Logic Reno Fall 2017 First Exam Study Guide READ THE INSTRUCTIONS FOR EACH SECTION. The exam will have these EXACT sections, but different problems within each section. I. If the passage is an argument, circle ARGUMENT and then circle the CONCLUSION. If the passage is not an argument, just circle NOT AN ARGUMENT. 1. ARGUMENT or NOT AN ARGUMENT First of all, there’s no reason to take logic; you can learn what you need to know by watching the talking heads on TV. Second of all, that time would be better spent taking a course in business, after all, we’re here to make money. Lastly, logic is BORING; it’s like math with words. In conclusion, avoid taking a logic course. 2. ARGUMENT or NOT AN ARGUMENT The field of economics is divided into two major branches: microeconomics and macroeconomics. Microeconomics studies the behavior of individual economic agents and how they interact with each other in markets. Macroeconomics focuses on the overall level of economic activity in a society. It studies such topics as unemployment, inflation, and the rate of economic growth. Don E. Waldman, Microeconomics 3. ARGUMENT or NOT AN ARGUMENT The rate at which a light bulb uses energy (converts electrical energy to light and heat) is usually printed on it—for example, “100 watts.” A watt is a unit of power, which describes the rate of energy use. A power of 1 watt means that 1 joule of energy is being used each second. Hence, for every second that you leave a 100-watt light bulb turned on, you will have to pay the utility company for 100 joules of energy. Jeffrey Bennett, et al., The Cosmic Perspective, 3rd edition 4. ARGUMENT or NOT AN ARGUMENT It’s even more important these days that your computer be protected by a firewall. There are criminal elements lurking in the shadows of cyberspace who send out probes to detect unprotected PCs. Once a vulnerable computer is found, these criminals install software that assists them in committing identity theft and fencing stolen IDs. They also defraud online advertisers by using these zombie computers to visit pay-per-click ads. 5. ARGUMENT or NOT AN ARGUMENT An element is a collection of atoms of the same type. Each atom contains three fundamental particles—a proton, a neutron, and an electron. The protons and neutrons are in the center, or nucleus, of the atom. Protons have a positive charge, while neutrons have no electric charge. The electrons have a negative charge and orbit about the nucleus at a specific distance. Edward F. Albin, Earth Science Made Easy 6. ARGUMENT or NOT AN ARGUMENT I went through the drive-thru and got a shamrock shake. I then proceeded to spill the shake on my white shirt. That shirt has not been the same since. 7. ARGUMENT or NOT AN ARGUMENT Liberty can only be understood as the freedom to do what one likes. Capitalism makes it so that most people cannot do what they like. So, capitalism is not a system marked by liberty. 8. ARGUMENT or NOT AN ARGUMENT Anti-fascists have only recent become a target of media attention. As is usually the case with the media, they seek out the most sensational stories, even if they bend the truth. The lies about antifascists that come from these sensationalist accounts are not harmless, either. They promote an equivalency, which indirectly justifies continuing white supremacy and white supremacist violence. 9. ARGUMENT or NOT AN ARGUMENT First, the workers do the labor and so should reap the rewards. That is not possible under current conditions. Plus, capitalists have only accumulated capital through the very labor of the workers they continue to exploit. The political system is controlled by money, and so, by that same capital that originally came from workers’ labor. There can only be one conclusion. A just society requires an overthrow of capitalist relations and the capitalist controlled government. 10. ARGUMENT or NOT AN ARGUMENT You shouldn’t vaccinate your kids. II. For each argument do two things. 1. Circle the correct characterization of the argument, either Inductive or Deductive. 2. Circle the conclusion. 1. INDUCTIVE or DEDUCTIVE The annual snowfall in Buffalo, New York, has been over 40 inches every year for the past 20 years. Therefore, probably the snowfall in Buffalo will be over 40 inches next year. 2. INDUCTIVE or DEDUCTIVE It’s pretty likely that sitting all day in your job is bad for your health. Several studies have shown that the longer people sit each day, the more likely they are to have diseases like type-2 diabetes and heart disease. Studies have also revealed some of the mechanisms within cells that cause this, indicating that cells actually start shutting down when we sit for prolonged periods. 3. INDUCTIVE or DEDUCTIVE All flamingos I’ve ever seen have been pink, and I used to live in several native habitats of flamingos. So, the next flamingo I see will probably be pink. 4. INDUCTIVE or DEDUCTIVE If altruism is impossible, then we always act selfishly. It’s not the case that we always act selfishly. So, it’s not the case that altruism is impossible. 5. INDUCTIVE or DEDUCTIVE If altruism is impossible, then we always act selfishly. Altruism is impossible. So, we always act selfishly. 6. INDUCTIVE or DEDUCTIVE Studies show that apes like gorillas and chimpanzees will act in ways that benefit other apes, even when it will not benefit them. That is, they act altruistically. Given that there is some evolutionary connection between humans and apes, and given that both modern humans and most species of higher apes are highly social creatures, it is very likely that modern humans, too, are altruistic, at least on occasion. 7. INDUCTIVE or DEDUCTIVE Either you will apply yourself or you will drop the course. I know you will not drop the course. So, you will apply yourself. 8. INDUCTIVE or DEDUCTIVE All essay contests are challenges that promote thinking. All challenges that promote thinking are educational experiences. Thus, all essay contests are educational experiences. 9. INDUCTIVE or DEDUCTIVE The population of Virginia is representative of the population of the United States. Virginians support a Medicare for all-type health care plan. So, it’s likely that Americans in general support a Medicare for all-type health care plan. 10. INDUCTIVE or DEDUCTIVE 60% of California Republicans say they voted for Kasich. Selma is a California Republican. So, Selma likely voted for Kasich. III. For each argument do 3 things: 1. Reconstruct the FORM of the argument. 2. Determine whether the argument is valid or invalid. 3. Explain your answer with reference to either established forms or a counter-example. 1. 1. If Homer wears a pink shirt to work, the guys will make fun of him. 2. Homer wears a pink shirt to work. So, 3. The guys will make fun of him. 2. 1. If Homer wears a pink shirt to work, Mr. Burns will have him detained as some sort of free-thinking anarchist. 2. Mr. Burns will have him detained as some sort of free-thinking anarchist. So, 3. Homer wears a pink shirt to work. 3. 1. Either Marge will become a cop or she will start participating in extreme sports. 2. It’s not the case that Marge will start participating in extreme sports. So, 3. Marge will become a cop. 4. 1. If Trump was elected, then America will be great again. 2. If America will be great again, then I will be great again. So, 3. If Trump was elected, then I will be great again. 5. 1. If Lisa doesn’t become a vegetarian, then she will not marry a carrot. 2. Lisa does become a vegetarian So, 3. She will marry a carrot. IV. Reconstruct the arguments using the methods demonstrated in class and in the text. Note that I’ve numbered the statements. Some statements may not be necessary to the arguments and there may be implicit premises or conclusions. If there is more than one argument, attempt to construct an argument that supports the final conclusion of the passage. Look through the example to get an idea about how these go. Example. (1)You should donate to Oxfam. (2) Oxfam efficiently uses contributions to help end longterm poverty by providing the tools for people to get an education and support their families. (3)89 cents of every dollar goes directly to organizations on the ground. (4) The aid provides for things like goats and school books, so that a family can provide for itself and the next generation has options. (5) Also, it feels good to help people. Solution: P1. 89 cents of every dollar goes directly to organizations on the ground. P2. The aid provides for things like goats and school books, so that a family can provide for itself and the next generation has options. C1: Oxfam efficiently uses contributions to help end long-term poverty by providing the tools for people to get an education and support their families. (from P1 and P2). P3: It feels good to help people. C2: You should donate to Oxfam. (From C1 and P3). 1. But it’s worth noting now that (1)the recent Supreme Court decision in favor of so-called “demand response” — rewarding people for adjusting their power usage — puts energy efficiency and demand reduction on a level playing field with electricity generation. That means (2)we are going to see a lot more efficiency and demand reduction in the future, since (3)they are invariably the biggest and cheapest “new” sources of electricity by far.i 2. (1)It is very likely that the changes we have wrought in the climate will continue for some time. First off, (2)we are not likely to stop the increase in CO2 emissions. (3)CO2 is the most significant greenhouse gas. (4)Even if we live up to the Paris Climate Agreement, all this will do is slow down our increase in CO2 emissions. Furthermore, (5)CO2 persists in the atmosphere for ~100 years. So, (6)even if we halted C02 emissions tomorrow, a 4 degree Fahrenheit rise in average global temperatures is inevitable. 3. (1) Capitalism assumes as a moral principle that one must work in order to eat. (2) But, because of automation, increasingly, there simply aren’t enough jobs. (3). So, either we get rid of capitalism or we get rid of its principle of “morality” that one must work or starve. 4. (1)Death is not an event in life: (2) we do not live to experience death. (3)If we take eternity to mean not infinite temporal duration but timelessness, then eternal life belongs to those who live in the present. (4)Our life has no end in just the way our visual field has no limits. -Ludwig Wittgenstein, Tracatus Logico-Philosophicus 5. (1) Although Thomas Jefferson’s contributions to the foundation of the country were profound, (2) as the master of Monticello, Jefferson was a monster. (3)Simultaneously with his writing of the Declaration of Independence, which announced the self-evident truth that all men are created equal, he owned 175 slaves. (4) Clearly the man was a hypocrite. (5) But Jefferson was also cruel. (6) He sometimes punished slaves by selling them away from their family and friends, and (7) for slaves run afoul of the law, he advocated harsh almost barbaric punishment. 6. (1)Rhinos in Kenya are threatened with extinction because (2) poachers are killing them for their horn. Since (3) the rhino has no natural predators, (4) it does not need its horn to survive. Thus (5) there should be an organized program to capture rhinos in the wild and remove their horn. (6) Such a program would eliminate the incentive of the poachers.ii 7. (1) The selling of human organs should be outlawed. (2) If this practice were to get a foothold, people in desperate financial straits will start selling their own organs to pay the bills. Also, (3) those with a criminal bent will take to killing healthy young people and selling their organs. (4)The buying and selling of human organs is also too close to the buying and selling of life itself. 8. (1) The selling of human organs should be outlawed. (2) Allowing human organs to be sold will mean that only the rich can afford transplants. Since (3) whenever something scarce is bought and sold as a commodity, the price goes up. (4) That’s because of the law of supply and demand. 9. (1) Numerous cancer patients on chemotherapy suffer from constant nausea, loss of appetite, and inability to sleep. (2) For many of these patients, inhaled marijuana is the only medicine that provides relief. (3) Also, it causes no harmful side-effects. (4) For these reasons, medical marijuana should be legalized and made available to these patients. (5) This is not a law and order issue; it is a medical and human rights issue.iii 10. (1)All signs point to Hillary Clinton and institutional Democrats continuing to blame everyone but themselves—including Bernie Sanders, James Comey, and the sexist political system— for Clinton’s loss to Donald Trump. (2)If Democrats continue to blame others for their losses, they will continue to lose. (3). It seems likely that Democrats will continue to lose. V. Fallacies. Choose the best characterization of the passages below. 1. Professor Smyth argues for the adoption of stronger standards covering food imported from China. But Smyth is a disgusting leftist ex-hippie who reportedly smokes a ton of pot. Smyth’s arguments are trash, just as he is. a. Argument against the person, abusive. b. Red herring. c. Appeal to unqualified authority. d. Slippery slope. e. No fallacy. 2. Nobody has ever heard a monkey speak English. Therefore, monkeys probably don’t speak English. a. Appeal to ignorance. b. Division. c. Hasty generalization. d. No fallacy. e. Appeal to the people. 3. Children should be seen and not heard. Therefore, it was wrong for a drowning child to scream for help. a. Rigid Application of a Generalization. b. No fallacy. c. Begging the question. d. Hasty generalization. e. False dichotomy. 4. The number of alcoholics has risen steadily for the past 20 years, and so has the number of treatment centers. The treatment centers must be the cause. Therefore, to cut down on alcoholism we should eliminate the treatment centers. a. Appeal to ignorance. b. Equivocation. c. Poisoning the Well. d. Post Hoc. e. No fallacy. 5. If Trump continues with his anti-immigrant message, then he will continue to embolden white supremacists. If he emboldens white supremacists, he will increase his control of the far right. If he increases his hold on the far right, the next thing you know, we will have brown shirts acting as vigilantes. If we have brown shirts acting as vigilantes, then we’re only a step away from camps for “undesirables.” So, if Trump continues his anti-immigrant message, we’ll end up with a large portion of the population in detention camps. a. Appeal to ignorance. b. Division. c. Slippery Slope. d. No fallacy. e. Appeal to the people. 6. Since you can’t actually know that there isn’t a divine creator, there probably is one. a. Appeal to ignorance. b. Division. c. Hasty generalization. d. No fallacy. e. Appeal to the people. 7. 90% of people in the world think there’s a God, so there must be. a. Appeal to ignorance. b. Division. c. Hasty generalization. d. No fallacy. e. Appeal to the people. 8. Ending one’s own life is morally permissible because people are rightfully in charge of their own lives. And this is so because people have the freedom to determine their own destiny. And this follows from the fact that people have the moral right to decide whether they live or die. And this is true because ending one’s own life is morally permissible. a. b. c. d. e. Equivocation. Slippery slope. Post Hoc. No fallacy. Begging the question. 9. There is a lot of talk these days about the need for greater fuel economy in SUVs. But today’s SUV’s are really beautiful. The Cadillac Escalade has clean lines, supple leather, and polished hardwood. The Lincoln Navigator features beautiful paint and the feel of strength and security. And the Mercury Mariner has wonderful styling and a great sound system. Who could ask for anything more? a. Begging the question. b. Red herring. c. Straw man. d. Appeal to Unqualified Authority. e. No fallacy. 10. The University of Mary Washington was founded in 1908, making it 108 years old. So, each of the people at Mary Washington is 108 years old. a. Composition b. Division c. False Dichotomy d. Red herring. e. No Fallacy. 11. Each player on the team is fantastic. So, the team must be fantastic. a. Fallacy of division b. Fallacy of composition c. Appeal to the people d. Equivocation e. No fallacy 12. Grizzly bears are rapidly disappearing. So, look at the grizzly at the zoo, Fred. He’ll disappear any second now. a. Fallacy of division b. Fallacy of composition c. Appeal to emotion d. Red herring e. False dichotomy 13. God exists because the bible says so. But how do I know that what the Bible says is true? Because it is the word of God. a. Fallacy of division b. Fallacy of composition c. Appeal to emotion d. Begging the Question e. False dichotomy 14. America, love it or leave it! a. Fallacy of division b. Fallacy of composition c. Appeal to emotion d. Begging the Question e. False dichotomy 15. Politician: “Since I came into office a year ago, the economy has created tons of new jobs. It’s clear that my tax cuts are working.” a. Complex Question b. Appeal to unqualified authority c. Post hoc d. False dichotomy e. Fallacy of division 16. Each cell in the human body is invisible to the unaided eye. So, you can’t see me at all. Woo hoo! I’m invisible! a. Complex Question b. Appeal to unqualified authority c. Fallacy of division d. Fallacy of composition e. Equivocation 17. In America everyone has freedom. You live in America. It follows that you have the freedom to decide whether you will flap your arms and fly or not. a. Complex Question b. Appeal to unqualified authority c. Fallacy of division d. Fallacy of composition e. Equivocation 18. Every American is either a Republican or a Democrat. So, since Dr. Hemhaw is not a Republican, she must be a Democrat. a. Complex Question b. Appeal to unqualified authority c. Post hoc d. False dichotomy e. Fallacy of division 19. Day always follows night. So, night must cause day. a. Complex Question b. Appeal to unqualified authority c. Post hoc d. False dichotomy e. Fallacy of division 20. So, why is Donald Trump the greatest threat to American democracy in at least a generation? a. Complex Question b. Appeal to unqualified authority c. Post hoc d. False dichotomy e. Fallacy of division i ii Joe Romm, http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2016/01/29/3743517/congress-natural-gas-renewables/ Pamela C. Wagner, “Rhino Poaching” iii Gustin Reichbach, “A Judge’s Plea for Pot”
