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Ethiopian Grade 12 Biology student textbook

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


















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

































 


 


 


 

 

 

 

 

 




 

 

 

 




 

 

 

 

 




 

 

 

 


 














 









 











 
 



















































 
















































 

































 






 



 


































































































































 

 

 

 

 
 

 

 

 

 
 


 

 

 

 





 

 

 

 



 

 

 

 


 

 

 

 
 


 

 

 

 
 

 

 

 

 
 

 

 

 

 
 


 

 

 

 

































































 



















































































































































































 









































































































































































 

































































































































 


 

 

 

 
 

 

 

 

 
 

 

 

 

 
 








 

 

 

 

 


 

 


 


 
 

 

 

 

 



 


 

 

 

 
 


 



 

 
 


 
 


 


 

 









































 









































































































 








 


 
 



 



 





















































































































 




















































































































































 
 
 
 









  

 

 
 
 


















































  
  

   
   

  
 
 
  
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
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
  
  













 

 

 

 

 
 

 

 

 

 
 

 


 


 


 



 



 

 

 
 

 
 


 

 

 

 
 


 

 

 

 
 

 

 

 

 



 

 

 

 
 


 

 

 

 




 

 



 

























 






















 

 























 





 




 


 









 


















 


 

 

 













 

 

 





 






























 
  




 

 

 

 



 
 
 
 
 

 

 
 
 













 
 
 
 
 








































































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











































































































 




























































































































































































































































 





 

 
 


 




 

 

 


 

 

 

 

 
 

 

 

 

 
 




 

 

 
 


 

 



 
 


 


 


 


 





 


 

 




 
 







 



 
















 

 

 

 


 

 




















































































































 



 


 


 



 

 

 

 



 

 

 

 



 

 

 

 



 

 

 


 
 


 





 































































 






      












 



 




























 







































  




































 



 



 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
 

 

 

 

 
 


 

 

 

 


 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 



































 





























































































































































































































































  



















 



































































































































































































































































































 



































































































































































































 

 

 

 

 
 


 


 


  


 





 

 

 

 
 


 

 

 

 
 


 

 

 

 



 





 


 

 

 

 



 
 

 

 
 

 




 


 

 

 

 
 

 



 

 



 
 
 
 
 


















































































































































































































 





 
  





























 







 































         







































 












































































 














































































































          
























        

        





















































































  
  




















 






 

 

  
 




















 



  


 

  
 























  
 



























 


































 

 

 


 


 



 

 


 

 
 





 

 

 

 






















 

 

 
          


 


 





 


 


  


 




 

 

  


 

 

 

 

 

 


 

 

 

 


 

 


 

 
 



 

 

 

 






































 






















  


 

 


 






 


 

 


 







 

 


 









 



 






















 

 


 



























 

 
 


 


 
 
        




 

 



 







 
















































 

 
 

 





 


 


 


 






 






















 
 
 
 
 

 
 



 

 

























































































































































































 









 
 





 

































 





 


  












  




  
  





  















  






  

























 


























 















































 
 










































 






















 









 










































































































































































































































 

























































 




























































































 




 























































 
 








 
 

 
 






















































































































































 






























































































 


























































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


































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
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
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





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
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
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


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

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

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

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

























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



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



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

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





















































































 



















































 


  








 


















































































  






















 
















































 




































 

 

 

 
 


 

 

 

 
 


 

 

 

 



 

 

 

 



 

 

 

 


 

 

 

 
 

 

 

 

 
 

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 
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 
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
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
 
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
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
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
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
 
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 
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 
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 
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 
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 


































 

 


 
 




















































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

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

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

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
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

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

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
























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








































































































































 



























 























































































































































































































































 









 













 
 


























































































 

 



 

 


 


 



 

 

 

 
 

 

 



 



 



 


 

 
 

 



 

 




 


 

 

 
 




 

 



 

 

 

 


 

 



  
 



 
 
 



























 
 
 
 
 


















































































 
 












































































































                    



















 

   

   

 
 

























 
    


   

































































 
 










 
  









































 

































 















 








 

































































































 


 












     
   










































 

 

  


 


 

 

 

 


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 

 

 

 
 



 

 

 

 




 

 

 

 

 




 




 
 


 

 

 

 
 

 

 

 

 
 



 

 

 

 
 


 


 


 


 









 






















































                    





                    
















 
 
 






 
 
 
 









 
 
 
 
 
 
 















              














 
             









              






  




           






















































































































































































































 
 


 


 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 




 

 
 



 



 

 



 





 

 


















  


 

 

 



 


 






 


 

 

 


 










 


 




 


  

 


 








































 








 


 










  

 



































 



 


 




 



  










 














































 


 
 



 

 

 
 
 





 

 


 
 





 
 









































 
 


 


 


 

 


 










 



 
















 
 
 
 



























 

 



























 
  
































































































































































































































































































































































































































































         
 





























































 
 


 


 

 




 

  

 




 




 


 

 

 


 


 


 


 

 

 

 


 

 




 




 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
 



 


 


 

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 

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 

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 



  


 








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 
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 
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 
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 

 
 
 
 
 
 


























































 



































































































 


































































































































 

 

 

 

 
 



 

 


 



 
 

 

 

 

 
 



 

 
 


 

  
 


 


 





 



 

 



 


 


 

 



 

 

 

 
 


 

 

 

 
 


 


 


 


 

 




 

 

 

  
 



 
 








































 
 


 
 










 
 





 


















 

 




 

 



 
 

 










 
 



 
 


















 
 





 
 
 

 
 
 
 











 

















 





































































































































































































































































 



  





























































 





















































































 

 







         





































 


 


 


 


 











 

 

 

 




 


 


 


 


 

 

 

 

 
 








 


 

 


 

 



 



 



 



 


 


 

 

 

 



 

 





 
 

 

 

 

 

 
 
 


















































































































































































 
























































































































































 

 


 

 

 
 

 


 


 


 
 

 


 

 

 




 

 


 


 


 
 





 


 

 

 

 

 
 

 


 


 


 
 

 

 

 

 
 

 

 

 

 



 

 

 

 



 
 
 
 





















































 

















































































  











































 


 
















 











 


































 















































 

 

 

 


 
 

 

 

 

 


 


 


 


 

 

 

 

 

 
 






 

 
 



 

 

 

 


 

 


 


 


 




 

 


 

 
 

 

 

 

 



 

 

 
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 

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



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



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
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


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
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



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




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







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
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
 

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

 




  
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
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
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
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 



 

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 


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





 



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







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 
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

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


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 
  

 


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
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
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



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 

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


  

 

















 


 


 

  





 



  


 





 
































 





 





 






 






 


 
 




 








 

 










 




































































































































































 

























 



































 


 


 


 



 

 

 


 

 

 

 

 

 
 


 

 

 

 
 

 


 


 

 





 
 


 






















































































































 



























































            























































































 


 

 



 

 
 

 

 


 
 


 

 



 

 


 



 

 
 


 

 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 
 

 


 
 



 



 



 

 

 


 


 




 




 





 

 

 

 

 



 




































































































































































































































































































































 



 

 





















































 




 



 
 


 

 

 

 
 

 

 

 

 
 

 

 

 

 



 

 

 

 




 



 



 



 
 


 


 


 


 
 


 

 

 

 
 








 

 



 


 


 


 









 
















































































































































































 
 


 
 





































 











  

























































































 

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 

 

 


 
 
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 
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 
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

 
 
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 
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 
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 
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 
 

 

 




 

 






 

 


 

 

 

 
 




 



 



 

 



 
 


 

 

 

 
 


 

 

 

 



















































  


 







 

 


 


 












 


























 


 

 


 


 


 


 

 
  


 


  









 

































 


 

 
 

 

 






 


 

 










 
 
 

 



 
























 
 



















 

 







 
 
 
 
 









































































































 
 
 
 









 
 
 
 
 
 







































































































 
 
 





















































 





 































































































 
 



















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