The cellular networks are evolving to meet the future requirements of data rate, coverage and capacity. The fourth generation mobile communication system, LTE has been developed to meet these goals. LTE uses multiple antenna features and larger bandwidths in order to accomplish this task. These features will further extend the requirements of data rate, coverage, latency and flexibility. LTE also utilizes the varying quality of the radio channel and the interference from other transmitters by adapting the data rate to the instantaneous channel quality at all the time. This is typically referred to as Link Adaptation. The link adaptation fails from time to time due to the varying channel quality as well as the interference from other transmitters. In order to counteract these failures, retransmission methods are employed. These methods detect the errors on the receiver side and signals the transmitter for the retransmission of the erroneous data. The efficiency of link adaptation increases if combined with a properly designed retransmission scheme at the expense of delays due to retransmissions. This master thesis focuses on the study of the retransmission schemes with faster feedback, resulting in a reduction in delay. The feedback is generated by making an early estimate of the decoding outcome and sending it early to the transmitter resulting in faster retransmission. This is important in certain applications where the data transmission is intolerant to delays. The thesis work shows by system performance simulations that fast packet retransmission, precisely called Early HARQ Feedback, significantly affects the system performance together with the utilization of the link adaptation. The study also shows that the link adaptation, in certain scenarios, can be optimized to improve the system performance. In that respect, it is also possible to increase the number of retransmissions within the same resource utilization. That optimization is basically called aggressive link adaptation. Consequently, Early HARQ Feedback in combination with aggressive link adaptation provides a large improvement in the downlink performance of the studied cases. 9.1.2 Voice Over Internet Protocol For VOIP capacity evaluations, the following performance metrics need to be considered: • System capacity is defined as the number of users in the cell when more than [95%] of the users are satisfied. • A VOIP user is in outage (not satisfied) if [98%] radio interface tail latency of the user is greater than [50 ms]. This assumes an end-to-end delay below [200 ms] for mobileto-mobile communications in LTE. In addition to above requirements, HARQ RTT also affects the system capacity for delay sensitive services like VOIP. As mentioned in Section 6.1.1, in 3GPP release 8, the VOIP delay bound is 50 ms for a user and LTE HARQ RTT is 8 ms, it means that up to 6 transmissions per voice packet is possible. In this way, system capacity is positively affected when EHF is introduced which reduces the HARQ RTT and increases the number of possible retransmissions. Finally, the effects of different HARQ schemes in VOIP traffic model will be discussed in the next chapter. The downlink control channel capacity is an important parameter to analyze the system performance for VOIP case. The point to use unlimited downlink control channel capacity is to reduce the retransmission costs on the control channel. Aggressive LA and fast packet retransmissions introduce a high number of retransmissions which requires a high number of control channel resources. So, due to limited downlink control channel resources, it is infeasible to expect reasonable capacity gain. Moreover, if we have a low number of available grants, the VOIP capacity is expected to be limited by the number of grants. This means that reducing the downlink data channel resource utilization will not result in a VOIP capacity gain. So, in case of a grant limited scenario, we cannot expect any gains from having a more aggressive LA. 1.2 Purpose and Goals The aim of the master thesis is to assess the system performance gains by making an early estimate of the outcome of the decoding attempt. The estimation, in the form of Early HARQ Feedback, is sent to the transmitter at an earlier time compared to the standard HARQ Feedback. 1.3 Disposition The report begins with an introduction to LTE radio access technology and its overall architecture. The link adaptation will be described in chapter 3. In addition to link adaptation, the aggressive link adaptation will be explained briefly as well in the next chapter. Chapter 5 will describe retransmission methods used to negate the transmission errors incurred from inefficient link adaptation. Chapter 6 will describe the Early feedback algorithms and implementation in the radio network simulator. The report concludes with a description about the simulation scenarios along with future enhancements, the simulation results and the conclusion drawn from the simulation results. LTE Overview In a cellular mobile communication system, the user equipments communicate with a central node known as base station which serves a large number of mobile user equipments such as cell phones and mobile broadband modems. The base stations are responsible for carrying the user data to and from the backbone network for mobile users in a dedicated area known as a cell. The first generation of the cellular systems was analog systems. The analog systems were responsible for communicating voice traffic. The volume of the data traffic increased with time as a result of which the analog systems were replaced with the second generation of digital cellular networks, GSM. The second generation of cellular networks were expanded to support packet data transmissions. The requirements of high data rate further increased with time. In order to support high data rate requirements, third generation of cellular standards came into existence. LTE is supposed to improve throughput and spectral efficiency along with reducing the latency. The peak data rate requirement of LTE is 100Mbps. This can be achieved using a scalable bandwidth, multiple antenna elements and link adaptation. The bandwidth in LTE can vary from 1.25 MHz to 20MHz. LTE is also an Internet Protocol (IP)-packet based system with higher data rates and lower packet delay than previous generations. These features are essential for services that demand small delay. The link adaptation and HARQ are indeed crucial components of LTE but also so central to our investigation that they are given separate treatments in the following chapters. This chapter will describe the general concept of LTE limited to those features relevant to the study at hand. 2.1 Technologies behind LTE New technologies in LTE are the key points of LTE success. In this section, the new methods are briefly described to give a basic understanding about the LTE system. 3 4 CHAPTER 2. LTE OVERVIEW 2.1.1 Orthogonal Frequency Division Muliplexing (OFDM) OFDM is a spread spectrum technique which divides a wide frequency band into narrow bands and distributes the data over a large number of subcarriers which forms precise spaces between frequencies. The spacing is chosen so that orthogonality is obtained between each subcarrier and its neighbors reducing the inter symbol interference and inter subcarrier interference. This technique also helps to extract the data with low error probability at high data rate on the receiver side. In downlink transmission, different mobile terminals use different sets of subcarriers in each OFDM symbol interval as user multiplexing. Furthermore in uplink transmission, different subsets of all subcarriers are used by different mobile terminals. This is called orthogonal frequency division multiple access (OFDMA). Downlink Physical Resource Since LTE downlink transmission is based on OFDM, the downlink physical resource can be thought of as time-frequency grid (Figure 2.1). Each resource element corresponds to one OFDM subcarrier during one OFDM symbol interval, and carries one modulation symbol. In case of multi-antenna transmission one resource block is assigned per antenna. In a resource block, there are 84 resource elements (7 OFDM symbols * 12 carries = 84 resource elements). 2.1.2 Scheduling Mobile radio communication has to create some solutions to discard the impacts of the wireless channel to ensure a reliable communication. Through the wireless medium, the transmitted signal is affected by frequency selective fading which results in rapid and random variations in the channel attenuation. Shadowing and path loss directly influence the average received signal energy. In addition to those challenges, interference from other cells or by other terminals also affects the channel quality. Several techniques are used to handle those restrictions. Scheduling A scheduler such as a base station assigns a particular user to get a service from shared channel resources. The scheduling is done using some algorithms typically aimed at increasing the system capacity. In the downlink scheduling, the base station sends a reference signal and each receiving terminal reports an estimate of the channel quality to the base station. By looking at the reports, the scheduler (base station) assigns users to different resources. Uplink scheduling generally use the same procedure as downlink scheduling. In LTE, the scheduler estimates the instant channel variations in time and frequency domain and makes a decision. After making the decision, it assigns the resources to the users. Scheduling decisions can be calculated every 1 ms in the time domain and every 180 kHz in the 2.1. TECHNOLOGIES BEHIND LTE 5 Figure 2.1. LTE Downlink Physical Resources [6] frequency domain. Scheduling Algorithms There are three basic scheduler defined as an example of LTE scheduling algorithms: • Max Carrier to Interference (Max C/I) scheduling assigns users which has the best instantaneous channel quality. • Round-robin (RR) scheduling does not take care of channel condition. Users take in turns to use the shared resource. • Proportional fair (PF) is such a combination of above scheduling methods. It selects users with highest data rate relative to its average data rate. Max Carrier to Interference scheduling gives the best system capacity performance however it is not a fair application for a user at the cell edge with low channel quality. Round robin (RR) scheduling may be seen fair compared to max C/I. Users are allowed to share the radio resources at the same amount, (This also gives the 6 CHAPTER 2. LTE OVERVIEW Time Frequency 1 ms 180 kHz User #1 scheduled User #2 scheduled Figure 2.2. Downlink channel-dependent scheduling in time and frequency domains best service quality for all users) but since RR does not take into account the instantaneous channel variations, the overall system performance dramatically reduces. Proportional fair ensures a nice trade-off between overall system performance and service quality. It calculates relative best radio-link conditions at each time instant. It assigns a user according to this calculation: ki = Ri Ri (2.1) where ki is the "utility score" for user i, Ri is instantaneous data rate for user i, Ri is the average data rate over a certain period. Inter-Cell Interference Coordination Inter-cell interference coordination is a smart scheduling strategy which is firstly used in LTE systems. Before talking about this method, it is important to discuss the intra-cell and inter-cell interference. Interference in the same cell is called intra-cell interference and the interference between the cells is inter-cell interfer- 2.1. TECHNOLOGIES BEHIND LTE 7 ence(frequency re-use factor causes this matter) (Figure 2.3). Signal to Interference plus Noise Ratio (SINR) is a good performance measurement specifically used in layer 1 applications to measure the quality of the concerned signal. SINR is defined as the ratio between received signal power and received interference plus noise power. Interfering mobile terminal Interfering mobile terminal Intra-cell interference. Inter-cell interference. Figure 2.3. Intra-Cell Interference and Inter-Cell Interference Since LTE provides orthogonality between users in the same cell, intra-cell interference is not a subject of any concern. On the other hand, inter-cell interference directly affects the basic communication possibility. To solve this difficulty, base station controls the transmission power at the cell-edge regions where it is possible to see the inter-cell interference effect (it is very close to neighbor cell). The transmission power of parts of the frequency spectrum is reduced by one cell. Then, the reduced part is used by a neighbor cell at its cell edge. Consequently, the effect of inter-cell interference is reduced and high data rate is provided in this region. 2.1.3 Multiple Antenna Support LTE supports multi antennas at both transmitter and receiver side. Multi antenna technology is the key feature to reach an aggressive LTE performance. Different multi-antenna techniques are supported in LTE systems. 8 CHAPTER 2. LTE OVERVIEW Multi receiver antennas can be used to achieve receive diversity. All multiple antennas receive the same transmitted signals which are manipulated under different channel conditions. After the transmission, the receiver processes all signals to suppress the fading effect and in some conditions, it reduces the interference level to decode the data accurately. Multiple transmission antennas can be used as a transmit diversity and beam-forming. Beam-forming can adjust the antenna beam to increase the signal level to a certain terminal(s) instead of increasing the coverage area or vice versa. Through this technique, the received SINR can be improved. Therefore, overall system capacity and coverage can be evolved. Spatial multiplexing, also referred to as MIMO, is used to achieve high data rate when the channel conditions are suitable. Thus, it is possible to send more data packets by using MIMO. The techniques that are described above can be used in different scenarios. According to the channel estimations, the base station decides among the three of them which gives the best system performance. For instance, when the system is at high load or the mobile terminal is at the cell edge experiencing relatively low SINR, spatial multiplexing is not useful to get high data rate since reliable communication is not possible at low SINR. Instead of using spatial multiplexing, multiple transmit antennas can be used to increase SINR by means of beam-forming. On the other hand, if the system works at relatively high SINR, spatial multiplexing increases overall data rate. Transmit diversity and beam-forming is not an efficient method under good channel conditions since there is no need to increase SINR. 2.1.4 Spectrum Flexibility LTE provides flexibility in duplex arrangements as shown in Figure 2.4. LTE supports both frequency division duplexing (FDD) and time division duplexing (TDD) within a single radio access technology. In FDD system, the uplink and downlink transmission occur in separated frequency bands. In contrast to FDD, TDD system uses the same frequency band for the uplink and downlink transmission in different non-overlapping time slots. LTE also gives flexibility in frequency-band-of-operation. It is possible to operate the radio access in a wide range of frequency bands from 450 MHz to 2.6 GHz. 2.2 Downlink Reference Signals The mobile terminal estimates the downlink channel by using the reference symbol technique. The mobile terminal can estimate the channel conditions and 2.2. DOWNLINK REFERENCE SIGNALS 9 fDL fUL fDL + fUL FDD TDD Figure 2.4. Frequency Division Duplex (FDD) vs. Time Division Duplex (TDD) can report it as a form of Channel State Information (CSI). CSI feedback consists of channel quality index and multi antenna configuration messages. Cell-specific, UE (User Equipment)-Specific and MBSFM (multicasr/Broadcast over single frequency network) reference signals are examples of reference signals employed in LTE. Cell-Specific downlink reference signals are used for downlink channel measurements. These measurements contain channel quality estimation, antenna configuration parameters and handoff measurements. In addition to that, they are also used for demodulation of the downlink data in some transmission scenarios. On the other hand, in some transmission scenarios, UE-specific reference signals are used for deriving channel estimation used for demodulating the data sent in corresponding resource blocks. MBSFN reference signals are used for channel estimation for coherent demodulation of signals. 10 CHAPTER 2. LTE OVERVIEW 2.3 LTE Time Domain Structure Figure 2.5 illustrates the time domain structure for LTE transmission. Each radio frame has a length of 10 ms and consists ten equally sized subframes with 1 ms length. One subframe, Tsubframe = 1 ms One slot, Tslot = 0.5 ms One frame, Tframe = 10 ms #0 #1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6 #7 #8 #9 Figure 2.5. LTE Time Domain Structure [6] 2.4 LTE Radio Access Interface The Radio Access interface of LTE for downlink transmission is shown in Figure 2.6. The same interface applies for the uplink transmission with the exception of transport format selection and multi antenna transmission. The Internet Protocol (IP) Packets are conveyed to the Packet Data Convergence Protocol (PDCP) layer which performs ciphering, header compression and integrity protection of the data for transmission. Deciphering and decompression procedures are applied at the receiver [5]. The Radio Link Control (RLC layer) provides services to PDCP in the form of radio bearers. The functions of RLC include segmentation/concatenation, retransmission handling, duplicate detection and in-sequence delivery to higher 2.4. LTE RADIO ACCESS INTERFACE 11 layers [5]. The Medium Access Control (MAC) layer offers services to RLC through logical channels. The main functions of MAC include multiplexing/demultiplexing of logical channels, HARQ retransmissions, uplink scheduling and downlink scheduling [5]. The Physical layer is responsible for coding/decoding, modulation/demodulation, multi antenna mapping and other physical-layer functions. Transport channels serve as an interface between physical and MAC layer [5]. Antenna and Resource Mapping Modulation Coding Hybrid ARQ Antenna and Resource Assignment Modulation Scheme MAC Scheduler eNB MAC Multiplexing Retransmission Control Priority Handling, Payload Selection Segmentation, ARQ Payload Selection Ciphering Header Compression IP Packet PHY MAC RLC # i PDCP # i Antenna and Resource Demapping Demodulation Decoding Hybrid ARQ eNB MAC Multiplexing Concatenation, ARQ Deciphering Header Compression IP Packet PHY MAC RLC # i PDCP # i Redundancy Version Transport Channels Logical Channels Radio Bearers SAE Bearers Figure 2.6. LTE Radio Access Architecture [5] Chapter 3 Link Adaptation The signal quality experienced by a mobile terminal depends on the channel conditions as well as on the multipath propagation. These conditions include the interference from other cells and noise. In order to exploit channel conditions and multipath propagation efficiently, the data rate should be changed according to the channel conditions so that a high rate is used for good channel conditions and low data rate for bad channel conditions. This process is called link adaptation (LA). The benefit of good link adaptation is an increase in the system capacity and good coverage. LA simply adapts the transmission format ( Modulation and Coding Scheme (MCS) and multiple antenna configurations) to optimize the spectral efficiency and/or ensure packet reception and short delays. In practical solutions, due to the random fluctuations of the channel conditions, accurate estimates of the channel conditions are not always available at the base station. LA uses adaptive modulation and coding scheme based on the quality of the channel. The base station use high order modulation and coding scheme, for instance, if the channel is good enough which also means that an accurate link adaptation directly affects the system performance in terms of capacity (throughput). LA performance can also be seen in block error rate (BLER) measurements. The BLER measure is often used as a quality control measure with regards to how well data is retained over time. In brief, a high BLER indicates a high number of lost packages with respect to the total number of packages sent by the transmitter. When a modulation scheme of lower order is used, the system becomes more tolerant to varying channel conditions. The drawback of lower order modulation is low bit rate. On the other hand, higher order modulation increases the bit rate but with less tolerance to varying channel conditions. Consequently, lower code rate is used if channel conditions are varying frequently and vice versa. 13 14 CHAPTER 3. LINK ADAPTATION 3.1 Channel Estimation In LTE, to obtain the information about channel conditions needed for efficient LA, the base station (eNB) sends known reference symbols (RS) to UE:s. By using RS, the UE measures channel quality which it reports back to the eNB. Then, eNB uses LA based on the channel quality for subsequent transmissions. The UE reports on the channel conditions to the base station in uplink in the form of an integer parameter known as channel quality indicator (CQI) . A high value of the CQI means good channel conditions. The transmission parameters and transport block size are selected based on the CQI value, referred to as the CQI index. The CQI index is based on the SINR. The 3GPP specifications doesn’t specify any standardized method to convert SINR into CQI index but the constraint is to have a BLER of 10% when using the transmission parameters indicated by the CQI Index. Table 3.2 shows the modulation and coding schemes used by LA corresponding to absolute CQI indexes. 3.1.1 Channel Quality Indicator Reporting Channel Quality Indicator Types The channel quality indicator is used to report on the channel conditions. There are many ways to represent the CQI as described below [3]: • Wideband CQI: In Wideband CQI, a single value is reported for the whole available bandwidth. • eNB Configured Sub-band Feedback: In eNB Configured Sub-band Feedback, the UE reports wide-band CQI as well as CQI for a number of sub-bands. The CQI for the individual subband is calculated based on transmission in respective sub-band. A so called subband differential CQI is calculated as difference between Subband CQI index and Wide band CQI index. • UE selected Sub-band Feedback: This type is quite similar to the eNB configured Sub-band feedback. The UE reports a wide-band CQI value and another CQI value which is calculated based on M selected sub-bands. The UE selects M sub-bands of size k according to the Table 3.1. The CQI value for these subbands is the difference between the index for the average of M preferred subbands and the Wideband CQI index. Channel Quality Indicator Reporting In LTE, there are two types of channel reporting as described below: 3.1. CHANNEL ESTIMATION 15 System Bandwidth Sub-band Size Number of Preferred (RB:s) (k) Sub-bands (M) 6-7 (Wideband CQI only) (Wideband CQI only) 8-10 2 1 11-26 2 3 27-63 3 5 64-110 4 6 Table 3.1. Subband size and Number of Preferred Subbands for CQI Reporting [3] Aperiodic CQI Reporting: The aperiodic CQI reports are triggered at any time. In order to get these reports, the eNB sends CQI request in the downlink. The UE sends the aperiodic CQI report in the uplink after receiving the CQI request [3]. Periodic CQI Reporting: In the case of periodic CQI reporting, the following two CQI types are supported: • Wideband CQI • UE selected subband CQI The eNB configures the periodic CQI reports. If the periodic CQI report is wideband CQI, the reporting occasion can be a predefined time. For the UE selected subband CQI for periodic reporting, the avaliable subbands are divided into bandwidth parts. After division, a single CQI value is calculated and sent for a single selected subband from each part. The CQI value calculated from each bandwidth part is different each time the report is sent. The subband index is also reported along with the CQI report [3]. 3.1.2 Methods of Channel Estimation Following are some of the methods that are used to perform channel estimation in LTE: Reference Signal based Channel Estimation There are three type of Reference signals that can be used in LTE for channel estimation: • Cell Specific Reference Signals that are available to all users in a cell. • UE Specific Reference Signal that are sent along with data to a particular UE. 16 CHAPTER 3. LINK ADAPTATION • Multimedia Broadcast Single Frequency Network specific (MBSFN) Reference Signals that can only be used for the so called MBSFN Network operation. CQI Index Modulation Coding Rate Efficiency [b/s/Hz] 0 No transmission Out of range 1 QPSK 78/1024 0.1523 2 QPSK 120/1024 0.2344 3 QPSK 193/1024 0.3770 4 QPSK 308/1024 0.6016 5 QPSK 449/1024 0.8770 6 QPSK 602/1024 1.1758 7 16 QAM 378/1024 1.4766 8 16 QAM 490/1024 1.9141 9 16 QAM 616/1024 2.4063 10 64 QAM 466/1024 2.7305 11 64 QAM 567/1024 3.3223 12 64 QAM 666/1024 3.9023 13 64 QAM 772/1024 4.5234 14 64 QAM 873/1024 5.1152 15 64 QAM 948/1024 5.5547 Table 3.2. Mapping between Absolute CQI and MCS [3] Channel Estimation in Frequency Domain Channel estimation in the frequency domain is performed over an OFDM symbol. For this purpose, LTE uses reference signals that are distributed uniformly. The channel estimation in frequency domain can be obtained from the channel transfer function. The channel transfer function can be computed using the following methods [3]: • The first method is to interpolate the estimate of the channel transfer function between reference symbol positions. • The second approach is to perform an IFFT estimation. The details of these methods can be found in [3]. Channel Estimation in Time Domain In the time domain, the computation is performed based on the channel impulse response rather than the channel transfer function. This computation is carried out using Minimum Mean Square Error (MMSE) or Normalized Least mean square methods. The second approach doesn’t require any knowledge about statistics of the channel or noise [3]. 3.2. VARIATIONS OF LINK ADAPTATION 17 The advantage of channel estimation in the time domain is an improved channel estimation of a specific OFDM symbol containing RS. The method utilizes the time correlation with the channel at previous OFDM symbols containing RS [3]. 3.2 Variations of Link Adaptation As explained earlier, link adaptation adapts the modulation and coding scheme according to the channel conditions to optimize spectral efficiency and short delays. Following are the variations of link adaptation: • The first variant involves changing both the modulation and coding scheme in frequency domain. This variant is called frequencydependent modulation and frequency-dependent coding. This variant provides best performance of all other variants. The disadvantage of the method is increased overhead as every transport block should be transmitted with different modulation and coding scheme. • In the second method, the modulation is changed according to frequency characteristics of the channel while coding remains unchanged for the whole bandwidth. This involves less overhead than the previous method but at the expense of performance reduction. • The third method will use the same modulation and coding scheme for the scheduled bandwidth. This will yield the worst performance of the three methods with a significant decrease in signaling overhead. 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speech Volte garbled speech Volte garbled speech Volte garbled speech Volte garbled speech Volte garbled speech Volte Platform RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode SW Version 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 17.Q2 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q3 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q3 18.Q1 18.Q1 RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 17.Q2 18.Q1 18.Q1 17.Q2 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 17.Q2 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q3 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q3 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode 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18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 17.Q2 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode 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18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode 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18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 17.Q2 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 18.Q1 RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode RadioNode 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