc
Donald’s, Subway.
Franchising is a business relationship where one party, the franchisor (affiliante, casa
madre) gives another party, the franchisee (affiliato) the right to use its trademark,
business systems and processes to produce a good or service according to certain
specifications.
MULTINATIONALS
A multinational company is a large company that operates with manufacturing,
service and sales in several different countries. A multinational consists of a parent
company (casa madre) which has its headquarters (quartier generale) in one country
(Italy for FIAT) and a number of smaller companies called subsidiaries in other
countries. A multinational usually develops new products in its home country and
manufactures them abroad (all’estero).
METHODS OF PAYMENT
There are different methods of payment that can be used before, on or after delivery
of goods, depending on the terms agreed between seller and buyer. The most
important methods of payment are:
-By bank transfer or credit transfer that is a very common method of moving money
from one bank account to another.
-By cheque that is usually enclosed with a covering letter.
-By letter of credit that is a letter from one bank to another by which a third party
(customer) is able to get a particular amount of money.
→MODULO V
TRANSPORT
Transport and distribution have an important role in international trade. It is
necessary for companies to choose the right method of transport to ensure their
packages to be efficient and cost-effective. There are various factors that will
influence company’s decision on which type of transport to use. These factors can
be about business’ requirements, destination country, and the type of goods.
Road, sea, rail and air are four ways of import and export. As a first step the
company has to consider all part of their project, firstly, it is important what has to be
distributed including size, weight and which type of goods. For example, for the
transportation of foods or fruits, speed is important and it’s important to choose the
shortest and quickest way. Sending cost is another element very important and
depends on the agency. Destinations, countries’ law, value of goods, risk of transport
are other elements to be considered and depend on company, country of destination
and customers’ requirements. So who wants to deal with international transportation
has to balance quality, cost, time and conditions.
There are several different methods of transporting goods and the choice depends on
many factors such as cost, time, distance, security, nature and value of the goods, size
and weight of the goods. Boxes and small packages can be sent by parcel post
through the PostOffice (PosteItaliane), but there are also many private delivery
companies which offer express courier services (Bartolini, Gls, Sda).
TRANSPORT BY LAND
Transport by land includes transport by rail (treni), road (strada, tir) and canal. The
main advantages of transport by land are: it is used for heavy goods, it is faster and
cheaper, it is not affected by traffic or bad weather and it does not pollute (non
inquina). The document used in rail transport is the consignment note (lettera di
vettura) which contains the description of the goods.
TRANSPORT BY WATER
Goods transported by sea may be carried either in liners or in tramps. Liners are ships
carrying passengers and commercial cargoes, they operate over regular routes.
Tramps are ships which do not usually carry passengers but which sail when and
where they obtain a cargo. A Bill of Lading is a contract between shipper and
shipowner for the transports of goods usually by the sea. The document includes the
description of the goods.
TRANSPORT BY AIR
Transport by air is affected through scheduled flights (volo di linea) and charter
flights (volo a domanda). Air transport is used for perishable goods, live animals,
medicinal products and goods of high value such as jewelry, scientific instrument,
etc.
The document used in air transport is the Air Waybill that contains information about
the goods.
PACKING
Goods must be packed when they are transported. There are different types of
packing and the choice depends on the kind of product (tipo di prodotto), its size
(grandezza) and weight (peso), the length of the journey (la durata del viaggo), the
type of transport used and the weather conditions (condizioni climatiche).
Instructions about manner of handling goods are often marked on packages or
containers, for example Handle with care, fragile, perishable, etc.
INSURANCE
Insurance (assicurazione) protects people and companies against risks; it provides
compensation for those who have suffered loss or damage. There are different types
of insurance: business insurance, fire insurance (assicurazione antincendio), accident
insurance (per furti o incidenti), and life assurance (assicurazione sulla vita).
→MODULO
VI
THE UNITED STATES
The United States of America is the world's third largest country in size and nearly
the third largest in terms of population. Located in North America, the country is
bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and to the east by the Atlantic Ocean.
Along the northern border is Canada and the southern border is Mexico. There are 50
states and the District of Columbia. More than twice the size of the European Union,
the United States has high mountains in the West and a vast central plain. The lowest
point in the country is in Death Valley which is at -282 feet (-86 meters) and the
highest peak is Denali (Mt. McKinley) at 20,320 feet (6,198 meters).
The United States of America is generally divided into four main cultural and
historical regions.
-the Northeast (New York City, Washington DC, Boston)
-the South (Texas, Florida)
-the Midwest (Chicago)
-the West (Los Angeles, Las Vegas, San Diego, Hollywood)
The United States of America is a federal union of 50 states where Washington DC is
the capital and the seat of the national government. The American Constitution was
adopted in 1789.
The federal government of the United States has three branches of government:
the legislature, executive, and judiciary, as established in the United States
Constitution.When the Founding Fathers wrote the Constitution, they wanted to make
sure that their new government would not have any of the problems that the colonial
British government did. For example, they did not want there to be any person in the
government who had complete power and could do whatever he wanted, like a king.
They also did not want any part of the government to get so powerful that nobody
could control it. Because of this, they split the government's power into three
different branches. Each branch has ways of balancing out the power of another
branch if it gets too powerful. This is called the system of checks and balances.
The United States is the world’s leading economic power. The American economic
system is based on a mixed economy where the government regulates and guides the
country’s economic trends. The leading sector is the service sector but also industry
and agriculture play a fundamental role in the country’s economy.