Chapter One
WRITING FOR PUBLIC RELATIONS;
MEDIA WRITING AND EDITING
1.1 Introduction
Public Relations is fundamentally the art and science of establishing relationships between an organization
and its key audiences. Public Relations plays a key role in helping business industries create strong
relationships with customers. Public Relations involves supervising and assessing public attitudes, and
maintaining mutual relations and understanding between an organization and its public. The function of
Public Relations is to improve channels of communication and to institute new ways of setting up a twoway flow of information and understanding.
Glen. M. Broom in Effective Public Relations defines Public Relations as a discipline, which looks after
reputation, with the aim of earning understanding and support and influencing opinion and behaviour. It is
the planned and sustained effort to establish and maintain goodwill and mutual understanding between an
organisation and its publics.
Otis Baskin, Craig Aronoff and Dan Lattimore in Public Relations, The profession and the Practice, define
Public Relations as a management function that helps achieve organisational objectives, define philosophy,
and facilitate organisational change.
According to the Public Relations Institute of America, Public Relations is the deliberate, planned and
sustained effort to establish and maintain understanding between an organisation and its publics.
Sam Black, in The Essentials of Public Relations adds such keywords as reputation, credibility, confidence,
harmony and achieving mutual understanding through truth and full information.
As for me, Public Relations is the management function that identifies, establishes and sustains mutually
beneficial relationships between an organization and the various publics on whom its successes or failures
depend.
1.2 PR FUNCTIONS
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Mutually beneficial relations with the public
-
Image building
-
Link between organisation and publics
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Evaluating public attitude
-
Value building
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Promoting public acceptance
1.3 MEDIA FUNCTIONS
–
Information giving
–
Entertaining
–
Educating
–
Watchdog
1.4 MEDIA INTEREST
–
Advertising
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Current affairs
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Sports
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Local stories
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Environment
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Conflict
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Social gossip
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Sex
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Education
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Human interests
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Health
Public Relations involves a lot of print work- there is a lot of writing of press releases, news stories,
designing print materials for publicity, writing on-line information, advertising, Marketing and Broadcasting
on both television and Radio. A successful PRO will engage in Talk shows on TV and Radio, write stories
about their organization, write and edit information for the magazines and Newsletters. Writing is the hinge
on which successful and effective PR rotates.
1.5 NEWS
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There are three types of news stories. These are hard news stories, soft news stories and human interest
news stories.
a) Hard News Stories
This is the news about something that has just happened or is happening. An accident that has just killed an
important person in your organisation; what has caused it, where were they going, what are some eye
witnesses and family members saying…What has the head of your organization said in a meeting. This is
active. Stick to the point and provide simple graspable detail.
b) Soft News Stories
Soft news stories deal with speculation or opinions, plans and proposals. In other words, this is about trends.
We can also get a soft news story from the hard news stories. For example: if the accident kills people, this
is hard news. But if you write about many lives lost as a result of accidents, the frequency of accidents and
their causes, then that is soft news story from the hard news story.
c) Human Interest News Stories
Human interest news stories are literally about people. As you write such a news story, endeavor to seize the
attention of the readers and squeeze emotional reaction from them. Be it anger, smile, tears and or
sympathy. Cause the reader to reach out to his bank account and contribute to the cause. If you are the PRO
of the disabled, children, widows, orphans or anything of the similar nature, there you go. As you write,
intend in your mind to cause the reader to identify with the affected.
Now that we know what types of news stories; how do we actually write?
We have what we call the intro. Intro is not short for introduction. No, it is intro. Intro is that first sentence
that communicates it all. Many people in this age are occupied with a number of things. They have no time
to read the whole story while others have no reading culture. However, we want them to know what we are
communicating. The intro should cater for these concerns.
It is not enough that a news story contains all appropriate facts. The story must also be constructed in a way
that attracts and upholds the reader’s interest. To successfully do that, employ what is called the Inverted
Pyramid.
1.6 THE INVERTED PYRAMID
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The inverted pyramid style of writing calls for the most important facts in a story to be presented first in a
descending order of importance. This is beginning with the most important information and ending with the
least important information.
The inverted pyramid has the 5Ws and H. these 5 Ws and H are Who, What, When, Where, Why and
How.
Who has said what, when did he say it, where were they and why did he say such a thing. How did the
events unfold? Some stories may not necessarily have all these 6 elements but make sure all this information
is in the first sentence. There are some news stories where the writer begins with a proverb, background
information and other irrelevant information at the beginning of an article. That is not good writing. When
we begin to write well, journalists will begin to claim our stories as their own.
1.7 Back grounding
Providing background information is a very important component in writing. Back grounding provides for
information that is not part of the story but rather puts the story in its right perspective. Background
information is not a comment. For example: ―this year’s achievement celebrations are similar to other
celebrations we have been holding and the awards we are giving have been given to others in our previous
celebrations’’. This is back grounding but if you write ― this year’s celebrations are a clear manifestation
that we are working hard and achieving a lot, in fact beating our competitors because in all the previous
years of our celebrations, we are proving our ability and we are unchallengeable‖. This is a comment. Back
grounding is about facts and only facts.
For example, the Daily Monitor of Wednesday, April, 25, 2012 under the Headline: ―S. Sudan calls for talks
despite bombing”, by Amos Machel, he quoted the South Sudanese Information Minister, Benjamin
Barnaba Marial as saying ―we are committed to peace and we have never left the peace table and these
issues cannot be resolved militarily,‖ this is comment but, he added: ―The call comes in the wake of
continued aerial bombing by the Sudan Armed Forces in the oil-rich Unity State. It also comes shortly after
Sudanese President Omar al- Bashil ruled out the resumption of talks, saying South Sudan understands
better the language of guns and bullets.‖ This is back grounding.
1.8 Sourcing
Sourcing in a news story refers to the attribution of information to someone who said it. Sourcing is very
important because it makes the story authentic and convincing.
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You all may have seen vague sourcing that goes as this: ―impeccable sources have confirmed to us…‖ our
better placed sources have confirmed that…‖
Anonymous quotes are unconvincing and reduce the credibility of the story and the reader’s trust of the
story and paper.
Say ―Reuben Twinomujuni, the Public Relations Officer of… revealed that…
How will you convince readers that you, as the writer has not made up this story yourself?
If you are the PRO of an organization, make sure you get a comment from your CEO and include it. Don’t
think for him. There are times when things may go sour. If you will have concocted this comment, you may
not like the outcome.
Writing can be a hard task for some but can also be an enjoyable satisfying hobby to those who care to be
writers.
1.9 Words
To write successfully, it is important to carefully take note of words, understand them and effectively use
them in sentences and paragraphs. Words can emotionally arouse people because they have meanings
beyond the meanings in the dictionary. Words should be simple and direct.
Anyone aspiring to be a writer must know enough about the language, and have enough vocabulary to
choose the right words that convey the right message to himself and the audiences.
1.10 Sentences
The rule for using words is to keep them short and easy to read. The same rule applies to sentences and
paragraphs. However, this is not to say that every sentence must be short; because if every sentence is short,
the story will be disjointed. This will leave the reader breathless. This calls for a need to achieve rhythm.
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Chapter Two
PUBLIC RELATIONS PROFESSIONALISM
AND ETHICS
2.1 Introduction
Ethics is what is morally right or wrong in social conduct, usually as determined by standards of
professions, organisations and individuals. Ethical behavior is a major consideration that distinguishes the
civilized from the uncivilized in society. (Otis Baskin et al 1997)
Baskin further identifies 4 important reasons for ethics in Public Relation, which are:
i) Practitioners are aware that, to some, Public Relations has a reputation for unethical behaviour
ii) Public Relations is often the source of ethical statements from an organisation and the fountain of
ethical and social policies for that organisation
iii) Practitioners have struggled to create suitable codes of ethics for themselves
iv) Practitioners should act on behalf of their organisations as the ethical ombudsman for the publics
they serve.
In the Public Relations discipline, ethics includes values such as honesty, openness, loyalty, fairmindedness, respect, integrity, and forthright communication. This disapproves the wrong notion among
some people who associate Public Relations with all sorts of unethical behaviour like telling lies, spindoctoring, and even espionage. Many critics argue that there can be no ethical Public Relations because the
practice itself is akin to manipulation and propaganda. This is wrong and an unfortunate stereotype.
MEDIA RELATIONS
Media relations refers to the way a Public Relations practitioner should ensure good working relations with
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media practitioners like journalists and editors. These two are friends who cannot run away from each other
because a journalist needs news stories, which a PR manger provides and the PR practitioner needs
publicity, which a journalist provides. Below are some key areas of consideration expected of a PR officer to
ensure good relations with the media.
a) Be on call 24 hours and be able to answer any call.
b) Set clear objectives in your Public Relations programmes
c) Have editorial integrity and objectivity with the media
d) Be consistent in timing while providing information
e) Educate your organisation on how to deal with the media
f) Plan the activities and plan to give news on the regular basis depending on how busy and relevant is
the organisation
g) Apply all the writing techniques for effectiveness
h) Do not editorialize (don't give your opinion but give straight news), avoid clinches and jargons,
explain technical terms or avoid them
i) Look critically at the media you are going to use/aiming at.
j) Keep the press release short (2 pages utmost).
k) Know the editorial department, have their contacts and usually call them and maintain your relations
with them.
l) Know the advertising department/marketing
m) Know the managers in the department and the terms for booking space as well as the price.
n) Know the production department where the copies are printed.
o) The circulation department/distribution; Does it circulate locally or internationally?
p) We need to understand the editorial policy of different media houses.
q) Establish your organisation with the media as a reliable and dependable organisation. Do not keep
them guessing but establish a working relationship with the media.
r) Supply good copy; provide verification facilities for the media, that is allow them to come to your
organisation, make appointments and let them come and confirm with other bosses in your
organisation. Never block them.
s) Build personal relations with media personnel. We service the media in 3 ways:
i) Convening press conferences; allow them to ask questions and give them answers.
ii)
Providing background information giving them information that is not obvious.
iii)
Invite them and write press statements and releases.
A Press Statement must pass and editor's ―so what?‖ tests.
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Different regional and national Public Relations Associations and Societies have ethical considerations that
may differ from others. The reasons for these differences yet all are Public Relations bodies are due to
different traditions of the people of a given country or region, the legislation differences in different regions
and countries as well as differing public opinions but they all point to honesty, openness, loyalty, fairmindedness, respect, integrity, and much more.
Below are codes of ethics from different Public Relations societies and Associations.
2.2 CODE OF PROFESSIONAL ETHICS IN UGANDA
a) Public Relations Association of Uganda (PRAU)
The association, (PRAU) has a Code of Professional Ethics to guide members in their behaviour, activities
and conduct to ensure public confidence and respect. Every member of PRAU shall:
1.
Endeavour to work for mutual understanding, peaceful coexistence and public interest.
2.
Uphold professional integrity and not engage in any practice which tends to compromise the
channels of public communication.
3.
Have a duty to stand for truth, justice, accuracy and good taste.
4.
Not represent conflicting or competing interests without the express disclosure and full consent of
the parties concerned.
5.
Safeguard the confidence of their present and previous employers or clients. And shall not disclose,
except upon the order of the court of competent jurisdiction any confidential information, which may
have been obtained in official capacity without securing and making known the consent of the said
employer or client.
6.
Co-operate with fellow members in upholding and enforcing this code as a special obligation
towards the achievement of the highest professional standards of Public Relations Practice.
2.3 CODE OF PROFESSIONAL ETHICS IN KENYA
a) The Public Relations Society of Kenya (PRSK)
1. A member shall conduct his professional activities with respect for the public interest
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2. A member shall at all times deal fairly and honestly with his clients or employees past and present,
with his fellow members and with the general public.
3. A member shall not intentionally disseminate false or misleading information and shall use proper
care to avoid doing so. He has a positive duty to maintain truth, accuracy and good taste.
4. A member shall not engage in any practice which tends to corrupt the integrity of channels of public
communication nor use any manipulative methods or techniques designed to create subconscious
motivations which the individual cannot control of his own free will and so cannot be held
accountable for the action taken on them.
5. A member shall not create or make use of any organization purporting to serve some announced
cause but actually promoting a special private interest of a member or his client or his employer,
which is not apparent.
6. A member shall safeguard the confidences of either present and former clients or employers. He
shall not disclose except upon order of a court of competent jurisdiction any confidential
information, which he may have obtained in his official capacity without securing and making
known the consent of the said client or employer.
7. A member shall not represent conflicting or competing interests without the complete consent of
those concerned given after the full disclosure of the facts.
8. A member on performing services for a client or employer shall not accept fees, commissions or any
other valuable consideration in connection with those services from anyone other than his client or
employer unless such practice is acceptable to the client or employer.
9. A member shall not cause or allow to be done anything for the purpose of touting or advertising
calculated to attract business unfairly.
10. A member shall not propose to a prospective client or employer that his fee or other compensation
be contingent on the achievement for certain results; nor shall he enter into any agreement to same
effect.
11. A member shall not intentionally injure the professional reputation or practice of another member,
but if such a member has evidence that another member has been guilty or unethical, illegal or unfair
practices, it shall be his duty to inform the society.
12. A member shall not engage in or be connected with any occupation or business, which, in the
opinion of the committee of the society, is not consistent with membership of the society. In
particular, no member of the society shall engage in the practice of public relations and at the same
time be employed full time by any media nor offer his clients or employer any special access to the
media by virtue of any special relationship with media.
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13. A member shall not seek to supplant another member with his employer or client nor shall he
encroach upon the professional employment of another member unless both parties are assured that
there is no conflict of interest involved and are kept advised of the negotiations.
14. Members may not serve the interests of any foreign government or agency, whether paid or unpaid
without revealing the full extent of the relationship to the society.
15. A member shall not offer his services as a Public Relations practitioner as a free inducement to a
client to secure other paid services.
16. No member may make any payment or other valuable consideration to any member of parliament to
represent in parliament the interests of any client or employer without revealing the full
circumstances to the society.
17. A member shall co-operate with fellow members in upholding and enforcing this code.
2.4 CODE OF PROFESSIONAL ETHICS IN AMERICA
a) Public Relations Society of America (PRSA)
Member Statement of Professional Values
This statement presents the core values of PRSA members and, more broadly, of the Public Relations
profession. These values provide the foundation for the Member Code of Ethics and set the industry
standard for the professional practice of Public Relations. These values are the fundamental beliefs that
guide our behaviors and decision-making process. We believe our professional values are vital to the
integrity of the profession as a whole.
i) ADVOCACY: We serve the public interest by acting as responsible advocates for those we
represent. We provide a voice in the marketplace of ideas, facts, and viewpoints to aid informed
public debate.
ii) HONESTY: We adhere to the highest standards of accuracy and truth in advancing the interests of
those we represent and in communicating with the public.
iii) EXPERTISE: We acquire and responsibly use specialized knowledge and experience. We advance
the profession through continued professional development, research, and education. We build
mutual understanding, credibility, and relationships among a wide array of institutions and
audiences.
iv) INDEPENDENCE: We provide objective counsel to those we represent. We are accountable for
our actions.
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v) LOYALTY: We are faithful to those we represent, while honoring our obligation to serve the public
interest.
vi) FAIRNESS: We deal fairly with clients, employers, competitors, peers, vendors, the media, and the
general public. We respect all opinions and support the right of free expression.
b) PRSA Code Provisions of Conduct
i) FREE FLOW OF INFORMATION
Core Principle: Protecting and advancing the free flow of accurate and truthful information is essential to
serving the public interest and contributing to informed decision making in a democratic society.
Intent:

To maintain the integrity of relationships with the media, government officials, and the public.

To aid informed decision-making.
Guidelines:
A member shall:

Preserve the integrity of the process of communication.

Be honest and accurate in all communications.

Act promptly to correct erroneous communications for which the practitioner is responsible.

Preserve the free flow of unprejudiced information when giving or receiving gifts by ensuring that
gifts are nominal, legal, and infrequent.
Examples of improper conduct under this provision:

A member representing a ski manufacturer gives a pair of expensive racing skis to a sports magazine
columnist, to influence the columnist to write favorable articles about the product.

A member entertains a government official beyond legal limits and/or in violation of government
reporting requirements.
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ii) COMPETITION
Core Principle: Promoting healthy and fair competition among professionals preserves an ethical climate
while fostering a robust business environment.
Intent:

To promote respect and fair competition among Public Relations professionals.

To serve the public interest by providing the widest choice of practitioner options.
Guidelines:
A member shall:

Follow ethical hiring practices designed to respect free and open competition without deliberately
undermining a competitor.

Preserve intellectual property rights in the marketplace.
Examples of improper conduct under this provision:

A member employed by ―client organization" shares helpful information with a counseling firm that
is competing with others for the organization's business.

A member spreads malicious and unfounded rumors about a competitor in order to alienate the
competitor's clients and employees in a ploy to recruit people and business.
iii) DISCLOSURE OF INFORMATION
Core Principle: Open communication fosters informed decision making in a democratic society.
Intent:
To build trust with the public by revealing all information needed for responsible decision making.
Guidelines:
A member shall:

Be honest and accurate in all communications.

Act promptly to correct erroneous communications for which the member is responsible.
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
Investigate the truthfulness and accuracy of information released on behalf of those represented.

Reveal the sponsors for causes and interests represented.

Disclose financial interest (such as stock ownership) in a client's organization.

Avoid deceptive practices.
Examples of improper conduct under this provision:

Front groups: A member implements "grass roots" campaigns or letter-writing campaigns to
legislators on behalf of undisclosed interest groups.

Lying by omission: A practitioner for a corporation knowingly fails to release financial information,
giving a misleading impression of the corporation's performance.

A member discovers inaccurate information disseminated via a website or media kit and does not
correct the information.

A member deceives the public by employing people to pose as volunteers to speak at public hearings
and participate in "grass roots" campaigns.
iv) SAFEGUARDING CONFIDENCES
Core Principle: Client trust requires appropriate protection of confidential and private information.
Intent:
To protect the privacy rights of clients, organizations, and individuals by safeguarding confidential
information.
Guidelines:

A member shall: Safeguard the confidences and privacy rights of present, former, and prospective
clients and employees.

Protect privileged, confidential, or insider information gained from a client or organization.

Immediately advise an appropriate authority if a member discovers that confidential information is
being divulged by an employee of a client company or organization.
Examples of improper conduct under this provision:

A member changes jobs, takes confidential information, and uses that information in the new
position to the detriment of the former employer.
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
A member intentionally leaks proprietary information to the detriment of some other party.
v) CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
Core Principle:
Avoiding real, potential or perceived conflicts of interest builds the trust of clients,
employers, and the publics.
Intent:

To earn trust and mutual respect with clients or employers.

To build trust with the public by avoiding or ending situations that put one's personal or professional
interests in conflict with society's interests.
Guidelines:
A member shall:

Act in the best interests of the client or employer, even subordinating the member's personal
interests.

Avoid actions and circumstances that may appear to compromise good business judgment or create a
conflict between personal and professional interests.

Disclose promptly any existing or potential conflict of interest to affected clients or organizations.

Encourage clients and customers to determine if a conflict exists after notifying all affected parties.
Examples of improper conduct under this provision:

The member fails to disclose that he or she has a strong financial interest in a client's chief
competitor.

The member represents a "competitor company" or a "conflicting interest" without informing a
prospective client.
vi) ENHANCING THE PROFESSION
Core Principle: Public Relations professionals work constantly to strengthen the public's trust in the
profession.
Intent:
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
To build respect and credibility with the public for the profession of Public Relations.

To improve, adapt and expand professional practices.
Guidelines:
A member shall:

Acknowledge that there is an obligation to protect and enhance the profession.

Keep informed and educated about practices in the profession to ensure ethical conduct.

Actively pursue personal professional development.

Decline representation of clients or organizations that urge or require actions contrary to this Code.

Accurately define what Public Relations activities can accomplish.

Counsel subordinates in proper ethical decision making.

Require that subordinates adhere to the ethical requirements of the Code.

Report practices that fail to comply with the Code, whether committed by PRSA members or not, to
the appropriate authority.
Examples of improper conduct under this provision:

A PRSA member declares publicly that a product the client sells is safe, without disclosing evidence
to the contrary.

A member initially assigns some questionable client work to a non-member practitioner to avoid the
ethical obligation of PRSA membership
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Chapter Three
MODELS OF COMUNICATION
3.1 Introduction
Communication is usually described along a few major dimensions: Message (what type of things are
communicated), source / emisor / sender / encoder (by whom), form (in which form), channel (through
which medium), destination / receiver / target / decoder (to whom), and Receiver.
For decades, man has known the importance of communication. Today, with various means by which one
can communicate, it has become much easier to communicate a message to the other party, than it was
several decades ago.
Every organization, no matter what their expertise and where they are situated, and what scale they operate,
realize and value the importance of good communication.
This communication for organizations takes place both within the organization as well as with other outside
stakeholders.
Therefore, it is vital for any business organization to understand the communication models out there, so
they can use them for enhancing effective communication in the organization.
3.2 Understanding Communication:
Communication today is mainly of three types:
1.
Written communication, in the form of emails, letters, reports, memos and various other documents.
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2.
Oral communication. This is either face-to-face or over the phone/video conferencing, etc.
3.
A third type of communication, also commonly used but often underestimated is non-verbal
communication, which is by using gestures or even simply body movements that are made. These
too could send various signals to the other party and is an equally important method of
communication.
The basic flow of communication can be seen in the diagram below. In this flow, the sender sends a
message to the receiver and then they share the feedback on the communication process.
The methods of communication too need to be carefully considered before you decide on which method to
use for your purposes. Not all communication methods work for all transactions.
Once the methods of communication have been understood, the next step would be to consider various
communication models. Due to the importance of communication, different types of models have been
introduced by experts over the years.
The models help the business organizations and other institutions to understand how communication works,
how messages are transmitted, how it is received by the other party, and how the message is eventually
interpreted and understood.
Schramm W. (1954) indicated that we should examine the impact that a message has (both desired and undesired) on
the target of the message.
3.3 Different Communication Models
Some of the famous and frequently used communication models used nowadays include the following:
a) Shannon's Model: One of the earliest models of communication was Claude Shannon's model. This
was introduced in 1948. This laid the foundation for the different communication models that we
have today, and has greatly helped and enhanced the communication process in various fields. This
model can be considered as the granddaddy of many later communication models.
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Below is a simple illustration of this model.
The diagram above clearly illustrates how communication takes place, and also helps one to determine what
could go wrong.
In Shannon's model, the information source typically refers to a person, who then sends a message with the
use of a transmitter. This transmitter could be any instrument today, from phones to computers and other
devices. The signals that are sent and received can vary depending on the method of communication. The
box at the bottom called NOISE refers to any signals that may interfere with the message being carried. This
again would depend on the method of communication. The receiver is the instrument or the person on the
other side that receives the message. This model is the simplest models to understand the workings of the
communication process.
b) Berlo's Model: Another famous communication model is Berlo's model. In this model, he stresses
on the relationship between the person sending the message and the receiver. According to this
model, for the message to be properly encoded and decoded, the communication skills of both the
source and the receiver should be at best. The communication will be at its best only if the two
points are skilled. Berlo's model has four main components and each component has its own sub
components describing the assisting factors for each.
Below is the illustration of this model.
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c) Linear Model: It is a one way model to communicate with others. It consists of the sender encoding
a message and channeling it to the receiver in the presence of noise. In this model there is no
feedback which may allow for a continuous exchange of information. This form of communication
is a one-way form of communication that does not involve any feedback or response, and noise.
d) Interactive/convergence Model: It is two linear models stacked on top of each other. The sender
channels a message to the receiver and the receiver then becomes the sender and channels a message
to the original sender. This model has added feedback, indicating that communication is not a one
way but a two way process. It also has ―field of experience‖ which includes our cultural background,
ethnicity, geographic location, extent of travel, and general personal experiences accumulated over
time. Draw backs – there is feedback but it is not simultaneous. An example is instant messaging.
The sender sends an sms to the receiver, then the original sender has to wait for the sms from the
original receiver to react or a question/answer session where you just ask a question then you get an
answer.
e) Transactional Model: It assumes that people are connected through communication; they engage in
some kind of transaction. First, it recognizes that each of us is a sender-receiver, not merely a sender
or a receiver. Secondly, it recognizes that communication affects all parties involved. So
communication is simultaneous. This is what most conversations are like. The transactional model
also contains ellipses that symbolize the communication environment (how you interpret the data
that you are given). Where the ellipses meet is the most effective communication area because both
communicators share the same meaning of the message.
3.4 PERSUASIVE COMMUNICATION
Persuasion is an umbrella term of influence. Persuasion can attempt to influence a person's beliefs, attitudes,
intentions, motivations, or behaviors (Seiter, R (2010). In business, persuasion is a process aimed at
changing a person's (or a group's) attitude or behavior toward some event, idea, object, or other person(s),
by using written or spoken words to convey information, feelings, or reasoning, or a combination thereof.
3.4.1 Brief history
Persuasion began with the Greeks, who emphasized rhetoric and articulation as the highest standard for a
successful politician. All trials were held in front of the Assembly, and both the prosecution and the defense
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rested, as they often do today, on the persuasiveness of the speaker. Rhetoric was the ability to find the
available means of persuasion in any instance.
In PR we don’t coerce our publics to accept our side of the story. We persuade our audience through our
planned communication. According to the Writing and Study Skills workbook (2004/5) of Uganda Christian
University, when writing or speaking to persuade, we use modal verb forms like should, ought to, must, or
concessionary statements like although implementing this decision will cost us 10 million shillings, it will
pay more when… it also takes predictive statements like if we fail to do this, then…, in persuading, we want
people to empathize with us and then we can sway their emotions in our favour.
Chapter Four
THE PUBLIC RELATIONS PLANNING
PROCESS
4.1 FORMATIVE RESEARCH
Formative research looks at the community in which an organisation/ institution is situated, and helps
organisations understand the interests, attributes and needs of different populations and persons in their
community. Formative research is research that occurs before a program is designed and implemented, or
while a program is being conducted. Formative research can help:
a. Define and understand populations at greatest risk for diseases, some policies etc.
b. Create programs that are specific to the needs of those populations
c. Ensure programs are acceptable and feasible to clients before launching
d. Improve the relationship between clients and organisations.
Formative research should be an integral part of developing programs or adapting programs, and should be
used while the program is on-going to help refine and improve program activities.
4.2 Conducting formative research
Formative research, i.e. research carried out before and during the campaign to determine and refine the
campaign planning process, provides accurate, up-to-date information to strategically develop the campaign
on a sound basis. The complexity and nature of formative research depends on a number of factors,
including the nature of the campaign. For example, in an advocacy campaign for legal change, analysis of
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law, law-making processes, the institutions involved and ways of influencing these will be key topics for
formative research. In behaviour change campaigns, formative research examines the prospective target
audience, their behaviour and the factors which influence it. Using social marketing theory, formative
research is used to determine the best ways to reach the intended target audiences.
Formative research should combine several methods and use different sources of information so as to take
into account different perspectives and cross-check the data obtained. Where resources are insufficient for
large-scale surveys, participatory research methods, e.g. focus group discussions, can be used to obtain basic
information.
Formative research may also include a baseline study, i.e. an initial assessment of the situation the campaign
aims to change. Ideally, this assessment should be conducted in the early campaign planning stages, well
before any campaign activities take place. The baseline study provides a critical reference point for
assessing changes and impact, as it establishes a basis for comparing the situation before and after an
intervention, and for making suggestions as to the effectiveness of the campaign.
In campaigns for policy/institutional change, research on legislation, policies and their implementation are
the most common data needed for baselines. In behaviour change campaigns, a baseline would typically
collect data on knowledge, attitudes and practice (KAP) of the target audience with respect to the campaign
issue.
4.3 THE PUBLIC RELATIONS PLANNING PROCESS
Moi Ali, in his book Effective Public Relations argues that long-term, strategic Public Relations is far more
effective than uncoordinated flurries of activity. He adds map out your Public Relations campaign so that
your purpose is clear, activity can be planned, progress monitored and outcomes measured.
Public Relations is not just blindly writing press releases or pitching journalists, but a comprehensive
strategy designed to promote your business.
The goal of Public Relations is to effect consumer behavior. The first step of your Public Relations strategy
should take into consideration your potential customer base and what you want them to do. Be as specific as
possible when determining your goals for changing the behavior of your potential customer base. For
example say we want a 25 percent increase in sales for a certain product in say the western region, rather
than ―We want increased sales.‖
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Your customer base is not one large, undifferentiated mass. It’s a highly specific aggregate of many
different demographics, each with specific needs and wants. When building a comprehensive Public
Relations strategy, determine which of these demographic groups will react most favorably to your stated
goals: Which demographic groups have previously showed an interest in your products or services? Which
new demographic groups do you hope to reach? These demographic groups should be your Public Relations
priorities.
In order for your Public Relations strategy to effectively reach these priority demographics, there’s need to
study their background, habits, and preexisting opinion of your company, product, and/or industry. This
research can be an in-depth process, or you can choose a sample group from your priority demographics and
conduct interviews or supply a questionnaire.
Ask yourself: What key messages will most effectively energize my priority demographics and get them to
pay attention to my Public Relations strategy? What are the unique qualities of my company, services or
product? Your key messages should be a handful of concise statements that are directly related to getting
your Public Relations strategy across as effectively as possible.
The next step is getting your Public Relations messages out to those priority demographics. Aside from
pitching your Public Relations strategy to journalists, TV producers, and other members of the media, you
can try:
a) Develop logos, signage, and art with a consistent, striking look.
b) Train employees on how to advance your Public Relations strategy and key messages.
c) Hold events open to the public related to your Public Relations goals; visit public events and
exhibitions operated by other companies and organizations to get ideas.
d) Involve your company in charitable causes and local volunteer work; encourage employees to get
involved as well.
e) Apply for awards programs in your organisation
f) Develop an email or print newsletter or magazine
g) Build a web site, blog, or message board devoted to your Public Relations strategy
h) Create a timeline for your Public Relations strategy. Set clear goals and responsibilities.
Regularly evaluate the success of your Public Relations strategy. Design it so that changes can be easily
made if it seems one aspect is not working correctly.
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You can’t always be in control of your organisation’s public image, but you can help direct and shape the
publicity you receive with a comprehensive Public Relations strategy.
Paul A. Argenti, in Corporate Communication says that the first part of an effective corporate
Communication strategy relates to the organization itself. He gives what he calls the 3 subsets of an
organization strategy which are:
4.3.1 Determining objectives
Argenti writes that an organization, like an individual has many different reasons for deciding to
communicate. He gives an example of a company which may want to announce the elimination of the
retiree healthcare benefits resulting from increasing healthcare costs. In this case, the objective is more than
just announcing the change; it also must convince employees to accept the change with a minimal amount of
protest. The basis for defining an objective is: what does the organization want each constituency to do as a
result of the communication?
This is in line with what management communication expert, Mary Munter writes in her Guide to
managerial communication. She writes that managerial communication is only successful if you get the
desired response from your audience.
4.3.2 What resources are available?
Argenti writes that determining how to communicate about something like an employee benefits plan or
introducing a new product into the market depends heavily on what resources are available within the
organization, including money, human resources and time.
4.3.3 Diagnosing the organization’s reputation
An organization’s reputation is so crucial that even the reputation is in question among the constituencies, it
may not yield much even after determining specific objectives and gathering necessary resources. An
organization’s reputation is an important factor in setting a coherent Public Relations strategy.
There are 4 tactics to employ for a productive and effective Public Relations planning.
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4.4 DEFINING THE PUBLIC RELATIONS PROBLEM
Before anything else, the practitioner must appreciate that there is a problem that needs attention. This
should be what the public thinks or says about you- Public Opinion. Public opinions and perceptions,
understanding or misunderstandings and attitudes are learned about through research. Research is a very
important component in PR practice.
To understand public opinion, we have to consider social and communication audits.
i) Social audit deals with the knowledge on how people live- their income, level of education and
general information on why people behave the way they do.
ii) Communication audit is concerned with how we communicate to each other. Do we use
Television, radio or newspapers? What are the results? Generally in defining the PR problem, we
identify an issue within the opinion of the publics. After this identification, we set out to discover the
extent to which this problem affects or influences our audiences. Through research, we get to
understand and analyze the issues better. To analyze better, we go through 3 phases:
a) Internal factors; are concerned with the history and the long-term goals of an
organisation; where are we coming from and where do we want to go? We also need
to carry out a communications audit to know in detail what, how and to whom we
should communicate. This caters for the communication needs, policies in place,
practices and capabilities to give us data, which enables top management in making
informed and economical decisions about future organizational communication
objectives.
b) External factors; this focuses on both the positive and the negative; understand how
those currently involved and affected are in that situation and how they got to be
there. It involves a systematic review of how problems affect and involve the
recipients of the organisation’s services.
c) The stakeholders; their feelings and knowledge on the problem are important
because their interdependent relationship with the organisation can never be under
looked. The PR practitioner, of course with support from top management should
always carry out periodic stakeholder analyses to monitor the impact of
organizational policies, procedures, actions and goals.
4.5 PLANNING AND PROGRAMMING
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In planning and programming, there is need to take stock of resources; human, financial and time.
Programming should be done well so as to know what and who are we targeting as well as what is required.
It is important to note that a program is a set of activities designed to achieve an objective, which calls for
practitioners to prioritize the most important.
The program proposal should highlight what you intend to do and why you intend to do it, details of
research and how it was done and research results.
In planning, it is important to consider some points (we call it the 6-point planning model)
i) Research/appreciation of the situation/problem: here, it’s important to understand where we are
failing and where we are succeeding as well as where we can do better.
ii) Defining of the objectives: after identifying the problem, what can we do to better it? What
objectives can we set? We should consider maintaining the better areas and in the weak areas we set
SMART objectives to improve on the situation.
iii) Defining the publics: have in mind the publics you want to address; internal and external
iv) Selecting the media and techniques: where we know the problem, we have set objectives and
defined the publics. Now then, how do we reach to the publics we have defined? Which medium do
we use to reach them all? Should we write feature stories in papers? Should we have a special
program on Television or Radio? It is important to carry out a social audit so as to know the category
of the people we want to reach out to. This will help to know the kind of media to engage.
v) Planning of a budget: it is important to look at the organisation’s activities and the available
resources. Don’t build castles in the air and get disappointed
vi) Assessing the Results: look at all you did. Did you achieve everything? If not, what worked against
you? If yes, maintain every step you took.
4.5.1 WRITING A PROGRAM PLAN
i) Highlight the organizational goals that you seek to achieve with your specific program
ii) All staff should contribute (Team work)
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iii) All members need to perform better
iv) Define why you think you are capable of achieving your goals
v) Outline things you intend to do activity by activity. Tell why each activity is important and what
objectives you want to achieve in each particular activity
vi) Have a work plan of activities, a calendar of events, and a budget.
4.6 IMPLEMENTING AND COMMUNICATING
We have planned and programmed well, our activities are well organized and the budget has cooperated,
all the necessary documentation is in place. We are set to implement the program. We are now going to
communicate our plan of action to our publics. Our intention here is to communicate and make sense. This
will be achieved through effective communication, which is determined by who says what, to whom, why,
through which channel, how and with what impact.
-Who- a person with authority in a given subject or situation
-What- are we going to convert; perhaps negative into positive (PR Transfer Process)
-To whom- who are the publics to receive the message?
-Why- are they being told such a message?
-Channel- we want a credible channel
- Impact- what values do we want to transfer
Communication must be designed for a situation, place, time and audience. It calls for careful selection of
media and place. It must also be continuous and consistent. In communication, we must speak the
language of our audiences like youths, women, the elderly, business people, prostitutes, the illiterate,
politicians, donors, the saved etc.
It is important to communicate for impact. To communicate for impact, we employ the 7Cs of
communication and these are:
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i)
Credibility. Communication here starts with the climate of belief. Recipients must have confidence
in the message sender and a high regard for the source’s confidence and knowledge of the subject. It is
always important to ensure that a speaker has sufficient knowledge or experience in the subject to gain
confidence and trust from the listeners.
ii)
Context: Communication never happens in a vacuum. It always takes place in a context, matching
the environment and reality. This context must provide space for feedback and participation.
iii)
Content: the content of the message must have meaning to the receiver. It must be compatible to
their value system. Content determines the audience because people select information that
promises them great rewards.
iv)
Clarity: the message must be simple with the same meaning to both the sender and the receiver.
Complex issues, terminologies should be compressed into themes, slogans and stereotypes that are
clear and simple to understand by your target audiences.
v)
Continuity and consistency: communication is an unending process. It requires repetition to
achieve penetration. The consistent story must continue
vi)
Channels: respectable channels do a job right. People associate different values with different
channels of communication. This depends on communication and social audit reports
vii)
Capability of the audience: receivers of the message require least effort to understand and use the
message
4.7 EVALUATION
Evaluation completes and at the same time begins the PR planning cycle. After identifying the
problem, thorough planning and programming, then taking action and implementing, it is time to
ask: Did the plan go as planned? If yes, what worked for us and if not, what worked against us. Then
you roll back again to better what failed and to maintain what worked well. Evaluation gives the real
picture on whether to continue with certain programs or discard them.
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It is vital to use research results. Each cycle of the program process can be more effective than the
previous one if evaluation results are used and adjustments made. Action and communication
strategies can be used or rejected depending on their performance
Chapter Five
JOURNALISTIC MEDIA
5.1 Introduction
Journalism is gathering, processing, and dissemination of news and information related to the news to an
audience. The word applies to both the method of inquiring for news and the literary style which is used to
disseminate it.
The media through which journalism is conducted vary diversely to include content published via
newspapers and magazines (print), television and radio (broadcast), and their digital versions published
through digital media — news websites and applications.
In modern society, the news media is the chief transmitter of information and opinion about public affairs.
Journalism, however, is not always confined to the news media or to news itself, as journalistic
communication may find its way into broader forms of expression, including literature and cinema.
In some nations, the news media is still controlled by government intervention, and is not fully an
independent body. In a democratic society, however, access to free information plays a central role in
creating a system of checks and balance, and in distributing power equally amongst governments,
businesses, individuals, and other social entities. Access to verifiable information gathered by independent
media sources, which adhere to journalistic standards, can also be of service to ordinary citizens, by
empowering them with the tools they need in order to participate in the political process.
5.2 PRESS RELEASE
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According to Sam Black (1993), a press release is a communication between two people and the normal
rules about clear and easy communication apply. Sam further explains that a press release is intended to
interest the journalist in a subject worthy of investigation where the recipients might telephone to ask
additional questions in order to compare the information received with comments received from the other
sources. However, this is not always practiced especially if the sender knows and is known by the media to
which he is sending the release and is known as reliable. It also depends on the subject. It also depends on
whether the release is about a serious issue that needs further investigation or if it is a normal newsworthy
event.
In writing a press release,
i) The subject is stated in the opening words. In a press release, the subject is not the name of the
organisation but what the organisation is doing.
ii) The opening paragraph is a summary of the whole story and if no more was printed, this paragraph
would tell the whole story in a nutshell.
iii) Short paragraphs, short sentences and short words are desirable
iv) The story should surely be kept to one page if possible.
v) Superlatives should be avoided. Adjectives and self-praise can result in a puff. Words like the
world’s biggest, the renowned, the brand leader, the best etc. should be avoided. Press releases must
present only the factual information.
vi) Avoid vague generalizations and explain everything.
vii) Don’t use meaningless expressions like economical, money saving, handy or time saving. Explain
what such things mean, giving facts which imply the advantages. Don’t for example say attracting
colours but state what actually those colours are and perhaps how many there are.
viii)
Don’t use clichés like unique, exhaustive research, a wide range, this point in time, and
facilities.
ix) Don’t quote remarks from leaders unless they have something original to say
x) Don’t use an omnibus release for all media houses. Write different versions for different classes of
publications and broadcasters.
5.3 ESSENTIAL TIPS TO ENSURE THE RELEASE MAKES NEWS
i) Make sure the information is newsworthy
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ii) Tell the audience that the information is intended for them and why they should continue to
read it
iii) Start with a brief description of the news, then distinguish who announced it and not vice
versa.
iv) Ask yourself: How are people going to relate to this and will they be able to connect?
v) Make sure the first ten words of the release are effective, as they are the most important
vi) Avoid excessive use of adjectives and fancy language
vii) Deal with the facts
viii)
Provide as much content information as possible; individuals to contact, address,
phone, fax, e-mail and website.
ix) Wait to issue a release until you have something with enough substance
x) Make it as easy as possible for media representatives to do their jobs
5.3.1
RULES FOR THE PRESS RELEASE STYLE
i) Headed papers: the release should be produced on the organisation’s headed paper
ii) Headings: the heading should state what the story is about.
iii) Subheadings: for the sake of clarity, subheadings may be introduced in a long technical story but
they are most times unnecessary
iv) Indented paragraphs: the first paragraph of the release should not be indented. Succeeding
paragraphs should be indented.
v) Capital letters: don’t write company or product name entirely in capital letters. Never use capitals
for job titles
vi) Underlining: nothing in the text should be underlined
vii) Full points or full stops in abbreviations: sets of initials or abbreviations should not be punctuated.
Write PRAU not P.R.A.U
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viii)
Figures: one to nine should be written in words but 10 onwards in figures except in dates,
prices, measurements or addresses. Large numbers should be spelt out if it is clear e.g. one million
ix) Dates: the press style is to give the month first and not suffix after the number e.g. December 10.
Dates are not given in 1st, 2nd, 3rd or 4th endings. If the release reports an event, never write recently,
today, next Monday or something equally vague. If something is announced today, write ―today‖
followed by the date in brackets as appropriate. Writing ―recently‖ usually implies stale news.
x) Continuations: if there is more than one page, though not a good idea, write ―more‖ or ―continued‖
in the bottom right hand corner
xi) Quotation marks: inverted commas should be confined to reported speech or actual quotations.
xii) Embargos: an embargo is a request not to publish a story before a stipulated date and time. I
personally don’t know why one should send a news release and ask the media to keep it for you till a
certain date. It wouldn’t be a bad idea to send a press release when you want it to run. However, this
is dependent on reasons for so doing.
xiii)
Authorship: at the end of the release, the author should give his/her name and full contact
details.
Important to remember
i.
The stories are brief. They tell who, what, where, when, why and how. They tell it quickly, but with
sufficient detail to satisfy reader interest.
ii.
The Language is plain; everyday English. Avoid using industry terms which may not be commonly
known. Even when submitting information to the trade publications, you should not become overly
technical in your language. The most important information should always be at the beginning of the
story - this is known as the "lead."
iii.
Call on local editors and media people. Research indicates that when an editor can connect a face
and name with a news release, the chance is that it will be used greatly increases. You might want to
personally deliver an important news release.
iv.
You might need to request a brief appointment in the case of daily newspaper editors. Early
mornings or early afternoons are the best time to call or meet an editor. Avoid calling on weekly
newspapers the day before the paper goes to bed; they'll be too busy to talk to you.
v.
If you have cause to place advertisements with a publication or station, do not presume or suggest in
any way that this gives you the right to have your news releases used.
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vi.
Observe deadlines! If you write a story during or after an event, be sure to deliver it promptly while
it is still timely.
A sample News Release
593 TO GRADUATE AT UCU
FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE
Five hundred ninety three students will graduate with Master’s degrees, Postgraduate diplomas, Bachelor
degrees, and ordinary diplomas on Friday October 5 at Uganda Christian University Mukono main campus
grounds. Of these graduands, two hundred seventy one are females while three hundred twenty two are
males. Out of these, twenty-two will be awarded first class degrees. This graduation will be the third group
of the 8th graduation ceremony and part of a series of events celebrating the 10th anniversary of Uganda
Christian University’s existence as a university since 1997-2007. The chief guest at this graduation
ceremony will be the Lord George Carey, the former Archbishop of Canterbury and patron of Uganda
Christian University. He will also lead the opening of a new university gate, laying the foundation stone to a
new location and to dedicate the newly constructed building for the Nursing program.
Uganda Christian University is this year holding three graduation ceremonies. The first was held in
July at Uganda Christian University main campus, while the second one was held at Bishop Barham
University College- a Constituent College of Uganda Christian University on October 2.
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Among other activities to celebrate the anniversary include the open day that took place on Saturday
September 22 about students, parents and guardians and the choices every one of them wants to
make. Another one is a corporate dinner on October 6 where the Lord George Carey will be the chief
guest at Serena hotel. Individuals and groups will buy cards to allow them attend this dinner.
Reuben Twinomujuni
PRO, Uganda
Christian University reubentwins@yahoo.com,
rktwins@excite.com
256782964463,
256753965563.
For more information, contact:
www.ucu.ac.ug
P.O Box 4, Mukono, Uganda
Phone: 256 41 290 828, Fax: 256 41 290 800
5.4 NEWS /PRESS CONFERENCE
A news conference or press conference is a media event in which newsmakers invite journalists to hear
them speak and, most often, ask questions. It can also be defined as a meeting organized for the purposes of
distributing information to the media and answering questions from reporters. Normally the press
conference is led by the company's executive management together with the Public Relations office. Given
the media's limited resources, it may be difficult to attract major media attention to a press conference unless
the company has a truly unique or newsworthy announcement to share. Press conferences can also be issued
in response to or addressing public relations issues.
a) The Practice
In a news conference, one or more speakers may make a statement, which may be followed by questions
from reporters. Sometimes only questioning occurs; sometimes there is a statement with no questions
permitted.
A media event at which no statements are made, and no questions allowed, is called a photo opportunity. A
government, organisation or institution may wish to open their gates for the media to witness events or
activities taking place.
News conferences are often held by politicians; by celebrities; by commercial organizations to promote
products; and by almost anyone who finds benefit in the free publicity afforded by media coverage. Some
people hold news conferences in order to avoid dealing with reporters individually.
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A news conference is often announced by sending a news release to assignment editors, preferably well in
advance. Sometimes they are held spontaneously when several reporters gather around a newsmaker.
However, in this modern age, and depending on a Public Relations manager’s relations with them,
journalists can be invited individually without necessarily having to go through the editors.
News conferences can be held just about anywhere, in settings as formal as the office, boardroom, and
common hall or in a compound or any other place as deemed convenient by the organizers. There’s no
professional or ethical place recommended for the press conference; it is a matter of convenience.
b) Media day
Media day is a special press conference event where rather than holding a conference after an event to field
questions about the event that has recently transpired, a conference is held for the sole purpose of making
newsmakers available to the media for general questions and photographs often before an event or series of
events occur.
5.5 BROADCAST NEWS RELEASE
Broadcast releases, like other press releases, are news items, to be treated journalistically (objectively), with a strong
news angle (and yet, also, an eye for entertainment value; an important consideration for broadcasters). Here are some
tips for broadcast newswriting.
i) Keep It Simple: Newspaper reporters wanting to show off their writing style occasionally insert a fancy
word into a story. But that doesn't work in broadcast newswriting. Broadcast copy must be as simple
as possible. Remember, viewers or listeners aren't reading or listening to what you're writing; they're
hearing/ seeing it. People watching TV or listening to the radio generally don't have time to check a
dictionary. So keep your sentences simple and use basic, easily understood words. If you find you've
put a longish word in a sentence, replace it with a shorter one.
ii) Keep It Short: Generally, sentences in broadcast copy should be even shorter than those found in
print articles. Why? Shorter sentences are more easily understood than long ones. Also, remember
that broadcast copy must be read out loud. If you write a sentence that's too long, the news anchor
will be gasping for breath just to finish it. Individual sentences in broadcast copy should be short
enough to be easily read in one breath.
iii) Keep It Conversational: Many sentences found in newspaper stories simply sound unnatural and
unmanageable when read out loud. So use a conversational style in your broadcast writing. Doing so
will make it sound more like real speech, as opposed to a script someone is reading.
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iv) Use One Main Idea per Sentence: Sentences in newspaper stories sometimes contain several ideas,
usually in clauses that are broken up by commas. But in broadcast writing you really shouldn't put
more than one main idea in each sentence.
v) Use the Active Voice: Sentences written in the active voice are naturally shorter and more to the
point than those written in the passive voice.
vi) Example: Passive: The robbers were arrested by police. Active: Police arrested the robbers.
vii) Use a Lead-in Sentence: Most broadcast news stories start with a lead-in sentence that is fairly
general. Broadcast news writers do this to alert viewers that a new story is being presented, and to
prepare them for the information that is to follow.
Example: "There's more bad news today from Iraq." Note that this sentence doesn't say very much. But
again, it lets the viewer know that the next story is going to be about Iraq and it is bad news. The lead-in
sentence almost serves as a kind of headline for the story.
Here's an example of a broadcast news item. Note the use of a lead-in line, short, simple sentences and a
conversational style.
There's more bad news from South Sudan. Thirty civilians were today killed in a rebel attack outside the UN
headquarters in Juba. The UN says they were running away from fire exchanges between rebels and
government forces. The UN hasn't yet released the names of the dead and the injured.
viii)
Put Attribution at the Start of the Sentence: Print news stories usually put the attribution,
the source of the information, at the end of the sentence. In broadcast newswriting they are at the
beginning.
Example: Print: Two men were arrested, police said. Broadcast: Police say two men were arrested.
ix) Leave out Unnecessary Details: Print stories tend to include a lot of details that broadcast has no
time for. Example: Print: After robbing the bank the man drove approximately 9.7 miles before
being apprehended, police said. Broadcast: Police say the man robbed the bank then drove nearly
10 miles before he was caught.
5.6 FEATURE RELEASE
Feature news releases are largely human-interest pieces. Presenting the ―softer side‖ of the news, they’re
sent out much less often than announcements, and are far fewer in number than journalistic news releases.
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Therefore, they’re less often picked up by the media. Since the general guidelines for press releases are also
used for feature news releases, be sure to review the material. Feature news releases; like news releases in
general must be objective and unbiased, putting a human face on an organization or, perhaps, on individual
employee accomplishments and projects. Feature news releases enhance an organization’s reputation for
good corporate citizenship.
A feature press release does just that yet is often overlooked as a marketing tactic. This type of content is
what media outlets need to fill occasional holes and create interesting, thought-provoking articles that
consumers like to read. Feature releases cater for certain lifestyles or provide benefit to those with special
interests. With a longer shelf-life (sometimes called ―evergreen‖), feature releases can be recycled and can
thrive in markets outside your industry, allowing your news to reach new audiences and consumers.
i) Headline: Summarize your story in 20 words or less. Think of how you can interest people in your
story and let them know what it's about.
ii) First/lead paragraph: Reinforce the headline message. Give readers more to whet their appetites.
Keep it tight; no more than 30 words.
iii) Second paragraph: Expand the lead and back it up. Attribute the lead and identify the source or
expert. (e.g. "... says Rwankunionio Ben, director of Well-done Corporation.") Editors will not read
past this paragraph if they do not know who is providing the text. This is also an ideal place to add a
website address.
iv) Third paragraph: Bring the story to life with your best quote. Humanize the feature. This shows
editors that your expert will be interesting to interview. Start with the quote first, then add the
attribution (e.g. ―Quality education is at the heart of poverty eradication in Kigezi region‖ Prof.
Manuel Muranga, the Principal, Bishop Barham University College) If you want to add another
quote, you can then use ""says Muranga."
v) Fourth paragraph: Give more details to further the story, tell readers how the product works or
introduce tips. List the tips in bullets and don't number them. When editors are tight on space they
may need to edit the list. After you give the details, you may want to use another good quote from a
third party.
vi) Fifth paragraph: If you have statistics or research findings, or you want to show how your story has
affected people, this is the paragraph to do so.
vii) Sixth paragraph: Close your story. End by providing price information and how to get the product,
depending on where you work and what you deal in. Also include the website address. Give people
the facts and everyone will be happy. Most importantly, keep your feature story to 400 words. The
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more you write, the more likely the editor will use another story that is less time-consuming to
prepare.
viii)
For the media: If you have photos, video or a spokesperson available for interviews,
mention it in a note to editors.
Chapter Six
ORGANISATIONAL MEDIA
6.1 Introduction
The mass media are diversified media technologies that are intended to reach a large audience by mass
communication. The technology through which this communication takes place varies. Broadcast media
such as radio, recorded music, film and television transmit their information electronically. Print media use
a physical object such as a newspaper, book, pamphlet or comic books, cartoons etc. to distribute their
information. Outdoor media is a form of mass media that comprises billboards, signs or placards placed
inside and outside of commercial buildings, sports stadiums, shops and buses. Public speaking and event
organising can also be considered as forms of mass media. The digital media comprises both Internet and
mobile mass communication. Internet media provides many mass media services, such as email, websites,
blogs, and internet based radio and television. Many other mass media outlets have a presence on the web,
by such things as having TV ads that link to a website. The organizations that control these technologies,
such as television stations or publishing companies, are also known as the mass media.
6.2 DOCUMENTARY
A documentary is a program aimed at showing facts or truth. It involves a lot of research and can be created
in dramatic and information form. There are various types of documentaries
i.
The public issue documentary: these documentaries examine issues of public concern- hunger,
war, social and political affairs.
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ii.
Creative effort documentary: this type of documentary exposes its audience to the process of
creation- artistic work like the making of sculpture and steps it takes to design.
iii.
An event or process documentary: here, an artistic freedom is applied by the producer. It involves
the process of recording events and such stages in which a beverage is produced.
iv.
The nature documentary: this concentrates on nature like the wild kingdom, forests, and water
bodies among others.
v.
Slice of life documentary: this deals with the existence. Among many others we have cultural
documentary, biography, scientific documentary, news documentary, etc.
6.2.1 Characteristics of a documentary
A documentary has characteristics that distinguish it from other recordings
a) Distinct point of view: the point of view is required in order to unite and shape the documentary
content for the target audience. The point of view means looking at a topic from someone’s
perspective such as in music documentaries where someone may be the composer, conductor or the
reporter and therefore the way of approach to the documentary shall be governed by the point of
view chosen.
b) Audience involved: this is part of the broad and powerful stratification. In a documentary, you let
the audience identify with the characters, places and events in the story. In news documentary for
example, the gratification element can be information, importance and value. In a documentary,
audiences should be drawn into a topic and invited to participate in whatever activity or process even
if it is shocking.
6.3 MAGAZINES
Magazines are periodicals- not produced daily. Magazines are colourful, with collection of articles, prose
and poetry, jokes, cartoons, puzzles among others. Magazines have more pages, they tend to be expensive,
there are more researched details and they have a wide scope of coverage
There are two types of magazines; consumer and business magazines.
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Consumer magazines have something new in every publication to learn from. They heavily rely on
advertising to raise funds. On the other side, business magazines are usually available only on subscription.
Only members or payers access them. They are a controlled circulation. They are not found on streets like
consumer magazines. The format adopted for the magazines depend on the organisation. Magazines are
therefore in-house or general publication.
6.3.1 Steps before publishing a magazine
i) There should be conception of
iv) Designing
ideas
v) Proof reading
ii) Writing news and features
vi) Printing
iii) Editing and inserting photographs
vii) Circulation
6.4 NEWSLETTERS
A newsletter is a regularly distributed publication generally about one main topic that is of interest to its
subscribers. Newspapers and leaflets are types of newsletters. Newsletters have few pages, are less
expensive, don’t have much detail and are precise to the point. Many newsletters are produced by clubs,
churches, societies, Associations and businesses especially companies to provide information of interest to
their members, employees and customers. Some newsletters are created as money-making ventures and
directly sold to subscribers.
General attributes of newsletters include news and upcoming events of the organisation as well as contact
information for general inquiries. Newsletters can build relationships with customers and prospects.
Newsletters position the organisation as a valuable resource, obtain and retain the mind share of the
customers, they educate and inform and they build credibility overtime.
Good newsletters should follow the 80/20% rule: 80% of the newsletter should be focused on helping the
reader, while 20% should be about the organisation.
6.5 BROCHURES
Brochures are a small publication compared to magazines and newsletters. It does not have too much
information and it is brief.
The front of the brochure is the most important element because the cover catches the eye. The front cover
should have an appropriate design and content. Make the brochure so well that if the readers open, they are
impressed by the content. It is good to include testimonials, product description or even a simple listing
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(bullets) of the product/services offered. The brochure should never be overloaded with technical
information and or price listings. The back of the brochure should provide contact information.
6.6 THE BRAND
The brand is the feeling and the experience a customer gets about products or services. Customers have an
emotional attachment to the brand. The brand is built overtime. It is an impression people have over the
company and its products or services. These impressions are either confirmed or destroyed by customers’
experience with the product or service. The brand experience begins with the name and visual identity like
Trade Mark, logos, symbols, tag lines, signs, literature etc.
Customers remain loyal to the services or products of a certain organisation because they are assured of
lower perceived risk, the emotional attachment they could be having, previous favourable experience with
the product or service, promise of quality, and recognition among others.
Brand loyalty is evidence that customer preferences are not determined by lower prices. Customers are
affected by emotional connections and expectations that can set similar products apart from each other.
Brands reduce the competition and make markets imperfect.
6.7 SPONSORSHIPS
Sponsorships involve making a contribution in cash or in kind to an activity, which does not form part of the
main commercial function of the sponsoring body. The sponsor expects returns in terms of publicity.
Sometimes sponsorship is confused for donation. The difference here is that for donation, a donor expects
nothing even in the form of publicity.
Sponsorship is essentially a business deal intended to benefit both the sponsor and the sponsored. If
successfully designed and carried out with properly defined objectives, sponsorship can help provide events
and facilities, which would otherwise have been unavailable. Most sponsorship activities tend to be in the
areas of sports or the arts. Examples can be the MTN marathon, the Barclays Premier league, the Tusker
Fame Project etc. Sponsorships can effectively be used to achieve specific objectives. Sponsorship is
supplement to but not a substitute for an already operational direct advertising. Sponsorship is an innovative
promotional and marketing medium that reaches certain specialized markets associated with the activity.
Sponsorship is a means of influencing corporate image. It also increases awareness of products and services,
corporate identity and symbols of the sponsoring organisation. Sponsorship is a beneficial influence on staff
relations and morale. It is a means of involving the organisation in its surrounding community for specific
reasons like attracting staff and nipping adverse criticisms.
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6.7.1 Why Companies Sponsor Events
i) To supplement their direct advertising if they are in highly competitive business
ii) To rebuild their image or establish a corporate image and identity
iii) To announce a new identity if recently acquired one
iv) To encourage loyalty of the market and network
v) To sort out Public Relations problems
vi) To seek media assistance in establishing closer links with a specific community
vii) Those lacking tangible products sponsor to demonstrate and attract wider attention like in a
service industry.
6.7.2 Evaluation and Selection Criteria
Potential sponsors will first consider the following:
a) Will the sponsoring organisation afford to sustain the obligation?
b) Is the event compatible to the organisation’s instruments of identity?
c) Does the event reach the organisation’s target audiences?
d) Are the organizers of the event experienced and professional?
e) Is the event newsworthy to provide the organisation with publicity opportunities?
f) Does the event give a chance to develop new contacts or business opportunities?
g) Will the organisation commit to this event for a long time?
h) Is there an opportunity for employees’ involvement?
i) Will management support the event?
E-MAIL AND E-NEWSLETTERS
Sending e-mails is one of the least expensive ways of being in communication with your publics. It cuts out
postage costs and ensures same day delivery. While ideas and information can be exchanged through email, it is important to know where the boundaries lie e.g. does the organisation recognise scanned
signatures as part of official documentation or does it require printed letters for authenticity.
E-newsletters are one of the least expensive forms of marketing one can do. It is information driven and its
primary function is to be informative and to build awareness and credibility. It is delivered on the desktop
of the people you want to reach. It can also be sent to more than one person per company. In e-newsletters,
send information that is important to your subscribers. Provide them with information that will help them
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improve their business. Send it only to people who have requested it. Keep your info short and easy to
read. Include a notice in each newsletter that instructs people on how to unsubscribe. Be attentive to their
changing needs. Their job descriptions may change and they may no longer need you newsletter. If you
have a website, post your newsletter on it.
Chapter Seven
WRITING FOR SOCIAL MEDIA
7.1 Introduction
Social media is the social interaction among people in which they create, share or exchange information and
ideas in virtual communities and networks (Ahlqvist T. et al 2008). Andreas Kaplan and Michael Haenlein
define social media as "a group of Internet-based applications that build on the ideological and technological
foundations of the Web that allow the creation and exchange of user-generated content." Social media
depend on mobile and web-based technologies to create highly interactive platforms through which
individuals and communities share, co-create, discuss, and modify user-generated content. They introduce
substantial and pervasive changes to communication between organizations, communities, and individuals
(H. Kietzmann, et al 2011). Social media differ from traditional or industrial media in many ways, including
quality (Agichtein E. 2008), reach, frequency, usability, immediacy, and permanence.
7.2 CRITICISMS OF SOCIAL MEDIA
Criticisms of social media range from criticisms of the ease of use of specific platforms and their
capabilities, disparity of information available, issues with trustworthiness and reliability of information
presented, the impact of social media use on an individual's concentration, ownership of media content, and
the meaning of interactions created by social media. Due to the increase in social media websites, there
seems to be a positive correlation between the usage of such media with cyber-bullying, online sexual
predators, and the decrease in face-to-face interactions. Social media may expose children to images of
alcohol, tobacco, and sexual behaviors, questions on real impacts, Privacy, Effects on interpersonal
relationships etc.
8.3 PR AND SOCIAL/NEW MEDIA
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Social media is the new media that PR and other business professionals now employ to reach their buyers
and target markets. Instead of going through traditional media like newspapers, radios and TV, companies
can create that relationship with the public themselves. Social media can include blogs, fora, & social
networking sites like Facebook, Twitter, Net log, and LinkedIn among so much more.
There are many benefits to using social media, many of them evident in the companies which are taking the
time and making an effort. For organisations which may not be giving social media the attention it needs,
benefits may not be seen as often if at all. While the success of social media in PR plans heavily rely on the
output, it also depends on how well it fits into the general PR because social media efforts will not sell
themselves.
When thinking of implementing social media, consider the following questions:
1. Will the target markets, current and future buyers benefit from the use of social media? If the answer
to this is "no", it may not be worth your time to implement one or more aspects of social media.
Your use of the tools mentioned above needs to benefit the buyer just as much as it should benefit
you, the company, organization, business or institution.
2. Will you reach your target market, current and future buyers with your social media efforts? Again,
if the answer is "no", your time might be better spent on other PR activities. This question addresses
where your target market and buyers get their information from. If they are predominantly offline,
social media may not benefit or reach the bulk of your market, and small, marginal results may be
seen if any. Evaluate where your time and effort should be spent.
3. Will you use the medium consistently and frequently? Social media is not something that can really
be done on a part-time basis. To really feel the benefits of social media and to see a return on your
investment (of time and resources), you need to ensure that your output equals the input you hope to
see. If need be, employ someone to attend to social media on a full time basis.
4. Why are you thinking of using social media? If your answer here is to advertise your brand, product,
and services, social media is not for you. It is meant to be a tool to engage your audience, target
market, and buyers, not to sell to them. (That's what advertising is for...) Instead, use these tools to
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share with them things of value like information on your industry, answers to questions, etc.
Improper use social media also has results! You may not only lose out on potential buyers (or donations,
votes, whatever you're trying to get), but you can even tarnish your brand. Customers may not remember
you if you do everything the same as everyone else, but doing it poorly usually stands out in their minds.
While social media is easy to use, implement, and cost effective, know the reasons for which you want to
use them, the sort of commitment you can make, and the results you hope to see.
8.4 Using social networking sites to your advantage
Public Relations changed when the Internet came into play. Now, with more and more people getting
online, having your own online presence is important.
Here are a few things to consider when launching a social networking PR plan:
i) This is not intended to be advertising round-table. Most people (your customers) are on these
networking sites to talk with friends, share things they like, and network with people. Your role on
these sites is to remind people you are around and that you are an active participant in their world.
ii) Being an active participant does not mean advertising yourself. Instead, contribute to fora, comment
on blogs, and join groups. As an organisation, create a group that offers resources for members.
Encourage others to get involved as well; people love sharing their opinions, so let them know they
are welcome.
iii) Offering benefits to joining your network is always great incentive. If you show yourself as being
genuine and helpful to others in the industry whether they are customers or professionals, they are
likely to spread the word for you. For example, offer some helpful advice, write articles, make it in a
way that people can ask you questions, and be active.
iv) Being genuine is a great way to get others to trust you. We all know that your end goal is to make a
sale (or increase your traffic, whatever your cause may be), but by coming across differently,
consumers can accept that you may really have their best intentions at heart. As such, honestly
convey yourself.
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People who love your brand will find you, and tell others about you, especially if there is something useful
or beneficial once they get there. Incorporate current events in your industry to help drive traffic, and be
honest when consumers interact with you. If something comes up that shines a negative light on your
company, don't ignore it and only reply to the positive things. Rather, reply and, if at fault, apologize, accept
responsibility, and provide a remedy. Otherwise, help set the story straight without pointing fingers, and
move on to the next question. Encourage people to get in touch with you, offer advice to consumers, and
leave feedback on the fora and blog posts you create.
8.5 PUBLIC RELATIONS & SOCIAL NETWORKING
a) Public Relations and Twitter
Twitter is a communication platform that helps businesses stay connected to their customers.
In addition to staying in touch with customers, it is a great way to stay in touch with other professionals or
businesses in your industry, and is an effective way to share ideas and brainstorm with the aforementioned
individuals. Twitter is valuable for business professionals, companies, and individuals looking to network,
share ideas, and promote their businesses. For instance, Twitter is being used by many bloggers to share
articles, topics, and other blogs they enjoy. You may follow other professionals, read useful articles, and
pick up some tips and news from around the world.
8.5.1 How to harness Twitter for Public Relations
For PR professionals, Twitter has proved to be an excellent avenue for Public Relations and even media
relations. Below are some ways in which PROs are using Twitter:
i) Promoting Companies or Products: People tweet about everything from what they had for
breakfast to jokes and to a problem with a company. Shrewd PROs use the 140 character Tweet to
build buzz around companies, products, services or individuals. Suggestions for Tweets include
hinting about new products, offering special promotions to Twitter followers, or hosting contests
such as allowing Twitter followers to name a new menu item to win a free meal or offering a prize to
whoever comes up with the most creative Tweet about why they love your service or product.
ii) Answering Questions: While Tweeting about your products can often fall into the realm of
marketing, answering questions is where PR managers shine. When someone asks a question about
your organisation, jump in to answer it. You will be perceived as helpful and probably gain a new
follower and thus a target for your PR messages.
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iii) Getting on Top of Bad Press: When bad press strikes, it can go viral in seconds courtesy of social
media such as Twitter and Facebook. Fortunately, the same social media can be used to fight fire
with fire by answering questions, tweeting your side of the story and consequently dispersing
rumours as well as quenching the fires. It really works.
iv) Monitoring Reputation: Twitter search (http://search.twitter.com) can also be used to monitor what
people are saying about you. If someone consistently rants about your product or service, you might
want to offer them a free gift or special treat. On the other hand, if you notice a segment of Twitter
speaking unkindly of your organisation, you are on top of it and can form a plan of action to nip it in
the bud.
v) Meeting Reporters and Bloggers: Reporters and bloggers have taken to social media like ducks to
water. They often search for sources on social media or Tweet about the types of stories they are
working on. This can be a goldmine for PR managers. You can have access to thousands of informed
and creative minds to share about your organisation.
The most interesting thing about Twitter is that people are developing new ways to use it every day. PR
managers should follow lots of people, including industry leaders, competitors, influential Twitters, and the
general public, and learn from them when it comes to taming this new technology for PR efforts.
c) PUBLIC RELATIONS AND LINKEDLN
To be on top of PR connections for both the practitioner and the organisation, the PR practitioner and the
organisation ought to be participating in the social networking sites, such as LinkedIn, Facebook, and
Twitter, to name a few. LinkedIn allows you to connect with classmates, professors, coworkers, employees,
and employers. This is a great tool to utilize your networks already in place, and to increase the size of those
networks by visiting the networks your peers have. LinkedIn takes your resume and updates your profile
with the information therein. Creating these connections keeps you in touch with past colleagues,
professionals, or other peers who may be able to help you find a job in these tough times or equip you with a
bank of knowledge. For prospectives looking forward to joining the PR or any other industry, online
presence presents you to millions of people, including companies that you may have applied to or are
currently working for. Filter your content and be private. More often, some organisations and Human
Resource managers will screen your online accounts to see if you would be a good potential hire. If your
profiles make a bad impression, you may never be considered for the interview.
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d) PUBLIC RELATIONS AND BLOGGING
A blog is a personal diary and pulpit where one writes his/her own private thoughts about literally anything
and memos to the world. It can also be referred to as a collaborative space or a collection of links. Your blog
is whatever you choose to make it. Blogs exist in millions of shapes and sizes. There are no real rules
governing blogging. A blog can get you in touch with consumers or readers. Despite the increasing number
of competitor bloggers, blogging is just amazing. Not only do blogs offer consumers a new way of
reviewing products, organisations a new way of interacting with said consumers, it gives PR a new outlet,
and have created a doorway that any organisation or individual can use to share ideas and opinions.
Chapter Eight
ADVERTISING MEDIA
8.1 Introduction
Advertising is a form of marketing communication used to encourage, persuade, or even manipulate an
audience (viewers, readers or listeners; sometimes a specific group) to take or continue taking some action.
Most commonly, the desired result is to drive consumer behavior with respect to a commercial offering,
although political and ideological advertising is also common.
International humorist Stephen Leacock defined advertising as: "the science of arresting the human
intelligence long enough to get money from it."
Glen (2009) defines advertising as information placed in the media by an identified sponsor that pays for the
time or space. It is a controlled method of placing messages in the media.
The purpose of advertising may also be to reassure employees or shareholders that a company is viable or
successful. Advertising messages are usually paid for by sponsors and viewed via various old media;
including mass media such as newspaper, magazines, television advertisement, radio advertisement, outdoor
advertising or direct mail; or new media such as blogs, websites or text messages.
Commercial advertisers often seek to generate increased consumption of their products or services through
"branding", which involves associating a product name or image with certain qualities in the minds of
consumers. Non-commercial advertisers who spend money to advertise items other than a consumer product
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or service include political parties, interest groups, religious organizations and governmental agencies.
Nonprofit organizations may rely on free modes of persuasion, such as a public service announcement.
8.2 Types of advertising
Virtually any medium can be used for advertising. Commercial advertising media can include wall
paintings, billboards, printed flyers, radio, cinema and television adverts, web banners, mobile telephone
screens, shopping carts, bus stop benches, human billboards and forehead advertising, magazines,
newspapers, town criers, sides of buses, banners attached to or on the `sides of airplanes ("logo jets"), inflight advertisements on seatback tray tables or overhead storage bins, taxi doors, passenger screens,
musical stage shows, elastic bands on disposable diapers, doors of bathroom stalls, stickers on apples in
supermarkets, shopping cart handles (grabertising), and the backs of event tickets and supermarket receipts
and much more. Any place an "identified" sponsor pays to deliver their message through a medium is
advertising.
i) Television advertising: The television commercial is generally considered the most effective massmarket advertising format, as is reflected by the high prices television networks charge for
commercial airtime during popular events. TV ads have an advantage of offering the audience both
the pictures and the words, where viewers can appreciate the creativity and inducements within the
advert.
ii) Radio advertising: Radio advertising is a form of advertising via the medium of radio. Radio
advertisements are broadcast as radio waves from a transmitter to an antenna and thus to a receiving
device. Airtime is purchased from a station in exchange for airing the commercials. While radio has
the limitation of being restricted to sound, proponents of radio advertising often cite this as an
advantage. Radio is an expanding medium that can be found not only on air, but also online.
iii) Online advertising: Online advertising is a form of promotion that uses the Internet and World
Wide Web for the expressed purpose of delivering marketing messages to attract customers. Online
ads are delivered by an ad server. Examples of online advertising include contextual ads that appear
on search engine results pages, banner ads, in text ads, Social network advertising, online classified
advertising, advertising networks and e-mail marketing.
iv) Product placements: Covert advertising is when a product or brand is embedded in entertainment
and media. For example, in a film, the main character can use an item or other of a definite brand, as
in the Soap, Deception on NTV Uganda. Royal Suites Hotel advertises its decent accommodation,
adorable gardens, etc. another example can be seen in insertions that are always placed in
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Newspapers. This is with the belief that wherever the newspaper reaches, the advert will reach and
also whoever buys the paper will almost automatically get the information.
v) Press Advertising: Press advertising describes advertising in a printed medium such as a
newspaper, magazine, or trade journal. This encompasses everything from media with a very broad
readership base, such as a major national newspaper or magazines like The New Vision, Daily
Monitor, to more narrowly targeted media such as local newspapers and trade journals on very
specialized topics. A form of press advertising is classified advertising, which allows private
individuals or companies to purchase a small, narrowly targeted ad for a low fee advertising a
product or service. Another form of press advertising is the Display Ad, which is a larger ad (can
include art) that typically run in an article section of a newspaper.
vi) Billboard advertising: Billboards are large structures located in public places which display
advertisements to passing pedestrians and motorists. Most often, they are located on main roads with
a large amount of passing motor and pedestrian traffic; however, they can be placed in any location
with large amounts of viewers, such as on mass transit vehicles and in stations, in shopping malls or
office buildings, and in stadiums.
vii) Mobile billboard advertising: Mobile billboards are generally vehicle mounted billboards or digital
screens. These can be on dedicated vehicles built solely for carrying advertisements along routes
preselected by clients, they can also be specially equipped cargo trucks or, in some cases, large
banners strewn from planes. The billboards are often lighted; some being backlit, and others
employing spotlights. Some billboard displays are static, while others change; for example,
continuously or periodically rotating among a set of advertisements. Mobile displays are used for
various situations in metropolitan areas throughout the world, including: Target advertising, one-day,
and long-term campaigns, Conventions, Sporting events, Store openings and similar promotional
events, and big advertisements from smaller companies.
viii)
In-store advertising: In-store advertising is any advertisement placed in a retail store. It
includes placement of a product in visible locations in a store, such as at eye level, at the ends of
aisles and near checkout counters (aka POP – Point of Purchase display), eye-catching displays
promoting a specific product, and advertisements in such places as shopping carts and in-store video
displays.
ix) Coffee cup advertising: Coffee cup advertising is any advertisement placed upon a coffee cup that
is distributed out of an office, café, or drive-through coffee shop. This form of advertising was first
popularized in Australia, and has begun growing in popularity in the United States, India, and parts
of the Middle East.
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x) Street advertising: This is the type of advertising where products are lined along the street for
passersby to see and buy. Kampala is a hub for such advertising where shoes, clothes, phones,
domestic items are displayed for customers as they go about their business in the city.
xi) Sheltered Outdoor Advertising: This type of advertising opens the possibility of combining
outdoor with indoor advertisement by placing large mobile, structures (tents) in public places on
temporary bases. The large outer advertising space exerts a strong pull on the observer; the product
is promoted indoor, where the creative decor can intensify the impression.
xii) Celebrity branding: This type of advertising focuses upon using celebrity power, fame, money,
popularity to gain recognition for their products and promote specific stores or products. Advertisers
often advertise their products, for example, when celebrities share their favorite products or wear
clothes by specific brands or designers. Celebrities are often involved in advertising campaigns such
as television or print adverts to advertise specific or general products. The use of celebrities to
endorse a brand can have its downsides, however. One mistake by a celebrity can be detrimental to
the public relations of a brand. For example, following his performance of eight gold medals at the
2008 Olympic Games in Beijing, China, swimmer Michael Phelps' contract with Kellogg's was
terminated, as Kellogg's did not want to associate with him after he was photographed smoking
marijuana. Celebrities such as Britney Spears have advertised for multiple products including Pepsi,
Candies, Toyota and many more. Uganda’s Kickboxing Champion, Moses Golola, has been used for
energy drinks, while Stephen Kiprotich, a 2012 Olympic champion in the marathon is used by Aqua
Sipi, a company manufacturing mineral water
xiii)
Customer-generated advertising: This involves getting customers to generate advertising
through blogs, websites, wikis and fora, for some kind of payment.
8.2.1 PURPOSE OF ADVERTISING
Advertising is at the front of delivering the proper message to customers and prospective customers. The
purpose of advertising is to convince customers that a company's services or products are the best, enhance
the image of the company, point out and create a need for products or services, demonstrate new uses for
established products, announce new products and programs, reinforce the salespeople's individual messages,
draw customers to the business, and to hold existing customers (Taylor J. 1978).
8.2.2 ADVERTISING RESEARCH
Advertising research is a specialized form of research that works to improve the effectiveness and efficiency
of advertising. It entails numerous forms of research which employ different methodologies. Advertising
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research includes pre-testing (also known as copy testing) and post-testing of ads and/or campaigns. Pretesting is done before an ad airs to gauge how well it will perform and post-testing is done after an ad airs to
determine the in-market impact of the ad or campaign. Continuous ad tracking is an example of post-testing
advertising research types.
8.3 Differences between Public Relations and Advertising
These two industries are very different even though they're commonly confused as being one and the same.
The following are some of the many differences between advertising and Public Relations.
i) Paid Space or Free Coverage: With Advertising, the Company pays for space. You know exactly
when the advert will be aired or published. Some adverts run for months and when that period ends,
you will hear it no more. In Public Relations, the job is to get free publicity for the company. From
news conferences to press releases, we focus on getting free media exposure for the company and its
products/services.
ii) Creative and information Control Versus No Control: In Advertising, since payment is made for
the space, you have creative control on what goes into that advert. You even pay for production and
add anything you wish. In Public Relations, there is no control over how the media presents your
information, if they decide to use your information at all. They're not obligated to cover your event
or publish your press release. It depends on your nose for the news in writing and your relationship
with them.
iii) Shelf Life: In Advertising, since space is paid for, you can run an adverts over and over for as long
as your budget allows. An advert generally has a longer shelf life than one press release. In Public
Relations, we only submit a press release about a new product or a press release about a news
conference once. The PR exposure you receive is only circulated once. An editor won't publish your
same press release three or four times in their magazine or bulletin no matter how good.
iv) Wise Consumers: In Advertising, the consumer understands that we have paid to present our selling
message to them and unfortunately, the consumer often views our selling message very guardedly. In
Public Relations, when a customer reads a third-party article written about your product or views
coverage of your event on TV, they are seeing something you didn't pay for and they view it
differently than for advertising.
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v) Creativity or a Nose for News: In Advertising, you get to exercise your creativity in creating new
advert campaigns and materials. In Public Relations, you have to have a nose for news and be able to
generate buzz through that news. You exercise your creativity, to an extent, in the way you search
for new news to release to the media.
vi) Measurement and evaluation: In Advertising, there are established measurement techniques
because it is known how many media houses you used, for how long and what times are the averts
running but in Public Relations, it is not easy to evaluate because we rely on the mercies of editors
and you may not know when, and what time your story may find favour from media gate keepers.
vii) Focus of activity: In Advertising, focus in on increasing market and or sales while in Public
Relations, focus is on changing attitude or situation.
Noteworthy, Public Relations is a cost-effective way of getting your story out. Taking the trouble to write
effective news releases and to build a relationship with the relevant media will, in time, pay dividends in the
form of exposure and prestige. Best of all, Public Relations probably costs less than a single advertisement.
8.4 Why companies/ organisations advertise
i.
To sell products and services
ii.
To meet the competition
iii.
To Build the image
iv.
To create a new position
v.
To educate customers
vi.
To promote new merchandise
vii.
To reinforce new market positions
viii.
To create goodwill
ix.
To motivate action
x.
To expand demographics
xi.
To promote new open stores
xii.
To increase name awareness
xiii.
To advertise the location
xiv.
To build brand awareness
xv.
To promote regular price or off-price merchandise
xvi.
To support sales objectives
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xvii.
To build company morale
xviii.
To start people talking
xix.
To target consumers better
[53]
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[54]
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[55]
Reuben Twinomujuni Katehangwa is a Christian,
husband, father, son, brother, an uncle, a journalist,
an author and a professional. Reuben is a hopefulfilled, and a generation to come. He is the
neighbor next door, a smiling stranger, and an
available friend. He is a consistent mover who
doesn’t believe that failure is final. Reuben is a
career Diplomat, with insatiable interest and training
in International Relations. He is a practicing Public
Relations professional and a member of various
professional bodies. He has attended local and
international Communications conferences in search
of additional know-how. His inspiration is from
Philippians 1:20: My deep Desire and Hope is that I
shall never fail in my duty, but that at all times, I
shall be full of courage so that my whole being shall
bring honour to Christ whether I live or die.
Public Relations is multi-faceted profession entrenched in almost every department of
organisations and companies to ensure good relations between the organisation and the
stakeholders, between employees and the organisation and between the organisation’s services
and products and consumers. This is based on the understanding that ―People do not buy goods
and services. They buy relations, stories and magic.‖ Seth Godin.
A Public Relations Manager is his employer’s journalist, photographer, advisor, video manager,
publications manager, a member of management, mouth and ear piece, defender, ambassador and
servant.
How possible is it that? This book has carefully been prepared and satiated with practical
knowledge on how possible it is. You will find sufficient information on writing and editing
news, features, engaging and winning in social media; you will get knowledge in professionalism
and career development in the eyes of successful practitioners, effectively managing organisation
publications, result-oriented publicity and marketing, engaging the media through commercial
advertisement to harvest much from the investment and much more.
This book is a pearl for practitioners, a precious gift to students, a resource to consultants and a
must-own for employers. Own it, own knowledge and understanding.
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