Марковина, И., Громова, Г. - Грамматический практикум для фармацевтов. Рабочая тетрадь (2006)
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Марковина И.Ю., Громова Г.Е. Английский язык Грамматический практикум для фармацевтов Рабочая тетрадь √–¿Ãÿ“»◊≈—ü»… œ–¿ü“»ü”à œ–≈ƒ»—ÀŒ¬»≈ ŒÒÌӂ̇ˇ ˆÂθ ۘ·ÌÓ„Ó ÔÓÒӷˡ ´¿Ì„ÎËÈÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í. √‡ÏχÚ˘ÂÒÍËÈ Ô‡ÍÚËÍÛÏ ‰Îˇ هχˆÂ‚ÚÓ‚ª Ë ‚˚ÔÛ˘ÂÌÌÓÈ ‚ ÍÓÏÔÎÂÍÚÂ Ò ÌËÏ –‡·Ó˜ÂÈ ÚÂÚ‡‰Ë ó ÙÓÏËÓ‚‡ÌËÂ Û Ó·Û˜‡˛˘ËıÒˇ ÛÏÂÌËÈ ÔÓÌËχڸ Ë Ô‚ӉËÚ¸ ÓË„Ë̇θÌ˚ ‡Ì„ÎÓˇÁ˚˜Ì˚ ÚÂÍÒÚ˚ ÔÓ ÒÔˆˇθÌÓÒÚË Ò ÓÔÓÓÈ Ì‡ Á̇ÌË „‡ÏχÚ˘ÂÒÍËı ÒÚÛÍÚÛ, ı‡‡ÍÚÂÌ˚ı ‰Îˇ ̇ۘÌÓÈ ÎËÚ‡ÚÛ˚ ̇ ‡Ì„ÎËÈÒÍÓÏ ˇÁ˚ÍÂ. ƒ‡ÌÌ˚È ÍÓÏÔÎÂÍÚ Û˜Â·Ì˚ı ÔÓÒÓ·ËÈ ‡‰ÂÒÓ‚‡Ì ‚ ÔÂ‚Û˛ Ә‰¸ ÒÚÛ‰ÂÌÚ‡Ï Ù‡Ï‡ˆÂ‚Ú˘ÂÒÍËı ‚ÛÁÓ‚ Ë Ù‡ÍÛθÚÂÚÓ‚, ËÁÛ˜‡˛˘ËÏ ·‡ÁÓ‚˚È ‰‚Ûı„Ӊ˘Ì˚È ÍÛÒ ‡Ì„ÎËÈÒÍÓ„Ó ˇÁ˚͇. »Á‰‡ÌË ڇÍÊ ÂÍÓÏẨÛÂÚÒˇ ‰Îˇ ÔÓ‰„ÓÚÓ‚ÍË ‡ÒÔˇÌÚÓ‚ Ë ÒÓËÒ͇ÚÂÎÂÈ Í Ò‰‡˜Â ͇̉ˉ‡ÚÒÍÓ„Ó ˝ÍÁ‡ÏÂ̇. œÓÒÓ·Ë ÏÓÊÂÚ Á‡ËÌÚÂÂÒÓ‚‡Ú¸ ¯ËÓÍËÈ ÍÛ„ ÒÔˆˇÎËÒÚÓ‚-هχˆÂ‚ÚÓ‚, Ê·˛˘Ëı Ò‚Ó·Ó‰ÌÓ ‚·‰ÂÚ¸ ̇‚˚͇ÏË ‡·ÓÚ˚ Ò ‡Ì„ÎÓˇÁ˚˜ÌÓÈ Ì‡Û˜ÌÓÈ ÎËÚ‡ÚÛÓÈ. √‡ÏχÚ˘ÂÒÍËÈ Ô‡ÍÚËÍÛÏ Ë –‡·Ó˜‡ˇ ÚÂÚ‡‰¸ ËÏÂ˛Ú ÒıÓ‰ÌÛ˛ ÒÚÛÍÚÛÛ Ë ÒÓÒÚÓˇÚ ËÁ ÔˇÚË ˜‡ÒÚÂÈ: ´À˘Ì˚ ÙÓÏ˚ „·„Ó·ª, ´ÕÂ΢Ì˚ ÙÓÏ˚ „·„Ó·ª, ´—ËÌÚ‡ÍÒËÒª Ë ´ÃÌÓ„ÓÁ̇˜ÌÓÒÚ¸ ‡Ì„ÎËÈÒÍËı ˜‡ÒÚÂÈ Â˜Ëª, ´Are you a good pharmacist?ª œÂ‚˚ ÚË ˜‡ÒÚË Ô‡ÍÚËÍÛχ ÔÓÒ‚ˇ˘ÂÌ˚ ÓÒÌÓ‚Ì˚Ï „‡ÏχÚ˘ÂÒÍËÏ ˇ‚ÎÂÌˡÏ, ı‡‡ÍÚÂÌ˚Ï ‰Îˇ ‡Ì„ÎËÈÒÍÓ„Ó Ì‡Û˜ÌÓ„Ó ÒÚËΡ, Á̇ÌË ÍÓÚÓ˚ı ÔÓÁ‚ÓΡÂÚ ÚÓ˜ÌÓ ÔÓÌËχڸ Ë Ô‡‚ËθÌÓ Ô‰‡‚‡Ú¸ ̇ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í ÒÓ‰ÂʇÌË ÚÂÍÒÚÓ‚ ÔÓ ÒÔˆˇθÌÓÒÚË Ó·Û˜‡ÂÏ˚ı. ¬ ˜ÂÚ‚∏ÚÛ˛ ˜‡ÒÚ¸ ´ÃÌÓ„ÓÁ̇˜ÌÓÒÚ¸ ‡Ì„ÎËÈÒÍËı ˜‡ÒÚÂÈ Â˜Ëª ‚Íβ˜ÂÌ˚ ÛÔ‡ÊÌÂÌˡ, ‡Á‚Ë‚‡˛˘Ë ̇‚˚ÍË ÔÓÌËχÌˡ Ë Ô‰‡˜Ë ̇ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í „‡ÏχÚ˘ÂÒÍËı Ë ÎÂÍÒ˘ÂÒÍËı ˇ‚ÎÂÌËÈ, ‡ÒÔÓÒÚ‡ÌÂÌÌ˚ı ‚ ÓË„Ë̇θÌ˚ı ‡Ì„ÎËÈÒÍËı ÚÂÍÒÚ‡ı ¯ËÓÍÓÈ Ì‡Û˜ÌÓÈ ÚÂχÚËÍË, Ë Ô‰ÒÚ‡‚Ρ˛˘Ëı ÚÛ‰ÌÓÒÚË ÔË Ô‚ӉÂ. ¬ ÔÓˆÂÒÒ ‡·ÓÚ˚ Ò ‰‡ÌÌ˚Ï ÔÓÒÓ·ËÂÏ ÒÚÛ‰ÂÌÚ˚ ÒÏÓ„ÛÚ Ú‡ÍÊ ۂÂ΢ËÚ¸ Á‡Ô‡Ò Á̇ÌËÈ ‚ ӷ·ÒÚË ÒÔˆˇθÌÓÈ ÚÂÏËÌÓÎÓ„ËË Ë Ó·˘Â̇ۘÌÓÈ ÎÂÍÒËÍË. ü‡Ê‰‡ˇ ˜‡ÒÚ¸ ÒÓ‰ÂÊËÚ ÌÂÒÍÓθÍÓ ÚÂχÚ˘ÂÒÍË Ó„‡ÌËÁÓ‚‡ÌÌ˚ı ‡Á‰ÂÎÓ‚, ‚ ÒÓÒÚ‡‚ ÍÓÚÓ˚ı ‚Íβ˜ÂÌ˚ „ÛÔÔ˚ ÛÔ‡ÊÌÂÌËÈ. ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌˡ ‚ ͇ʉÓÏ ‡Á‰ÂΠ‡ÒÔÓÎÓÊÂÌ˚ ÔÓ ÔË̈ËÔÛ ´ÓÚ ÔÓÒÚÓ„Ó Í ÒÎÓÊÌÓÏÛª; ÔÓ ‡Ì‡Îӄ˘ÌÓÏÛ ÔË̈ËÔÛ ‡ÒÔÓÎÓÊÂÌ˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ ‚ ͇ʉÓÏ ÛÔ‡ÊÌÂÌËË. ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌˡ ÔÓ‚˚¯ÂÌÌÓÈ ÚÛ‰ÌÓÒÚË Ó·ÓÁ̇˜ÂÌ˚ Á̇˜ÍÓÏ * Ë Ô‰̇Á̇˜ÂÌ˚ ‰Îˇ ÒÚÛ‰ÂÌÚÓ‚ ÔÓ‰‚ËÌÛÚ˚ı „ÛÔÔ. üÛÔÌ˚ ‡Á‰ÂÎ˚ Á‡‚¯‡˛ÚÒˇ Ó·ÁÓÌ˚Ï ÛÔ‡ÊÌÂÌËÂÏ ÔÓ ËÁÛ˜‡ÂÏÓÈ „‡ÏχÚ˘ÂÒÍÓÈ ÚÂÏÂ, ÚÂÍÒÚ‡ÏË ‰Îˇ ÚÂÌËÓ‚Ó˜ÌÓ„Ó Ë ÍÓÌÚÓθÌÓ„Ó Ô‚Ӊ‡. ’ÓÚˇ ‚ ˆÂÎÓÏ ´¿Ì„ÎËÈÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í. √‡ÏχÚ˘ÂÒÍËÈ Ô‡ÍÚËÍÛÏ ‰Îˇ هχˆÂ‚ÚÓ‚ª Ë –‡·Ó˜‡ˇ ÚÂÚ‡‰¸ ËÏÂ˛Ú ÒıÓ‰ÌÛ˛ ÒÚÛÍÚÛÛ, ͇ʉ‡ˇ ËÁ ÍÌË„ ÒÎÛÊËÚ Ò‚ÓÂÈ ˆÂÎË. œ‡ÍÚËÍÛÏ ˇ‚ΡÂÚÒˇ ۘ·Ì˚Ï ÔÓÒÓ·ËÂÏ ÔÓ ÔÓÙÂÒÒËÓ̇θÌÓ ÓËÂÌÚËÓ‚‡ÌÌÓÏÛ Ô‚ӉÛ, Ò̇·ÊÂÌ œËÎÓÊÂÌËÂÏ, ‚Íβ˜‡˛˘ËÏ —ÔËÒÓÍ ıËÏ˘ÂÒÍËı ˝ÎÂÏÂÌÚÓ‚ Ë ‚¢ÂÒÚ‚, —ÔËÒÓÍ Ì‡Á‚‡ÌËÈ ‡ÒÚÂÌËÈ Ë ÌÂÍÓÚÓ˚ı ÎÂ͇ÒÚ‚ÂÌÌ˚ı ‚¢ÂÒÚ‚ Ë —ÔËÒÓÍ Û˜ÂÌ˚ı, ÛÔÓÏË̇˛˘ËıÒˇ ‚ ÚÂÍÒÚ‡ı ÔÓÒӷˡ. üÓÏ ˝ÚÓ„Ó, ÔÓÒÓ·Ë ‚Íβ˜‡ÂÚ ¿Ì„ÎÓ-ÛÒÒÍËÈ ÒÎÓ‚‡¸. ¬Ò ÒÔËÒÍË, ‡ Ú‡ÍÊ ÒÎÓ‚‡¸ Í œ‡ÍÚËÍÛÏÛ, Ò̇·ÊÂÌ˚ ÙÓÌÂÚ˘ÂÒÍÓÈ Ú‡ÌÒÍËÔˆËÂÈ. 3 ¿Õ√À»…—ü»… fl«¤ü ƒÀfl ‘¿–ÿ÷≈¬“Œ¬ –‡·Ó˜‡ˇ ÚÂÚ‡‰¸ Ô‰̇Á̇˜Â̇ ‰Îˇ ‚˚ÔÓÎÌÂÌˡ Á‡‰‡ÌËÈ ÔÓ ÔËÒ¸ÏÂÌÌÓÏÛ ÔÂÂ‚Ó‰Û Ò ‡Ì„ÎËÈÒÍÓ„Ó ˇÁ˚͇ ̇ ÛÒÒÍËÈ. ƒÎˇ ˝ÚÓ„Ó ÔÓÒÎÂ Í‡Ê‰Ó„Ó Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ ÓÒÚ‡‚ÎÂÌÓ Ò‚Ó·Ó‰ÌÓ ÏÂÒÚÓ, Ô‰ÛÒχÚË‚‡˛˘Â ‰‚‡ ‚‡Ë‡ÌÚ‡ Ô‚Ӊ‡ ó Ô‚˚È, ˜ÂÌÓ‚ÓÈ, Ë ‚ÚÓÓÈ, ÓÚ‰‡ÍÚËÓ‚‡ÌÌ˚È ‚ ÂÁÛθڇÚ ӷÒÛʉÂÌˡ ‚ ‡Û‰ËÚÓËË ÔÓ‰ ÛÍÓ‚Ó‰ÒÚ‚ÓÏ ÔÂÔÓ‰‡‚‡ÚÂΡ. Õ‡ ͇ʉÓÈ ÒÚ‡Ìˈ ӷÓÁ̇˜ÂÌÓ ✔ ÏÂÒÚÓ, „‰Â ÂÍÓÏẨÛÂÚÒˇ Á‡ÔËÒ˚‚‡Ú¸ ÚÂÏËÌ˚, Ô‚Ӊ ÓÚ‰ÂθÌ˚ı ÒÎÓ‚ÓÒÓ˜ÂÚ‡ÌËÈ, ÒÎÛÊ·Ì˚Â Ë ‰Û„Ë ÒÎÓ‚‡, ÍÓÚÓ˚ ÒΉÛÂÚ Á‡ÔÓÏÌËÚ¸. ¬Ò ‡Á‰ÂÎ˚ Á‡Í‡Ì˜Ë‚‡˛ÚÒˇ ÚÂÍÒÚ‡ÏË ‰Îˇ ÚÂÌËÓ‚Ó˜ÌÓ„Ó Ô‚Ӊ‡, ÂÍÓÏẨÛÂÏÓ„Ó ‚ ͇˜ÂÒÚ‚Â ‰Óχ¯ÌÂÈ Ò‡ÏÓÒÚÓˇÚÂθÌÓÈ ‡·ÓÚ˚ Ò ÔÓÒÎÂ‰Û˛˘ÂÈ ÔÓ‚ÂÍÓÈ Ì‡ Á‡ÌˇÚˡı. »ÁÛ˜ÂÌË ͇ʉÓÈ „‡ÏχÚ˘ÂÒÍÓÈ ÚÂÏ˚ Á‡Í‡Ì˜Ë‚‡ÂÚÒˇ ÍÓÌÚÓθÌ˚Ï Ô‚ӉÓÏ, ÍÓÚÓ˚È ÒÚÛ‰ÂÌÚ˚ ‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇ˛Ú Ò‡ÏÓÒÚÓˇÚÂθÌÓ Ì‡ Á‡ÌˇÚËË Ì‡ ÒÔˆˇθÌÓÏ ·Î‡ÌÍ (ÔÓÏ¢ÂÌÌÓÏ ‚ Á‡Íβ˜ËÚÂθÌÓÈ ˜‡ÒÚË –‡·Ó˜ÂÈ ÚÂÚ‡‰Ë) Ë Ò‰‡˛Ú ÔÂÔÓ‰‡‚‡ÚÂβ ‰Îˇ ÔÓ‚ÂÍË. ¬ ͇ʉÓ ÛÔ‡ÊÌÂÌË ‚Íβ˜ÂÌ˚ ÒÔˆˇθÌÓ ‡Á‡·ÓÚ‡ÌÌ˚ ÓË„Ë̇θÌ˚ Á‡‰‡Ìˡ-ËÌÒÚÛ͈ËË, Ô‰̇Á̇˜ÂÌÌ˚ ‰Îˇ ÙÓÏËÓ‚‡Ìˡ ÛÏÂÌˡ ‡Ì‡ÎËÁËÓ‚‡Ú¸ ÙÓχθÌÛ˛ ÒÚÛÍÚÛÛ ‡Ì„ÎËÈÒÍÓ„Ó Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ ‚ ͇˜ÂÒÚ‚Â Ó·ˇÁ‡ÚÂθÌÓ„Ó ˝Ú‡Ô‡, Ô‰‚‡ˇ˛˘Â„Ó Ô‚Ӊ. ¬‡ÊÌÓ Ú‡ÍÊ ‡·ÓÚ‡Ú¸ ̇‰ Ô‚ӉÓÏ ‚ ÔÓÒΉӂ‡ÚÂθÌÓÒÚË, Ô‰·„‡ÂÏÓÈ ‚ Á‡‰‡ÌËË-ËÌÒÚÛ͈ËË. ›ÚÓ ÔÓÁ‚ÓÎËÚ ÛÒ‚ÓËÚ¸ ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌÌ˚È ´‡Î„ÓËÚϪ ‰ÂÈÒÚ‚ËÈ, Ó·ÂÒÔ˜˂‡˛˘ËÈ Ô‡‚ËθÌÓ ÔÓÌËχÌËÂ Ë ‡‰ÂÍ‚‡ÚÌ˚È Ô‚Ӊ ̇ۘÌÓ„Ó ÚÂÍÒÚ‡. ü‡Í ‚ˉÌÓ ËÁ ÒÚÛÍÚÛ˚ Á‡‰‡Ìˡ-ËÌÒÚÛ͈ËË, ‡·ÓÚ‡ ÔÓ Ó·Û˜ÂÌ˲ ÔÂÂ‚Ó‰Û ‡Á·ËÚ‡ ̇ ˝Ú‡Ô˚: Á‡‰‡Ìˡ ´¿ª, ´¡ª, ´¬ª (ËÌÓ„‰‡ ´¿ª, ´¡ª). «‡‰‡ÌË ´¿ª ÒÓ‰ÂÊËÚ Í‡ÚÍË ҂‰ÂÌˡ Ó „‡ÏχÚ˘ÂÒÍÓÏ ˇ‚ÎÂÌËË: Â„Ó ÙÓχθÌ˚ ÔËÁ̇ÍË Ë ÙÛÌ͈ËÓ̇θÌ˚ ı‡‡ÍÚÂËÒÚËÍË (Á̇˜ÂÌËÂ). ¬‡ÊÌÛ˛ Óθ ‚ ÒÚÛÍÚÛ Á‡‰‡Ìˡ Ë„‡˛Ú ÔËÏÂ˚ Ë/ËÎË ÒıÂÏ˚, ËÎβÒÚËÛ˛˘Ë ÙÓχθÌ˚ ÔËÁ̇ÍË „‡ÏχÚ˘ÂÒÍÓ„Ó ˇ‚ÎÂÌˡ Ë Â„Ó ÏÂÒÚÓ ‚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËË ÔÓ ÓÚÌÓ¯ÂÌ˲ Í ˇ‰Û Ë ‚ÚÓÓÒÚÂÔÂÌÌ˚Ï ˜ÎÂÌ‡Ï (Û·Ë͇ ´œËϪ). «‡‰‡ÌË ´¿ª ÓËÂÌÚËÛÂÚ ÒÚÛ‰ÂÌÚÓ‚ ̇ ‡Ì‡ÎËÚ˘ÂÒÍÛ˛ ‡·ÓÚÛ Ò ‡Ì„ÎËÈÒÍËÏ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËÂÏ: ÔÂʉ ‚Ò„Ó, ̇ ÔÓËÒÍ ˇ‰‡ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ (ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â„Ó Ë Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ„Ó), ‡ Ú‡ÍÊ „‡ÏχÚ˘ÂÒÍÓ„Ó ˇ‚ÎÂÌˡ, ÍÓÚÓÓÏÛ ÔÓÒ‚ˇ˘ÂÌÓ ‰‡ÌÌÓ ÛÔ‡ÊÌÂÌËÂ, Ò ÓÔÓÓÈ Ì‡ Â„Ó ÙÓχθÌ˚ ÔËÁ̇ÍË Ë ÏÂÒÚÓ, Á‡ÌËχÂÏÓ ‚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËË. ƒ‡ÌÌÓ Á‡‰‡ÌË ÒΉÛÂÚ ‡ÒÒχÚË‚‡Ú¸ Í‡Í Ó·ˇÁ‡ÚÂθÌ˚È ˝Ú‡Ô ‚ ÔÓ‰„ÓÚÓ‚ÍÂ Í Ô‚ӉÛ. (¬ ˇ‰Â ÒÎÛ˜‡Â‚, ‚ Á‡‚ËÒËÏÓÒÚË ÓÚ ÎÓ„ËÍË Á‡‰‡Ìˡ-ËÌÒÚÛ͈ËË, ‡Ì‡ÎËÚ˘ÂÒ͇ˇ ‡·ÓÚ‡ ÏÓÊÂÚ ·˚Ú¸ Ô‰ÛÒÏÓÚÂ̇ ‚ Á‡‰‡ÌËË ´¬ª.) œÓÒΠ‚˚ÔÓÎÌÂÌˡ ‡Ì‡ÎËÚ˘ÂÒÍËı Á‡‰‡ÌËÈ ÂÍÓÏẨÛÂÚÒˇ ËÒÔÓθÁÓ‚‡ÌË ÒÎÓ‚‡ˇ: ڇ͇ˇ ÔÓÒΉӂ‡ÚÂθÌÓÒÚ¸ ÓÔÚËÏËÁËÛÂÚ ‡·ÓÚÛ ÒÓ ÒÎÓ‚‡ÂÏ ÔË ÔÓ‰„ÓÚÓ‚Í Ô‰‚‡ËÚÂθÌÓ„Ó ‚‡Ë‡ÌÚ‡ Ô‚Ӊ‡. «‡‰‡ÌË ´¡ª ÒÓ‰ÂÊËÚ ÂÍÓÏẨ‡ˆËË ÔÓ ÒÔÓÒÓ·‡Ï Ô‚Ӊ‡ ‰‡ÌÌÓ„Ó ˇ‚ÎÂÌˡ, ‚Íβ˜‡ÂÚ Ì‡Ë·ÓΠ˜‡ÒÚÓ ËÒÔÓθÁÛÂÏ˚ ˝Í‚Ë‚‡ÎÂÌÚ˚ ̇ ÛÒÒÍÓÏ ˇÁ˚ÍÂ Ë Ô‰·„‡ÂÚ ÔËÏÂ˚ Ô‚Ӊ‡ (Û·Ë͇ ´Õ‡ÔËϪ). 4 √–¿Ãÿ“»◊≈—ü»… œ–¿ü“»ü”à ¬˚ÔÓÎÌÂÌË ÓÍÓ̘‡ÚÂθÌÓ„Ó Ô‚Ӊ‡ Ô‰ÛÒÏÓÚÂÌÓ Á‡‰‡ÌËÂÏ ´¬ª Ë Ô‰ÔÓ·„‡ÂÚ: (1) ËÒÔÓθÁÓ‚‡ÌË ´˜ÂÌÓ‚Ó„Ó ‚‡Ë‡ÌÚ‡ª, ÒÓÒÚ‡‚ÎÂÌÌÓ„Ó Ì‡ ÓÒÌÓ‚Â ÔÓÌËχÌˡ ÒÓ‰ÂʇÌˡ „‡ÏχÚ˘ÂÒÍÓ„Ó ˇ‚ÎÂÌˡ Ë ÔÓ ÂÁÛÎ¸Ú‡Ú‡Ï ‡Ì‡ÎËÚ˘ÂÒÍÓÈ ‡·ÓÚ˚ Ò Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËÂÏ (Á‡‰‡ÌË ´¿ª), (2) ÓÔÓÛ Ì‡ ÔËÏÂ˚ Ë ÂÍÓÏẨ‡ˆËË ÔÓ ÔÂÂ‚Ó‰Û ËÁÛ˜‡ÂÏÓ„Ó „‡ÏχÚ˘ÂÒÍÓ„Ó ˇ‚ÎÂÌˡ ̇ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í (Á‡‰‡ÌË ´¡ª), ‡ Ú‡ÍÊ ‡ÍÚË‚ÌÛ˛ ‡·ÓÚÛ ÒÓ ÒÎÓ‚‡ÂÏ. ¬ ÔÓÒÓ·ËË ËÒÔÓθÁÓ‚‡Ì˚ ‡ÛÚÂÌÚ˘Ì˚ χÚ¡Î˚, ÚÂχÚ˘ÂÒÍË Ô‰ÒÚ‡‚Ρ˛˘Ë ¯ËÓÍËÈ ÒÔÂÍÚ Ì‡Û˜Ì˚ı ӷ·ÒÚÂÈ, ÍÓÚÓ˚ ÏÓ„ÛÚ Ó͇Á‡Ú¸Òˇ ‚ ÒÙ ÔÓÙÂÒÒËÓ̇θÌ˚ı ËÌÚÂÂÒÓ‚ هχˆÂ‚Ú‡: Ó·˘‡ˇ ıËÏˡ, ·ËÓÎӄˡ, ÙËÁËÓÎӄˡ, هχÍÓÎӄˡ Ë ‰. ¬ ÔÓÒÓ·ËË ÒÓı‡ÌÂÌ˚ ÓÒÓ·ÂÌÌÓÒÚË Ô‡‚ÓÔËÒ‡Ìˡ Ë ÔÛÌÍÚÛ‡ˆËË ÓË„Ë̇θÌ˚ı ËÒÚÓ˜ÌËÍÓ‚, ˜ÚÓ Ú‡ÍÊ ÒÔÓÒÓ·ÒÚ‚ÛÂÚ ÙÓÏËÓ‚‡Ì˲ Ô‰ÒÚ‡‚ÎÂÌˡ Ó ÒÓ‚ÂÏÂÌÌ˚ı ÌÓχı ÔËÒ¸ÏÂÌÌÓ„Ó ÔÓÙÂÒÒËÓ̇θÌÓ„Ó Ó·˘ÂÌˡ. ¬ Á‡Íβ˜ËÚÂθÌÓÈ ˜‡ÒÚË ´Are you a good pharmacist?ª ÓÚÒÛÚÒÚ‚Û˛Ú ÛÔ‡ÊÌÂÌˡ ̇ Ô‚Ӊ: Ó̇ ÒÓ‰ÂÊËÚ Á‡ÌËχÚÂθÌ˚ Á‡‰‡Ìˡ (Ëϲ˘ËÂ, ÚÂÏ Ì ÏÂÌÂÂ, Ә‚ˉÌÛ˛ Ô‡ÍÚ˘ÂÒÍÛ˛ ̇ԇ‚ÎÂÌÌÓÒÚ¸), ˆÂθ˛ ÍÓÚÓ˚ı ˇ‚ΡÂÚÒˇ ÙÓÏËÓ‚‡ÌË ÓÚ‰ÂθÌ˚ı ÛÏÂÌËÈ ´ÔÓ‰ÛÍÚË‚ÌÓ„Óª ËÒÔÓθÁÓ‚‡Ìˡ ËÌÓÒÚ‡ÌÌÓ„Ó ˇÁ˚͇ ‚ ÒËÚÛ‡ˆËˇı ÔÓÙÂÒÒËÓ̇θÌÓ„Ó Ó·˘ÂÌˡ. ¬˚ÔÓÎÌÂÌË Á‡‰‡ÌËÈ Ô‰ÔÓ·„‡ÂÚ ‡·ÓÚÛ ÚÓθÍÓ Ì‡ ‡Ì„ÎËÈÒÍÓÏ ˇÁ˚ÍÂ, ‡ Ú‡ÍÊ ÓÔÓÛ Ì‡ ËÁÛ˜ÂÌÌ˚È „‡ÏχÚ˘ÂÒÍËÈ Ï‡Ú¡Î. –ˇ‰ ÛÔ‡ÊÌÂÌËÈ ˝ÚÓ„Ó ‡Á‰Â· Ë ÌÂÍÓÚÓ˚ ÛÔ‡ÊÌÂÌˡ ‰Û„Ëı ‡Á‰ÂÎÓ‚ (Á‡‰‡Ìˡ ÍÓÚÓ˚ı Ô‰ÔÓ·„‡˛Ú Á̇ÌË ÒÔˆˇθÌ˚ı ‰ËÒˆËÔÎËÌ ËÎË ËÒÚÓ˘ÂÒÍËı Ù‡ÍÚÓ‚) Ò̇·ÊÂÌ˚ Íβ˜‡ÏË, ÍÓÚÓ˚ Ô˂‰ÂÌ˚ Ì ‚ –‡·Ó˜ÂÈ ÚÂÚ‡‰Ë, ‡ ‚ ۘ·ÌÓÏ ÔÓÒÓ·ËË. œÓÏ¢∏ÌÌ˚È ‚ ÍÓ̈ –‡·Ó˜ÂÈ ÚÂÚ‡‰Ë ´»Ì‰ÂÍÒª Ô‰̇Á̇˜ÂÌ ‰Îˇ ·˚ÒÚÓ„Ó ÔÓËÒ͇ ÛÔ‡ÊÌÂÌËÈ, ÌÂÓ·ıÓ‰ËÏ˚ı ‰Îˇ ÓÚ‡·ÓÚÍË ÍÓÌÍÂÚÌÓ„Ó „‡ÏχÚ˘ÂÒÍÓ„Ó ˇ‚ÎÂÌˡ. ”ÒÎÓ‚Ì˚ ӷÓÁ̇˜ÂÌˡ, ÔËÌˇÚ˚ ‚ œ‡ÍÚËÍÛÏÂ Ë –‡·Ó˜ÂÈ ÚÂÚ‡‰Ë: NV nv Ns V Vs ó ó ó ó ó Ved V3 Ving ·ÛÍ‚. ó ó ó ó ˇ‰Ó Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ (ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘ÂÂ Ë Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓÂ); ˇ‰Ó (ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘ÂÂ Ë Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓÂ) ‚ Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓÏ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËË; ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â (ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓÂ) ‚Ó ÏÌÓÊÂÒÚ‚ÂÌÌÓÏ ˜ËÒÎÂ; ÓÒÌӂ̇ˇ ÙÓχ „·„Ó·; „·„ÓÎ-Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ ‚ 3-Ï ÎˈÂ, ‰ËÌÒÚ‚ÂÌÌÓÏ ˜ËÒΠ̇ÒÚÓˇ˘Â„Ó ‚ÂÏÂÌË; „·„ÓÎ-Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ ‚ Ôӯ‰¯ÂÏ ‚ÂÏÂÌË; 3-ˇ ÙÓχ „·„Ó· (Ô˘‡ÒÚË II); 4-ˇ ÙÓχ „·„Ó· (Ô˘‡ÒÚË I); ·ÛÍ‚‡Î¸ÌÓ. ¿‚ÚÓ˚ 5 —Œƒ≈–∆¿Õ»≈ ◊‡ÒÚ¸ I. À˘Ì˚ ÙÓÏ˚ „·„Ó· (Finite Forms of the Verb) –‡Á‰ÂÎ 1. ƒÂÈÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌ˚È Á‡ÎÓ„ (The Active Voice) 1.1 √·„ÓÎ to be ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 1 ........................................................................12 1.2 √·„ÓÎ to be Ò ÔË·„‡ÚÂθÌ˚ÏË ‚ ÒÚÂÔÂÌË Ò‡‚ÌÂÌˡ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 2 ........................................................................14 1.3 üÓÌÒÚÛÍˆËˇ there be ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 3 ........................................................................16 1.4 ¿Ì„ÎËÈÒÍËÈ „·„ÓÎ ‚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡı ·ÂÁ ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â„Ó (ÔÓ‚ÂÎËÚÂθÌÓ ̇ÍÎÓÌÂÌËÂ) ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 4 ........................................................................19 1.5 ‘ÓÏ˚ „·„Ó· ‚ ̇ÒÚÓˇ˘ÂÏ ÌÂÓÔ‰ÂÎ∏ÌÌÓÏ ‚ÂÏÂÌË ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 5 ........................................................................23 ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 6 ........................................................................25 1.6 ◊‡ÒÚË Â˜Ë Ë ˜ÎÂÌ˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 7 ........................................................................28 ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 8 ........................................................................31 1.7 √·„ÓÎ ‚ Ôӯ‰¯ÂÏ ÌÂÓÔ‰ÂÎ∏ÌÌÓÏ ‚ÂÏÂÌË ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 9 ........................................................................34 1.8 «Ì‡˜ÂÌË „·„Ó· will ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 10 ......................................................................37 1.9 œÂÙÂÍÚ̇ˇ ÙÓχ „·„Ó· ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 11 ......................................................................38 1.10 œÓ‰ÓÎÊÂÌ̇ˇ ÙÓχ „·„Ó· ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 12 ......................................................................41 1.11 —ËÒÚÂχ ‚ÂÏÂÌ ‡Ì„ÎËÈÒÍÓ„Ó „·„Ó· ‚ ‰ÂÈÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓÏ Á‡ÎÓ„Â ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 13 (Ó·ÁÓÌÓÂ) .......................................................43 “ÂÍÒÚ˚ ‰Îˇ ÚÂÌËÓ‚Ó˜ÌÓ„Ó Ô‚Ӊ‡ Í –‡Á‰ÂÎÛ 1 ................................46 –‡Á‰ÂÎ 2. —Ú‡‰‡ÚÂθÌ˚È Á‡ÎÓ„ (The Passive Voice) ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 14 ......................................................................54 ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 15 ......................................................................58 “ÂÍÒÚ˚ ‰Îˇ ÚÂÌËÓ‚Ó˜ÌÓ„Ó Ô‚Ӊ‡ Í –‡Á‰ÂÎÛ 2 ................................61 6 √–¿Ãÿ“»◊≈—ü»… œ–¿ü“»ü”à –‡Á‰ÂÎ 3. ÃÓ‰‡Î¸Ì˚ „·„ÓÎ˚ (The Modal Verbs) ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 16 ......................................................................65 “ÂÍÒÚ˚ ‰Îˇ ÚÂÌËÓ‚Ó˜ÌÓ„Ó Ô‚Ӊ‡ Í –‡Á‰ÂÎÛ 3 ................................70 ◊‡ÒÚ¸ II. ÕÂ΢Ì˚ ÙÓÏ˚ „·„Ó· (Non-Finite Forms of the Verb) –‡Á‰ÂÎ 4. œË˜‡ÒÚË (The Participle) 4.1 œË˜‡ÒÚË I ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌˡ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 17 ......................................................................73 ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 18 ......................................................................76 4.2 œË˜‡ÒÚË I ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 19 ......................................................................78 ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 20 ......................................................................81 4.2.1 ÕÂÁ‡‚ËÒËÏ˚È Ô˘‡ÒÚÌ˚È Ó·ÓÓÚ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 21 ......................................................................83 4.3 œË˜‡ÒÚË II ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌˡ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 22 ......................................................................86 4.4 œË˜‡ÒÚË II ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 23 ......................................................................90 ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 24 ......................................................................93 4.5 ‘ÛÌ͈ËË Ô˘‡ÒÚËÈ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 25 (Ó·ÁÓÌÓÂ) .......................................................96 –‡Á‰ÂÎ 5. 5.1 √ÂÛ̉ËÈ (The Gerund) √ÂÛ̉ËÈ ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â„Ó ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 26 ......................................................................99 5.2 √ÂÛ̉ËÈ ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ‰ÓÔÓÎÌÂÌˡ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 27 .....................................................................101 5.3 √ÂÛ̉ËÈ ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌˡ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 28 .....................................................................103 5.4 √ÂÛ̉ËÈ ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 29 .....................................................................105 “ÂÍÒÚ˚ ‰Îˇ ÚÂÌËÓ‚Ó˜ÌÓ„Ó Ô‚Ӊ‡ Í –‡Á‰ÂÎ‡Ï 4 Ë 5 ......................107 7 ¿Õ√À»…—ü»… fl«¤ü ƒÀfl ‘¿–ÿ÷≈¬“Œ¬ –‡Á‰ÂÎ 6. 6.1 »ÌÙËÌËÚË‚ (The Infinitive) »ÌÙËÌËÚË‚ ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â„Ó, ˜‡ÒÚË ÒÓÒÚ‡‚ÌÓ„Ó Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ„Ó Ë ‰ÓÔÓÎÌÂÌˡ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 30 .....................................................................112 6.2 —ÎÓÊÌÓ ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 31 .....................................................................115 ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 32 .....................................................................118 6.3 —ÎÓÊÌÓ ‰ÓÔÓÎÌÂÌË ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 33 .....................................................................122 6.4 »ÌÙËÌËÚË‚ ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡ 6.4.1 »ÌÙËÌËÚË‚ ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡ ˆÂÎË ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 34 .....................................................................125 6.4.2 »ÌÙËÌËÚË‚ ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡ ÒΉÒڂˡ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 35 .....................................................................129 6.5 »ÌÙËÌËÚË‚ ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌˡ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 36 .....................................................................131 ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 37 .....................................................................133 ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 38 .....................................................................135 ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 39 .....................................................................137 6.6 ‘ÛÌ͈ËË ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚‡ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 40 (Ó·ÁÓÌÓÂ) .....................................................139 “ÂÍÒÚ˚ ‰Îˇ ÚÂÌËÓ‚Ó˜ÌÓ„Ó Ô‚Ӊ‡ Í –‡Á‰ÂÎÛ 6 ..............................142 ◊‡ÒÚ¸ III. —ËÌÚ‡ÍÒËÒ (Syntax) –‡Á‰ÂÎ 7. 7.1 —ÎÓÊÌÓÔÓ‰˜ËÌÂÌÌ˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ œË‰‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Ë ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 41 .....................................................................149 7.2 œË‰‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ Ò͇ÁÛÂÏ˚ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 42 .....................................................................152 7.3 œË‰‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ ‰ÓÔÓÎÌËÚÂθÌ˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 43 .....................................................................154 7.4 œË‰‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ ÓÔ‰ÂÎËÚÂθÌ˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 44 .....................................................................159 ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 45 .....................................................................162 ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 46 .....................................................................166 8 √–¿Ãÿ“»◊≈—ü»… œ–¿ü“»ü”à 7.5 œË‰‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ ӷÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚ÂÌÌ˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ 7.5.1 œË‰‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡ ‚ÂÏÂÌË ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 47 .....................................................................169 7.5.2 œË‰‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡ Ô˘ËÌ˚ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 48 .....................................................................173 7.5.3 œË‰‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ ÛÒÎÓ‚Ì˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 49 .....................................................................178 ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 50 .....................................................................182 7.5.4 œË‰‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ ÒÓÓÚÌÓÒËÚÂθÌ˚ ‚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡı ‰‚ÓÈÌÓ„Ó Ò‡‚ÌÂÌˡ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 51 .....................................................................185 7.6 —ӄ·ÒÓ‚‡ÌË ‚ÂÏÂÌ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 52 .....................................................................188 7.7 ¬Ë‰˚ Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ı Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËÈ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 53 (Ó·ÁÓÌÓÂ) .....................................................191 “ÂÍÒÚ˚ ‰Îˇ ÚÂÌËÓ‚Ó˜ÌÓ„Ó Ô‚Ӊ‡ Í –‡Á‰ÂÎÛ 7 ..............................197 ◊‡ÒÚ¸ IV. ÃÌÓ„ÓÁ̇˜ÌÓÒÚ¸ ‡Ì„ÎËÈÒÍËı ˜‡ÒÚÂÈ Â˜Ë (English Parts of Speech in Various Functions) –‡Á‰ÂÎ 8. 8.1 ‘ÛÌ͈ËË ÏÂÒÚÓËÏÂÌˡ it ‘ÓχθÌÓ it ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â„Ó ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 54 .....................................................................203 ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 55 .....................................................................206 ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 56 .....................................................................209 8.2 ÃÂÒÚÓËÏÂÌË it ‚ ˝ÏÓˆËÓ̇θÌÓ-ÛÒËÎËÚÂθÌÓÈ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 57 .....................................................................212 –‡Á‰ÂÎ 9. ‘ÛÌ͈ËË ÒÎÛÊ·ÌÓ„Ó ÒÎÓ‚‡ as ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 58 .....................................................................215 ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 59 .....................................................................218 –‡Á‰ÂÎ 10. —ÓÒÚ‡‚Ì˚ Ô‰ÎÓ„Ë ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 60 .....................................................................221 9 ¿Õ√À»…—ü»… fl«¤ü ƒÀfl ‘¿–ÿ÷≈¬“Œ¬ –‡Á‰ÂÎ 11. «Ì‡˜ÂÌËÂ Ë ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÒÎÓ‚‡ one ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 61 .....................................................................225 –‡Á‰ÂÎ 12. «Ì‡˜ÂÌËÂ Ë ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÒÎÓ‚‡ both ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 62 .....................................................................228 –‡Á‰ÂÎ 13. «Ì‡˜ÂÌËÂ Ë ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÒÎÓ‚ either Ë neither ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 63 .....................................................................231 –‡Á‰ÂÎ 14. —ÎÓ‚‡-Á‡ÏÂÌËÚÂÎË 14.1 One ñ ones ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 64 .....................................................................235 14.2 That ñ those ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 65 .....................................................................240 14.3 The former ñ the latter ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 66 .....................................................................243 “ÂÍÒÚ˚ ‰Îˇ ÚÂÌËÓ‚Ó˜ÌÓ„Ó Ô‚Ӊ‡ Í ◊‡ÒÚË IV .................................246 ◊‡ÒÚ¸ V.* Are you a good pharmacist? Task 1 ............................................................................................251 Task 2 ............................................................................................253 Task 3 ............................................................................................254 Task 4 ............................................................................................255 “ÂÍÒÚ˚ ‰Îˇ ÍÓÌÚÓθÌÓ„Ó Ô‚Ӊ‡ Í –‡Á‰ÂÎÛ 1 ........................................258 “ÂÍÒÚ˚ ‰Îˇ ÍÓÌÚÓθÌÓ„Ó Ô‚Ӊ‡ Í –‡Á‰ÂÎÛ 2 ........................................261 “ÂÍÒÚ˚ ‰Îˇ ÍÓÌÚÓθÌÓ„Ó Ô‚Ӊ‡ Í –‡Á‰ÂÎÛ 3 ........................................265 “ÂÍÒÚ˚ ‰Îˇ ÍÓÌÚÓθÌÓ„Ó Ô‚Ӊ‡ Í –‡Á‰ÂÎ‡Ï 4 Ë 5 ................................267 “ÂÍÒÚ˚ ‰Îˇ ÍÓÌÚÓθÌÓ„Ó Ô‚Ӊ‡ Í –‡Á‰ÂÎÛ 6 ........................................271 “ÂÍÒÚ˚ ‰Îˇ ÍÓÌÚÓθÌÓ„Ó Ô‚Ӊ‡ Í –‡Á‰ÂÎÛ 7 ........................................273 “ÂÍÒÚ˚ ‰Îˇ ÍÓÌÚÓθÌÓ„Ó Ô‚Ӊ‡ Í ◊‡ÒÚË IV ...........................................277 √‡ÏχÚ˘ÂÒÍË ڇ·Îˈ˚ 1. —ËÒÚÂχ ‚ÂÏÂÌ ‡Ì„ÎËÈÒÍÓ„Ó „·„Ó· ‚ ‰ÂÈÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓÏ Á‡ÎÓ„Â ....................................................................................43 10 √–¿Ãÿ“»◊≈—ü»… œ–¿ü“»ü”à 2. —ËÒÚÂχ ‚ÂÏÂÌ ‡Ì„ÎËÈÒÍÓ„Ó „·„Ó· ‚ ÒÚ‡‰‡ÚÂθÌÓÏ Á‡ÎÓ„Â ....................................................................................54 3. ‘ÛÌ͈ËË ÌÂ΢Ì˚ı ÙÓÏ „·„Ó· ‚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËË (Ô˘‡ÒÚËÂ, „ÂÛ̉ËÈ, ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚) ...........................................72 4. ¬Ë‰˚ ÒÎÓÊÌ˚ı Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËÈ .................................................148 5. “ËÔ˚ ÛÒÎÓ‚Ì˚ı Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËÈ ................................................177 6. —ӄ·ÒÓ‚‡ÌË ‚ÂÏÂÌ .............................................................188 »Ì‰ÂÍÒ .................................................................................................280 ◊‡ÒÚ¸ I. À»◊Õ¤≈ ‘Œ–ä √À¿√ŒÀ¿ (Finite Forms of the Verb) –‡Á‰ÂÎ 1. ƒÂÈÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌ˚È Á‡ÎÓ„ (Active Voice) 1.1 √·„ÓÎ to be ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 1 ¿ ՇȉËÚ ‚ ͇ʉÓÏ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËË ÒÓÒÚ‡‚ÌÓ ËÏÂÌÌÓ Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓÂ, ÍÓÚÓÓ ‚Íβ˜‡ÂÚ „·„ÓÎ to be (ÎËˆÓ Ë ˜ËÒÎÓ „·„Ó· Òӄ·ÒÛ˛ÚÒˇ Ò ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘ËÏ) Ë ËÏÂÌÌÛ˛ ˜‡ÒÚ¸: ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓ ËÎË ÔË·„‡ÚÂθÌÓÂ. œËÏÂ: to be + n Copper, gold and silver are metals. to be + adj Ozone is toxic to the pulmonary system. ¡ Õ‡ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í Ú‡ÍÓ Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ ÏÓÊÂÚ Ô‚ӉËÚ¸Òˇ Ó‰ÌËÏ ËÁ ÒÎÂ‰Û˛˘Ëı ÒÔÓÒÓ·Ó‚: 1) ˇ‚ÎˇÚ¸Òˇ, ̇ıÓ‰ËÚ¸Òˇ + ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓ ËÎË ÔË·„‡ÚÂθÌÓ 2) „·„ÓÎ ´ˇ‚ÎˇÚ¸Òˇª ÓÚÒÛÚÒÚ‚ÛÂÚ, ÌÓ ÔÓ‰‡ÁÛÏ‚‡ÂÚÒˇ (‚ÏÂÒÚÓ ÌÂ„Ó ÒÚ‡‚ˇÚ ´ñª) 3) ͇ÚÍËÏ ÔË·„‡ÚÂθÌ˚Ï. ¬ Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: 1) Copper, gold and silver are metals. ɸ, ÁÓÎÓÚÓ Ë ÒÂÂ·Ó ˇ‚Ρ˛ÚÒˇ ÏÂڇηÏË. 2) Oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen are gases. üËÒÎÓÓ‰, ‚Ó‰ÓÓ‰ Ë ‡ÁÓÚ ó „‡Á˚. 3) Ozone is toxic to the pulmonary system. ŒÁÓÌ ÚÓÍÒ˘ÂÌ ‰Îˇ Ó„‡ÌÓ‚ ‰˚ı‡Ìˡ. (»ÎË: ŒÁÓÌ ˇ‚ΡÂÚÒˇ ÚÓÍÒ˘Ì˚Ï ‰Îˇ Ó„‡ÌÓ‚ ‰˚ı‡Ìˡ) œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. Carbon is a solid. 2. Combustion is a major type of chemical reactions. 12 ƒ≈…—“¬»“≈À‹Õ¤… «¿ÀŒ√ 3. Sodium and chlorine are the constituents of salt. ✔ 4. Various types of topical preparations are available. 5. Resins are important raw materials of industry. 6. Grasses are worldwide in distribution. 7. Coal is a non-renewable form of energy. 8. Pure acetic acid is completely miscible with water. 9. In ordinary temperatures the amino acids are white crystalline solids. 10. Gold is stable in air under normal conditions. 11. Gold is untarnishable, workable, almost indestructible, durable, reflective, and conductive. 12. The size of the nucleus inside an atom is comparable to the size of an ant on a football field. 13 –¿«ƒ≈À 1 13. Alchemy was a major source of knowledge until 1600s. 14. The dangers of radium were apparent from the start. 15. Electron are in constant motion. 16. The growth of plants is under hormonal control. 1.2 √·„ÓÎ to be Ò ÔË·„‡ÚÂθÌ˚Ï ‚ ÒÚÂÔÂÌË Ò‡‚ÌÂÌˡ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 2 ¿ ¬ ÒÎÂ‰Û˛˘Ëı Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡı ̇ȉËÚ ÔË·„‡ÚÂθÌ˚ ‚ Ò‡‚ÌËÚÂθÌÓÈ ÒÚÂÔÂÌË (adj + er, more/less + adj) ËÎË Ô‚ÓÒıÓ‰ÌÓÈ ÒÚÂÔÂÌË (adj + est, most/least + adj), ÍÓÚÓ˚ ÏÓ„ÛÚ ‚ıÓ‰ËÚ¸ ‚ ÒÓÒÚ‡‚ ËÏÂÌÌÓ„Ó Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ„Ó ËÎË ÓÔ‰ÂΡڸ ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓÂ. ¡ œËÏÂ: Magnesium is lighter than aluminium. Titanium is more resistant to corrosion than steel. The smallest particle of an element is an atom. Chemistry is the most important subject for a pharmacist. œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. Chemistry is the most important subject for a pharmacist. 2. Oxygen is the most abundant of all the elements of nature. 3. The smallest particle of an element is an atom. 14 ƒ≈…—“¬»“≈À‹Õ¤… «¿ÀŒ√ 4. Lithium is the lightest metal in existence. ✔ 5. Corrosion is the worst enemy of metals. 6. The most common atom in the universe is hydrogen. 7. Titanium is lighter and stronger than steel and is more resistant to corrosion. 8. The two most plentiful components of air are nitrogen and oxygen. 9. Silver is the best conductor of heat and electricity of all the metals. 10. The amorphous form of boron is less dense than the crystalline. 11. Titanium is a very hard metal: 12 times harder than aluminium, and four times harder than iron and copper. 12. Selenium is among the rarer elements on the surface of this planet, and is rarer than silver. 15 –¿«ƒ≈À 1 1.3 üÓÌÒÚÛÍˆËˇ there be (there is/there are) ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 3 ¿ ¬ ‰‡ÌÌ˚ı Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡı Ò ÍÓÌÒÚÛ͈ËÂÈ there be (there is/there are), ÙÓχθÌÓ (Ú. Â. ÌÂÔ‚ӉËÏÓÂ) ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â there ‚‚Ó‰ËÚ Â‡Î¸ÌÓ ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘ÂÂ, ÓÚ ÍÓÚÓÓ„Ó Á‡‚ËÒËÚ ÙÓχ „·„Ó· to be. œËÏÂ: 1. There is a small proportion of the gases in the air (besides nitrogen and oxygen). 2. There are over 100 different elements on Earth. ¡ Õ‡ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í ÍÓÌÒÚÛÍˆËˇ there be Ó·˚˜ÌÓ Ô‚ӉËÚÒˇ „·„Ó·ÏË ´ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ÛÂÚª, ´ËÏÂÂÚÒˇª ´ÒÓ‰ÂÊËÚÒˇª. ≈ÒÎË ‚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËË ÂÒÚ¸ Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚Ó ÏÂÒÚ‡, Ô‚Ӊ ÂÍÓÏẨÛÂÚÒˇ ̇˜Ë̇ڸ Ò ˝ÚÓ„Ó Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡. ¬ Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: 1) There are many kinds of matter. —Û˘ÂÒÚ‚ÛÂÚ ÏÌÓ„Ó ‚ˉӂ χÚÂËË. 2) There are more than 1 trillion molecules in a cell. ¬ Ó‰ÌÓÈ ÍÎÂÚÍ ÒÓ‰ÂÊËÚÒˇ ·ÓΠÚËÎÎËÓ̇ ÏÓÎÂÍÛÎ. œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. There are many hundreds of millions of chemical compounds. 2. There are three types of plant: annual, biennial, and perennial. 3. There are about 2x1022* molecules in one litre of air. 4. There are differences in the air in different locations. 5. Besides nitrogen and oxygen, there is a small proportion of the gases in the air. * 2x1022 ó two multiplied by 10 in the twenty second degree. 16 ƒ≈…—“¬»“≈À‹Õ¤… «¿ÀŒ√ 6. There are just over 100 different elements on Earth. ✔ 7. There are massive amounts of magnesium in seawater. 8. There are many properties peculiar to different material objects. 9. There is more of cellulose in the world than any other organic chemical. 10. Without oxygen there is no life. 11. There are two main parts of atom: the nucleus and the electron cloud. 12. There is a detectible amount of radon in the atmosphere. 13. There are two principal varieties of chemical bonds ó ionic bonds and covalent bonds. 17 –¿«ƒ≈À 1 ✔ 14. There is a great difference in ionic concentration between the inside and the outside of cell. 15. On the under, and sometimes on the upper surface of a leaf there are thousands of tiny pores. 16. There is a close relationship between the vegetative processes and the reproductive phase of small herbaceous plants. 17. In a woody stem, such as the trunk of a tree, there are three distinct zones: the bark, the wood, and the pith. 18. There was a lot of important research last year. 19. There were several vacant spaces in Mendeleev's periodic table. 18 ƒ≈…—“¬»“≈À‹Õ¤… «¿ÀŒ√ 1.4 ¿Ì„ÎËÈÒÍËÈ „·„ÓÎ ‚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡı ·ÂÁ ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â„Ó (ÔÓ‚ÂÎËÚÂθÌÓ ̇ÍÎÓÌÂÌËÂ) ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 4 ¿ Õ‰ÍÓ ‚ ÚÂÍÒÚ‡ı ‡ÌÌÓÚ‡ˆËÈ Í ÔÂÔ‡‡Ú‡Ï, Ô‡‚Ë·ı, Û͇Á‡Ìˡı, ÂÍÓÏẨ‡ˆËˇı ‚ÒÚ˜‡˛ÚÒˇ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ, ÍÓÚÓ˚ ̇˜Ë̇˛ÚÒˇ Ò „·„Ó·-Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ„Ó, ‡ ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â ‚ ÌËı ÓÚÒÛÚÒÚ‚ÛÂÚ. ¡ “‡Í‡ˇ ÍÓÌÒÚÛÍˆËˇ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ ÓÁ̇˜‡ÂÚ ÂÍÓÏẨ‡ˆË˛, ÔË͇Á, Û͇Á‡ÌËÂ, ÒÓ‚ÂÚ. ¬ ÛÒÒÍÓÏ ˇÁ˚Í ˝ÚÓ ÒÓÓÚ‚ÂÚÒÚ‚ÛÂÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËˇÏ ‚ ÔÓ‚ÂÎËÚÂθÌÓÏ Ì‡ÍÎÓÌÂÌËË. ¬ œËÏÂ: 1. Use only clean dry test-tubes for your experiments. 2. Always wash hands after experiments. Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: 1) Rub this medicine gently into your skin. Ãˇ„ÍÓ ‚ÓÚËÚ ÎÂ͇ÒÚ‚Ó ‚ ÍÓÊÛ. 2) Never use dirty glassware. ÕËÍÓ„‰‡ Ì ËÒÔÓθÁÛÈÚ „ˇÁÌÛ˛ ··Ó‡ÚÓÌÛ˛ ÔÓÒÛ‰Û. œÂ‚‰ËÚ ÒÎÂ‰Û˛˘Ë ه„ÏÂÌÚ˚ ËÌÒÚÛ͈ËÈ, Ô‡‚ËÎ Ë ÂÍÓÏẨ‡ˆËÈ. I. General Lab Safety Rules 1. Work in the lab when the teacher is present. 2. Walk! Do not run in the lab. 3. Do not eat, drink beverages, or chew gum in the lab. 4. Never taste chemicals. 5. Avoid contact with chemicals. Wear safety glasses whenever necessary. 19 –¿«ƒ≈À 1 ✔ 6. Clean and dry your lab table. 7. Never rely on the shape, size or colour of the bottle. Read the label. 8. Always wash hands after experiments. 9. Report any accident (spill, breakage, etc.) or injury (cut, burn, etc.) to the instructor immediately. 10. Carefully follow all instructions. II. If you see a fire 1. Stay calm, don't panic. 2. Shut the door to the room with a fire. 3. Tell other people about fire as soon as possible. 4. Leave the building immediately. 20 ƒ≈…—“¬»“≈À‹Õ¤… «¿ÀŒ√ 5. Do not run. Walk quickly but calmly. 6. Do not use lifts in fire. 7. Move near the floor. The best air is at floor level. 8. Close all doors behind you. III. Proper Use of Medicines and Storage 1. Store this medicine away from heat and direct light. 2. Store in the refrigerator. 3. Store in a dark, cool, dry place. 4. Do not refrigerate. 5. Make and use a fresh solution each day. 6. Do not boil the solution. 7. Keep this medicine out of the reach of children. 21 ✔ –¿«ƒ≈À 1 ✔ 8. Do not give this medicine to anyone else. 9. Do not miss any doses. 10. Do not double doses. 11. Do not take more or less of this medicine. 12. Take this medicine with meals or snacks. 13. Take with a full glass of water. 14. Swallow the tablet whole. Do not crush, chew or suck the tablet. 15. Follow your doctor's orders or directions on the label. 16. Read it carefully. 22 ƒ≈…—“¬»“≈À‹Õ¤… «¿ÀŒ√ 1.5 ‘ÓÏ˚ „·„Ó· ‚ ̇ÒÚÓˇ˘ÂÏ ÌÂÓÔ‰ÂÎ∏ÌÌÓÏ ‚ÂÏÂÌË ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 5 ¿ œÓÌËχÌËÂ Ë Ô‚Ӊ ‡Ì„ÎËÈÒÍÓ„Ó Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ Á‡‚ËÒˇÚ ÓÚ Ô‡‚ËθÌÓ„Ó ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌˡ ˇ‰‡ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ (ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â„Ó Ë Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ„Ó), ˜ÚÓ ‚‡ÊÌÓ ‰Îˇ ÒÓı‡ÌÂÌˡ Îӄ˘ÂÒÍÓ„Ó ˆÂÌÚ‡ ‚˚Ò͇Á˚‚‡Ìˡ ÔË Ô‰‡˜Â ̇ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í. Õ‡ÈÚË ˇ‰Ó ‡Ì„ÎËÈÒÍÓ„Ó Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ ÏÓÊÌÓ, ÔӇ̇ÎËÁËÓ‚‡‚ ÙÓχθÌ˚ ÔËÁ̇ÍË „·„Ó·-Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ„Ó, Ú. Â., ̇ÔËÏÂ, ÓÍÓ̘‡ÌË -s /-es Û „·„ÓÎÓ‚ ‚ 3-ÂÏ Îˈ ‰ËÌÒÚ‚ÂÌÌÓ„Ó ˜ËÒ· ̇ÒÚÓˇ˘Â„Ó ‚ÂÏÂÌË. ¡ ŒÔˇˇÒ¸ ̇ ‰‡ÌÌ˚ ÙÓÏÛÎ˚, ËÎβÒÚËÛ˛˘Ë „‡ÏχÚ˘ÂÒÍÓ Òӄ·ÒÓ‚‡ÌË ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â„Ó (‚ ‰ËÌÒÚ‚ÂÌÌÓÏ Ë ÏÌÓÊÂÒÚ‚ÂÌÌÓÏ ˜ËÒÎÂ) Ë Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ„Ó ‚ ÒÓÓÚ‚ÂÚÒÚ‚Û˛˘ÂÏ ˜ËÒΠ(‚ ̇ÒÚÓˇ˘ÂÏ ‚ÂÏÂÌË), ̇ȉËÚ ˇ‰Ó ‚ ÒÎÂ‰Û˛˘Ëı Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡı. ¬ 1) œË Ô‚Ӊ ̇ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í ÌÂÓ·ıÓ‰ËÏÓ ÒÓı‡ÌˇÚ¸ Îӄ˘ÂÒÍËÈ ˆÂÌÚ ‚˚Ò͇Á˚‚‡Ìˡ (Ú. Â. ˇ‰Ó) ‡Ì„ÎËÈÒÍÓ„Ó Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. œËÏÂ: N Vs Friction between two objects produces heat. Ns V Certain chemical reactions produce heat. Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: The stability of ascorbic acid decreases with increases in temperature and pH. —Ú‡·ËθÌÓÒÚ¸ ‡ÒÍÓ·ËÌÓ‚ÓÈ ÍËÒÎÓÚ˚ ÒÌËʇÂÚÒˇ Ò ÔÓ‚˚¯ÂÌËÂÏ ÚÂÏÔ‡ÚÛ˚ Ë ÛÓ‚Ìˇ pH. 2) œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. Brass stains in moist air. 2. About 90 elements occur naturally on Earth and in the universe. 3. Nitrogen occurs in proteins and amino acids and is thus present in all living cells. 4. The number of protons equals the number of electrons in each atom. 23 –¿«ƒ≈À 1 ✔ 5. Different atoms make up different elements. 6. Most elements exist in several or many isotopic forms. 7. Most atoms do not exist on their own, but as molecules. 8. Because of its nuclear instability, californium does not exist in the Earth's crust. 9. Membranes within the cell show chemical selectivity. 10. In combination with hydrogen, oxygen forms water. 11. The gas combines readily with many other elements. 12. Chlorine reacts with water, halogens, acids and bases. 13. All the cells of the body metabolize glucose. 14. Drugs vary according to the speed of action and potency. 15. Nitrogen makes up 80 per cent of the air. 24 ƒ≈…—“¬»“≈À‹Õ¤… «¿ÀŒ√ 16. Water covers three-quarters of the Earth's surface. This makes water the most common material on the Earth. ✔ 17. The full mechanism of this oxidation involves a whole series of reactions. 18. Roots anchor the plant firmly in the soil, absorb water and mineral nutrients from the soil, conduct these materials into stems and transport food downward from stems. ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 6 ¿ œÓ‡Ì‡ÎËÁËÛÈÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ Ë ÓÔ‰œËÏÂ: ÎËÚÂ, ͇ÍÓ ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚Ë1. The electron is the lightest elementary partiÚÂθÌÓ Á‡ÏÂÌˇÂÚÒˇ ÒÓ˛cle which possesses an electric charge. ÁÓÏ which/that, ‚˚ÔÓÎ2. Vitamins are organic compounds that serve a Ìˇ˛˘ËÏ ÙÛÌÍˆË˛ ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â„Ó ‚ Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓÏ variety of functions. Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËË; „·„ÓÎÒ͇ÁÛÂÏÓÂ, ÒÚÓˇ˘Â ÔÓÒΠÒÓ˛Á‡, ËÏÂÂÚ ËÎË Ì ËÏÂÂÚ ÓÍÓ̘‡ÌË ´-sª ‚ Á‡‚ËÒËÏÓÒÚË ÓÚ Ó‰‡ Ë ˜ËÒ· ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓ„Ó, ÍÓÚÓÓ Á‡ÏÂÌˇÂÚÒˇ ˝ÚËÏ ÒÓ˛ÁÓÏ. 25 –¿«ƒ≈À 1 ¡ œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. An atom is a tiny particle that makes up all the substances around us. 2. Astatine is a reactive, radioactive non-metallic element which resembles iodine. 3. Buffer is a solution which minimizes pH changes in a chemical system. 4. Base is one of the five molecules that make up the informational content of DNA and RNA. 5. The electron is the lightest elementary particle which possesses an electric charge. ✔ 6. Cement is a substance that produces a solid union between two surfaces. 7. A radioisotope consists of unstable atoms that undergo radioactive decay and emit alpha, beta, or gamma radiation. 26 ƒ≈…—“¬»“≈À‹Õ¤… «¿ÀŒ√ 8. X-rays carry a lot of energy, which gives them many uses. ✔ 9. Atomic volume is another property which varies periodically through the Periodic Table. 10. Gene is a segment of DNA on chromosome which codes for a protein. 11. Acetylene is a colorless gas that burns in air with a highly luminous flame. 12. Chlorine is a non-metallic element. It is a yellowish green gas, which is a respiratory irritant. 13. Aluminium is a strong, light, silvery grey metal that has many uses. 14. The chemical name of a compound usually reveals the elements that make it up ó at least to a chemist. 27 –¿«ƒ≈À 1 1.6 ◊‡ÒÚË Â˜Ë Ë ˜ÎÂÌ˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 7 ¿ ¬ ‡Ì„ÎËÈÒÍÓÏ ˇÁ˚Í ӉÌÓ Ë ÚÓ Ê ÒÎÓ‚Ó ÏÓÊÂÚ ˇ‚ÎˇÚ¸Òˇ Í‡Í ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌ˚Ï, Ú‡Í Ë „·„ÓÎÓÏ, ˜ÚÓ ‚ ÒÎÓ‚‡Â Ó·ÓÁ̇˜‡ÂÚÒˇ ·ÛÍ‚‡ÏË ´nª ó ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓÂ, ´vª ó „·„ÓÎ. œËÏÂ: flower I n 1 ó ˆ‚ÂÚÓÍ, ˆ‚ÂÚÛ˘Â ‡ÒÚÂÌËÂ; 2 ó ˆ‚ÂÚÂÌË flower II v 1 ó ˆ‚ÂÒÚË; 2 ó ‡Òˆ‚ÂÚ‡Ú¸, ‡Á‚Ë‚‡Ú¸Òˇ ¡ ŒÔ‰ÂÎËÚ¸, ˇ‚ΡÂÚÒˇ Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: ÒÎÓ‚Ó ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌ˚Ï ËÎË „·„ÓÎÓÏ, ÏÓÊÌÓ ÔÓ 1) A flower (ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓÂ-ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘ÂÂ) ÒÎÂ‰Û˛˘ËÏ ÔËÁ͇̇Ï: is a reproductive structure of the plant. ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓ ÷‚ÂÚÓÍ ó ˝ÚÓ ÒÚÛÍÚÛ‡ ‡ÒÚÂÌˡ, ï ÏÓÊÂÚ ‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇÚ¸ ‚ Ô‰‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇ˛˘‡ˇ ÙÛÌÍˆË˛ ‡ÁÏÌÓÊÂÌˡ. ÎÓÊÂÌËË ÙÛÌÍˆË˛ ÔÓ‰ÎÂ(·ÛÍ‚.: ÷‚ÂÚÓÍ ó ˝ÚÓ ÂÔÓ‰ÛÍÚ˂̇ˇ ʇ˘Â„Ó, ‰ÓÔÓÎÌÂÌˡ, Ó·ÒÚÛÍÚÛ‡ ‡ÒÚÂÌˡ). ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡ 2) ¿t some time in their lives, lants flower ï Í‡Í Ô‡‚ËÎÓ, ËÏÂÂÚ ‡(„·„ÓÎ-Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓÂ). ÚËÍθ (a/an, the) ¬ ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌÌ˚È ÔÂËÓ‰ ‡Á‚ËÚˡ ï ÏÓÊÂÚ ËÏÂÚ¸ ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌË ‡ÒÚÂÌˡ ˆ‚ÂÚÛÚ. (ÔË·„‡ÚÂθÌÓÂ, ÏÂÒÚÓËÏÂÌËÂ) ï ÏÓÊÂÚ ËÏÂÚ¸ Ô‰ÎÓ„Ë (‰Îˇ Ó·ÓÁ̇˜ÂÌˡ Ô‡‰ÂÊÂÈ) ï ‚Ó ÏÌÓÊÂÒÚ‚ÂÌÌÓÏ ˜ËÒΠӷ˚˜ÌÓ ËÏÂÂÚ ÓÍÓ̘‡ÌË ´-sª „·„ÓÎ ï ‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇÂÚ ‚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËË ÙÛÌÍˆË˛ Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ„Ó ï Òӄ·ÒÛÂÚÒˇ ‚ ÎËˆÂ Ë ˜ËÒÎÂ Ò ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘ËÏ, ̇ ˜ÚÓ Û͇Á˚‚‡ÂÚ Ì‡Î˘Ë ËÎË ÓÚÒÛÚÒÚ‚Ë ÓÍÓ̘‡Ìˡ ´-sª (‚ ‰. ˜., 3 Î.) ¬ 1) œÓ‡Ì‡ÎËÁËÛÈÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ Ë ÓÔ‰ÂÎËÚÂ, ͇ÍÛ˛ ÙÛÌÍˆË˛ ‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇÂÚ ÔÓ‰˜ÂÍÌÛÚÓ ÒÎÓ‚Ó Ë Í‡ÍÓÈ ˜‡ÒÚ¸˛ Â˜Ë ÓÌÓ ˇ‚ΡÂÚÒˇ. 2) ՇȉËÚ ‚ ÒÎÓ‚‡Â Á̇˜ÂÌˡ ˝ÚËı ÒÎÓ‚, ÓËÂÌÚËÛˇÒ¸ ̇ Ëı ÔË̇‰ÎÂÊÌÓÒÚ¸ Í ÚÓÈ ËÎË ËÌÓÈ ˜‡ÒÚË Â˜Ë. 3) œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. a) Many chemical changes occur in nature. b) The number of molecules changes during many reactions. 28 ƒ≈…—“¬»“≈À‹Õ¤… «¿ÀŒ√ c) The action of sunlight on the skin changes certain substances in the body into vitamin D. ✔ 2. a) In its various forms, hydrogen is the most abundant element in the Universe. b) With carbon and hydrogen, oxygen forms the chemical bases of much organic material. c) The thick bark of many trees forms a good barrier against cold, disease, and insect invasion. 3. a) Atoms make up all the substances around us. b) Different atoms have different numbers of protons, neutrons, and electrons in their make-up. 4. a) An enzyme functions as an organic catalyst under specific conditions of pH and temperature. 29 –¿«ƒ≈À 1 ✔ b) Proteins govern the activities, functions and structures in all cells. 5. a) Taxonomy groups plants according to their relationship with each other. b) Two principal groups of enzymes occur in plants. 6. a) Through metabolism, cells capture, store, and use energy. b) Use this medicine only under the direct supervision of your doctor. c) A major use of nitrous oxide (N2O) is in anesthesia. 7. a) This potent stimulant has some medical uses, particularly as an anesthetic. b) The body uses cholesterol for production of vitamin D and bile. 30 ƒ≈…—“¬»“≈À‹Õ¤… «¿ÀŒ√ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 8 ¿ ¬ ‡Ì„ÎËÈÒÍÓÏ ˇÁ˚Í ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓÂ, ÍÓÚÓÓ ‚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËË Ó·˚˜ÌÓ ˇ‚ΡÂÚÒˇ ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘ËÏ ËÎË ‰ÓÔÓÎÌÂÌËÂÏ, ÏÓÊÂÚ Ú‡ÍÊ ‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇÚ¸ ÙÛÌÍˆË˛ ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌˡ: ‚ ˝ÚÓÏ ÒÎÛ˜‡Â Ó·‡ÁÛÂÚÒˇ Ú. Ì. ´ˆÂÔӘ͇ ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌ˚ıª (ÔÓÒΉӂ‡ÚÂθÌÓÒÚ¸ ËÁ ‰‚Ûı Ë ·ÓΠÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌ˚ı), „‰Â ÔÓÒΉÌ ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓ ˇ‚ΡÂÚÒˇ ÓÔ‰ÂΡÂÏ˚Ï ÒÎÓ‚ÓÏ, ‡ ÒÚÓˇ˘Ë ‚ÔÂÂ‰Ë ó ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌˡÏË. œËÏÂ: safety rules blood vessel blood glucose level ¡ œÂ‚Ӊ Ú‡ÍÓÈ ´ˆÂÔÓ˜ÍË Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌ˚ıª Ó·˚˜ÌÓ Ì‡˜Ë̇˛Ú Ò ÓÔ‰ÂΡÂÏÓ„Ó ÒÎÓ‚‡ safety rules ó Ô‡‚Ë· ·ÂÁÓÔ‡ÒÌÓÒÚË (Ú. Â. ÔÓÒΉÌÂ„Ó ÒÎÓ‚‡ ‚ ˆÂÔÓ˜blood vessel ó ÍÓ‚ÂÌÓÒÌ˚È ÒÓÒÛ‰ ÍÂ), ‡ ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓÂ, ‚˚ÔÓÎblood glucose level ó ÛÓ‚Â̸ Ò‡ı‡‡ ‚ Ìˇ˛˘Â ÙÛÌÍˆË˛ ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌˡ, ÍÓ‚Ë ÒÓÓÚ‚ÂÚÒÚ‚ÛÂÚ ‚ ÛÒÒÍÓÏ ˇÁ˚Í ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓÏÛ ‚ Ó‰ËÚÂθÌÓÏ Ô‡‰ÂÊÂ. ¬ ÌÂÍÓÚÓ˚ı ÒÎÛ˜‡ˇı ËÒÔÓθÁÛÂÚÒˇ ÚÂÏËÌÓÎӄ˘ÂÒÍËÈ ˝Í‚Ë‚‡ÎÂÌÚ. ¬ œÓ‡Ì‡ÎËÁËÛÈÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ, ̇ȉËÚ ÒÎÓ‚ÓÒÓ˜ÂÚ‡Ìˡ ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌ˚ı, ˇ‚Ρ˛˘ËıÒˇ ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌËÂÏ Ë ÓÔ‰ÂΡÂÏ˚Ï ÒÎÓ‚ÓÏ. »ÒÔÓθÁÛˇ Ô‡‚ËÎÓ, Ô˂‰ÂÌÌÓ ‚ Ô. ¡, Ô‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. Zinc metal is a human skin irritant. 2. In the body fluids the molecules of water, gases, and the ions of substances in solution are in constant motion. 3. Magnesium is lighter than aluminium, and we use it in alloys for aircraft, car engine casings, and missile construction. 31 ✔ –¿«ƒ≈À 1 ✔ 4. Carbon dioxide is colorless, odorless gas, slightly soluble in water and denser than air. 5. There is a wide variety of plant life in a rainforest. 6. For specific purposes, there is a standard worldwide measurement system. 7. There is a constant flow of nitrogen from dead plant and animal tissue into the soil and from the soil back to the plants. 8. Return all lab materials and equipment to their proper places after use. 9. Know the location and use of the safety equipment. 10. Use the first fire alarm that you see. 11. Call the emergency services immediately. 32 ƒ≈…—“¬»“≈À‹Õ¤… «¿ÀŒ√ 6. There are just over 100 different elements on Earth. ✔ 7. There are massive amounts of magnesium in seawater. 8. There are many properties peculiar to different material objects. 9. There is more of cellulose in the world than any other organic chemical. 10. Without oxygen there is no life. 11. There are two main parts of atom: the nucleus and the electron cloud. 12. There is a detectible amount of radon in the atmosphere. 13. There are two principal varieties of chemical bonds ó ionic bonds and covalent bonds. 17 –¿«ƒ≈À 1 ✔ 14. There is a great difference in ionic concentration between the inside and the outside of cell. 15. On the under, and sometimes on the upper surface of a leaf there are thousands of tiny pores. 16. There is a close relationship between the vegetative processes and the reproductive phase of small herbaceous plants. 17. In a woody stem, such as the trunk of a tree, there are three distinct zones: the bark, the wood, and the pith. 18. There was a lot of important research last year. 19. There were several vacant spaces in Mendeleev's periodic table. 18 ƒ≈…—“¬»“≈À‹Õ¤… «¿ÀŒ√ 1.4 ¿Ì„ÎËÈÒÍËÈ „·„ÓÎ ‚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡı ·ÂÁ ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â„Ó (ÔÓ‚ÂÎËÚÂθÌÓ ̇ÍÎÓÌÂÌËÂ) ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 4 ¿ Õ‰ÍÓ ‚ ÚÂÍÒÚ‡ı ‡ÌÌÓÚ‡ˆËÈ Í ÔÂÔ‡‡Ú‡Ï, Ô‡‚Ë·ı, Û͇Á‡Ìˡı, ÂÍÓÏẨ‡ˆËˇı ‚ÒÚ˜‡˛ÚÒˇ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ, ÍÓÚÓ˚ ̇˜Ë̇˛ÚÒˇ Ò „·„Ó·-Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ„Ó, ‡ ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â ‚ ÌËı ÓÚÒÛÚÒÚ‚ÛÂÚ. ¡ “‡Í‡ˇ ÍÓÌÒÚÛÍˆËˇ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ ÓÁ̇˜‡ÂÚ ÂÍÓÏẨ‡ˆË˛, ÔË͇Á, Û͇Á‡ÌËÂ, ÒÓ‚ÂÚ. ¬ ÛÒÒÍÓÏ ˇÁ˚Í ˝ÚÓ ÒÓÓÚ‚ÂÚÒÚ‚ÛÂÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËˇÏ ‚ ÔÓ‚ÂÎËÚÂθÌÓÏ Ì‡ÍÎÓÌÂÌËË. ¬ œËÏÂ: 1. Use only clean dry test-tubes for your experiments. 2. Always wash hands after experiments. Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: 1) Rub this medicine gently into your skin. Ãˇ„ÍÓ ‚ÓÚËÚ ÎÂ͇ÒÚ‚Ó ‚ ÍÓÊÛ. 2) Never use dirty glassware. ÕËÍÓ„‰‡ Ì ËÒÔÓθÁÛÈÚ „ˇÁÌÛ˛ ··Ó‡ÚÓÌÛ˛ ÔÓÒÛ‰Û. œÂ‚‰ËÚ ÒÎÂ‰Û˛˘Ë ه„ÏÂÌÚ˚ ËÌÒÚÛ͈ËÈ, Ô‡‚ËÎ Ë ÂÍÓÏẨ‡ˆËÈ. I. General Lab Safety Rules 1. Work in the lab when the teacher is present. 2. Walk! Do not run in the lab. 3. Do not eat, drink beverages, or chew gum in the lab. 4. Never taste chemicals. 5. Avoid contact with chemicals. Wear safety glasses whenever necessary. 19 –¿«ƒ≈À 1 ✔ 6. Clean and dry your lab table. 7. Never rely on the shape, size or colour of the bottle. Read the label. 8. Always wash hands after experiments. 9. Report any accident (spill, breakage, etc.) or injury (cut, burn, etc.) to the instructor immediately. 10. Carefully follow all instructions. II. If you see a fire 1. Stay calm, don't panic. 2. Shut the door to the room with a fire. 3. Tell other people about fire as soon as possible. 4. Leave the building immediately. 20 ƒ≈…—“¬»“≈À‹Õ¤… «¿ÀŒ√ 5. Do not run. Walk quickly but calmly. 6. Do not use lifts in fire. 7. Move near the floor. The best air is at floor level. 8. Close all doors behind you. III. Proper Use of Medicines and Storage 1. Store this medicine away from heat and direct light. 2. Store in the refrigerator. 3. Store in a dark, cool, dry place. 4. Do not refrigerate. 5. Make and use a fresh solution each day. 6. Do not boil the solution. 7. Keep this medicine out of the reach of children. 21 ✔ –¿«ƒ≈À 1 ✔ 8. Do not give this medicine to anyone else. 9. Do not miss any doses. 10. Do not double doses. 11. Do not take more or less of this medicine. 12. Take this medicine with meals or snacks. 13. Take with a full glass of water. 14. Swallow the tablet whole. Do not crush, chew or suck the tablet. 15. Follow your doctor's orders or directions on the label. 16. Read it carefully. 22 ƒ≈…—“¬»“≈À‹Õ¤… «¿ÀŒ√ 1.5 ‘ÓÏ˚ „·„Ó· ‚ ̇ÒÚÓˇ˘ÂÏ ÌÂÓÔ‰ÂÎ∏ÌÌÓÏ ‚ÂÏÂÌË ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 5 ¿ œÓÌËχÌËÂ Ë Ô‚Ӊ ‡Ì„ÎËÈÒÍÓ„Ó Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ Á‡‚ËÒˇÚ ÓÚ Ô‡‚ËθÌÓ„Ó ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌˡ ˇ‰‡ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ (ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â„Ó Ë Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ„Ó), ˜ÚÓ ‚‡ÊÌÓ ‰Îˇ ÒÓı‡ÌÂÌˡ Îӄ˘ÂÒÍÓ„Ó ˆÂÌÚ‡ ‚˚Ò͇Á˚‚‡Ìˡ ÔË Ô‰‡˜Â ̇ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í. Õ‡ÈÚË ˇ‰Ó ‡Ì„ÎËÈÒÍÓ„Ó Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ ÏÓÊÌÓ, ÔӇ̇ÎËÁËÓ‚‡‚ ÙÓχθÌ˚ ÔËÁ̇ÍË „·„Ó·-Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ„Ó, Ú. Â., ̇ÔËÏÂ, ÓÍÓ̘‡ÌË -s /-es Û „·„ÓÎÓ‚ ‚ 3-ÂÏ Îˈ ‰ËÌÒÚ‚ÂÌÌÓ„Ó ˜ËÒ· ̇ÒÚÓˇ˘Â„Ó ‚ÂÏÂÌË. ¡ ŒÔˇˇÒ¸ ̇ ‰‡ÌÌ˚ ÙÓÏÛÎ˚, ËÎβÒÚËÛ˛˘Ë „‡ÏχÚ˘ÂÒÍÓ Òӄ·ÒÓ‚‡ÌË ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â„Ó (‚ ‰ËÌÒÚ‚ÂÌÌÓÏ Ë ÏÌÓÊÂÒÚ‚ÂÌÌÓÏ ˜ËÒÎÂ) Ë Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ„Ó ‚ ÒÓÓÚ‚ÂÚÒÚ‚Û˛˘ÂÏ ˜ËÒΠ(‚ ̇ÒÚÓˇ˘ÂÏ ‚ÂÏÂÌË), ̇ȉËÚ ˇ‰Ó ‚ ÒÎÂ‰Û˛˘Ëı Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡı. ¬ 1) œË Ô‚Ӊ ̇ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í ÌÂÓ·ıÓ‰ËÏÓ ÒÓı‡ÌˇÚ¸ Îӄ˘ÂÒÍËÈ ˆÂÌÚ ‚˚Ò͇Á˚‚‡Ìˡ (Ú. Â. ˇ‰Ó) ‡Ì„ÎËÈÒÍÓ„Ó Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. œËÏÂ: N Vs Friction between two objects produces heat. Ns V Certain chemical reactions produce heat. Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: The stability of ascorbic acid decreases with increases in temperature and pH. —Ú‡·ËθÌÓÒÚ¸ ‡ÒÍÓ·ËÌÓ‚ÓÈ ÍËÒÎÓÚ˚ ÒÌËʇÂÚÒˇ Ò ÔÓ‚˚¯ÂÌËÂÏ ÚÂÏÔ‡ÚÛ˚ Ë ÛÓ‚Ìˇ pH. 2) œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. Brass stains in moist air. 2. About 90 elements occur naturally on Earth and in the universe. 3. Nitrogen occurs in proteins and amino acids and is thus present in all living cells. 4. The number of protons equals the number of electrons in each atom. 23 –¿«ƒ≈À 1 ✔ 5. Different atoms make up different elements. 6. Most elements exist in several or many isotopic forms. 7. Most atoms do not exist on their own, but as molecules. 8. Because of its nuclear instability, californium does not exist in the Earth's crust. 9. Membranes within the cell show chemical selectivity. 10. In combination with hydrogen, oxygen forms water. 11. The gas combines readily with many other elements. 12. Chlorine reacts with water, halogens, acids and bases. 13. All the cells of the body metabolize glucose. 14. Drugs vary according to the speed of action and potency. 15. Nitrogen makes up 80 per cent of the air. 24 ƒ≈…—“¬»“≈À‹Õ¤… «¿ÀŒ√ 16. Water covers three-quarters of the Earth's surface. This makes water the most common material on the Earth. ✔ 17. The full mechanism of this oxidation involves a whole series of reactions. 18. Roots anchor the plant firmly in the soil, absorb water and mineral nutrients from the soil, conduct these materials into stems and transport food downward from stems. ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 6 ¿ œÓ‡Ì‡ÎËÁËÛÈÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ Ë ÓÔ‰œËÏÂ: ÎËÚÂ, ͇ÍÓ ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚Ë1. The electron is the lightest elementary partiÚÂθÌÓ Á‡ÏÂÌˇÂÚÒˇ ÒÓ˛cle which possesses an electric charge. ÁÓÏ which/that, ‚˚ÔÓÎ2. Vitamins are organic compounds that serve a Ìˇ˛˘ËÏ ÙÛÌÍˆË˛ ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â„Ó ‚ Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓÏ variety of functions. Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËË; „·„ÓÎÒ͇ÁÛÂÏÓÂ, ÒÚÓˇ˘Â ÔÓÒΠÒÓ˛Á‡, ËÏÂÂÚ ËÎË Ì ËÏÂÂÚ ÓÍÓ̘‡ÌË ´-sª ‚ Á‡‚ËÒËÏÓÒÚË ÓÚ Ó‰‡ Ë ˜ËÒ· ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓ„Ó, ÍÓÚÓÓ Á‡ÏÂÌˇÂÚÒˇ ˝ÚËÏ ÒÓ˛ÁÓÏ. 25 –¿«ƒ≈À 1 ¡ œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. An atom is a tiny particle that makes up all the substances around us. 2. Astatine is a reactive, radioactive non-metallic element which resembles iodine. 3. Buffer is a solution which minimizes pH changes in a chemical system. 4. Base is one of the five molecules that make up the informational content of DNA and RNA. 5. The electron is the lightest elementary particle which possesses an electric charge. ✔ 6. Cement is a substance that produces a solid union between two surfaces. 7. A radioisotope consists of unstable atoms that undergo radioactive decay and emit alpha, beta, or gamma radiation. 26 ƒ≈…—“¬»“≈À‹Õ¤… «¿ÀŒ√ 8. X-rays carry a lot of energy, which gives them many uses. ✔ 9. Atomic volume is another property which varies periodically through the Periodic Table. 10. Gene is a segment of DNA on chromosome which codes for a protein. 11. Acetylene is a colorless gas that burns in air with a highly luminous flame. 12. Chlorine is a non-metallic element. It is a yellowish green gas, which is a respiratory irritant. 13. Aluminium is a strong, light, silvery grey metal that has many uses. 14. The chemical name of a compound usually reveals the elements that make it up ó at least to a chemist. 27 –¿«ƒ≈À 1 1.6 ◊‡ÒÚË Â˜Ë Ë ˜ÎÂÌ˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 7 ¿ ¬ ‡Ì„ÎËÈÒÍÓÏ ˇÁ˚Í ӉÌÓ Ë ÚÓ Ê ÒÎÓ‚Ó ÏÓÊÂÚ ˇ‚ÎˇÚ¸Òˇ Í‡Í ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌ˚Ï, Ú‡Í Ë „·„ÓÎÓÏ, ˜ÚÓ ‚ ÒÎÓ‚‡Â Ó·ÓÁ̇˜‡ÂÚÒˇ ·ÛÍ‚‡ÏË ´nª ó ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓÂ, ´vª ó „·„ÓÎ. œËÏÂ: flower I n 1 ó ˆ‚ÂÚÓÍ, ˆ‚ÂÚÛ˘Â ‡ÒÚÂÌËÂ; 2 ó ˆ‚ÂÚÂÌË flower II v 1 ó ˆ‚ÂÒÚË; 2 ó ‡Òˆ‚ÂÚ‡Ú¸, ‡Á‚Ë‚‡Ú¸Òˇ ¡ ŒÔ‰ÂÎËÚ¸, ˇ‚ΡÂÚÒˇ Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: ÒÎÓ‚Ó ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌ˚Ï ËÎË „·„ÓÎÓÏ, ÏÓÊÌÓ ÔÓ 1) A flower (ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓÂ-ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘ÂÂ) ÒÎÂ‰Û˛˘ËÏ ÔËÁ͇̇Ï: is a reproductive structure of the plant. ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓ ÷‚ÂÚÓÍ ó ˝ÚÓ ÒÚÛÍÚÛ‡ ‡ÒÚÂÌˡ, ï ÏÓÊÂÚ ‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇÚ¸ ‚ Ô‰‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇ˛˘‡ˇ ÙÛÌÍˆË˛ ‡ÁÏÌÓÊÂÌˡ. ÎÓÊÂÌËË ÙÛÌÍˆË˛ ÔÓ‰ÎÂ(·ÛÍ‚.: ÷‚ÂÚÓÍ ó ˝ÚÓ ÂÔÓ‰ÛÍÚ˂̇ˇ ʇ˘Â„Ó, ‰ÓÔÓÎÌÂÌˡ, Ó·ÒÚÛÍÚÛ‡ ‡ÒÚÂÌˡ). ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡ 2) ¿t some time in their lives, lants flower ï Í‡Í Ô‡‚ËÎÓ, ËÏÂÂÚ ‡(„·„ÓÎ-Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓÂ). ÚËÍθ (a/an, the) ¬ ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌÌ˚È ÔÂËÓ‰ ‡Á‚ËÚˡ ï ÏÓÊÂÚ ËÏÂÚ¸ ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌË ‡ÒÚÂÌˡ ˆ‚ÂÚÛÚ. (ÔË·„‡ÚÂθÌÓÂ, ÏÂÒÚÓËÏÂÌËÂ) ï ÏÓÊÂÚ ËÏÂÚ¸ Ô‰ÎÓ„Ë (‰Îˇ Ó·ÓÁ̇˜ÂÌˡ Ô‡‰ÂÊÂÈ) ï ‚Ó ÏÌÓÊÂÒÚ‚ÂÌÌÓÏ ˜ËÒΠӷ˚˜ÌÓ ËÏÂÂÚ ÓÍÓ̘‡ÌË ´-sª „·„ÓÎ ï ‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇÂÚ ‚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËË ÙÛÌÍˆË˛ Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ„Ó ï Òӄ·ÒÛÂÚÒˇ ‚ ÎËˆÂ Ë ˜ËÒÎÂ Ò ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘ËÏ, ̇ ˜ÚÓ Û͇Á˚‚‡ÂÚ Ì‡Î˘Ë ËÎË ÓÚÒÛÚÒÚ‚Ë ÓÍÓ̘‡Ìˡ ´-sª (‚ ‰. ˜., 3 Î.) ¬ 1) œÓ‡Ì‡ÎËÁËÛÈÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ Ë ÓÔ‰ÂÎËÚÂ, ͇ÍÛ˛ ÙÛÌÍˆË˛ ‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇÂÚ ÔÓ‰˜ÂÍÌÛÚÓ ÒÎÓ‚Ó Ë Í‡ÍÓÈ ˜‡ÒÚ¸˛ Â˜Ë ÓÌÓ ˇ‚ΡÂÚÒˇ. 2) ՇȉËÚ ‚ ÒÎÓ‚‡Â Á̇˜ÂÌˡ ˝ÚËı ÒÎÓ‚, ÓËÂÌÚËÛˇÒ¸ ̇ Ëı ÔË̇‰ÎÂÊÌÓÒÚ¸ Í ÚÓÈ ËÎË ËÌÓÈ ˜‡ÒÚË Â˜Ë. 3) œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. a) Many chemical changes occur in nature. b) The number of molecules changes during many reactions. 28 ƒ≈…—“¬»“≈À‹Õ¤… «¿ÀŒ√ c) The action of sunlight on the skin changes certain substances in the body into vitamin D. ✔ 2. a) In its various forms, hydrogen is the most abundant element in the Universe. b) With carbon and hydrogen, oxygen forms the chemical bases of much organic material. c) The thick bark of many trees forms a good barrier against cold, disease, and insect invasion. 3. a) Atoms make up all the substances around us. b) Different atoms have different numbers of protons, neutrons, and electrons in their make-up. 4. a) An enzyme functions as an organic catalyst under specific conditions of pH and temperature. 29 –¿«ƒ≈À 1 ✔ b) Proteins govern the activities, functions and structures in all cells. 5. a) Taxonomy groups plants according to their relationship with each other. b) Two principal groups of enzymes occur in plants. 6. a) Through metabolism, cells capture, store, and use energy. b) Use this medicine only under the direct supervision of your doctor. c) A major use of nitrous oxide (N2O) is in anesthesia. 7. a) This potent stimulant has some medical uses, particularly as an anesthetic. b) The body uses cholesterol for production of vitamin D and bile. 30 ƒ≈…—“¬»“≈À‹Õ¤… «¿ÀŒ√ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 8 ¿ ¬ ‡Ì„ÎËÈÒÍÓÏ ˇÁ˚Í ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓÂ, ÍÓÚÓÓ ‚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËË Ó·˚˜ÌÓ ˇ‚ΡÂÚÒˇ ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘ËÏ ËÎË ‰ÓÔÓÎÌÂÌËÂÏ, ÏÓÊÂÚ Ú‡ÍÊ ‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇÚ¸ ÙÛÌÍˆË˛ ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌˡ: ‚ ˝ÚÓÏ ÒÎÛ˜‡Â Ó·‡ÁÛÂÚÒˇ Ú. Ì. ´ˆÂÔӘ͇ ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌ˚ıª (ÔÓÒΉӂ‡ÚÂθÌÓÒÚ¸ ËÁ ‰‚Ûı Ë ·ÓΠÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌ˚ı), „‰Â ÔÓÒΉÌ ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓ ˇ‚ΡÂÚÒˇ ÓÔ‰ÂΡÂÏ˚Ï ÒÎÓ‚ÓÏ, ‡ ÒÚÓˇ˘Ë ‚ÔÂÂ‰Ë ó ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌˡÏË. œËÏÂ: safety rules blood vessel blood glucose level ¡ œÂ‚Ӊ Ú‡ÍÓÈ ´ˆÂÔÓ˜ÍË Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌ˚ıª Ó·˚˜ÌÓ Ì‡˜Ë̇˛Ú Ò ÓÔ‰ÂΡÂÏÓ„Ó ÒÎÓ‚‡ safety rules ó Ô‡‚Ë· ·ÂÁÓÔ‡ÒÌÓÒÚË (Ú. Â. ÔÓÒΉÌÂ„Ó ÒÎÓ‚‡ ‚ ˆÂÔÓ˜blood vessel ó ÍÓ‚ÂÌÓÒÌ˚È ÒÓÒÛ‰ ÍÂ), ‡ ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓÂ, ‚˚ÔÓÎblood glucose level ó ÛÓ‚Â̸ Ò‡ı‡‡ ‚ Ìˇ˛˘Â ÙÛÌÍˆË˛ ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌˡ, ÍÓ‚Ë ÒÓÓÚ‚ÂÚÒÚ‚ÛÂÚ ‚ ÛÒÒÍÓÏ ˇÁ˚Í ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓÏÛ ‚ Ó‰ËÚÂθÌÓÏ Ô‡‰ÂÊÂ. ¬ ÌÂÍÓÚÓ˚ı ÒÎÛ˜‡ˇı ËÒÔÓθÁÛÂÚÒˇ ÚÂÏËÌÓÎӄ˘ÂÒÍËÈ ˝Í‚Ë‚‡ÎÂÌÚ. ¬ œÓ‡Ì‡ÎËÁËÛÈÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ, ̇ȉËÚ ÒÎÓ‚ÓÒÓ˜ÂÚ‡Ìˡ ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌ˚ı, ˇ‚Ρ˛˘ËıÒˇ ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌËÂÏ Ë ÓÔ‰ÂΡÂÏ˚Ï ÒÎÓ‚ÓÏ. »ÒÔÓθÁÛˇ Ô‡‚ËÎÓ, Ô˂‰ÂÌÌÓ ‚ Ô. ¡, Ô‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. Zinc metal is a human skin irritant. 2. In the body fluids the molecules of water, gases, and the ions of substances in solution are in constant motion. 3. Magnesium is lighter than aluminium, and we use it in alloys for aircraft, car engine casings, and missile construction. 31 ✔ –¿«ƒ≈À 1 ✔ 4. Carbon dioxide is colorless, odorless gas, slightly soluble in water and denser than air. 5. There is a wide variety of plant life in a rainforest. 6. For specific purposes, there is a standard worldwide measurement system. 7. There is a constant flow of nitrogen from dead plant and animal tissue into the soil and from the soil back to the plants. 8. Return all lab materials and equipment to their proper places after use. 9. Know the location and use of the safety equipment. 10. Use the first fire alarm that you see. 11. Call the emergency services immediately. 32 ƒ≈…—“¬»“≈À‹Õ¤… «¿ÀŒ√ 12. Phosphorus plays an important role in cell metabolism. 13. The concentration of water vapour in the air varies widely. 14. Bromium compounds have a number of properties that make them useful. 15. Changes in the air pressure in the atmosphere create different weather conditions. 16. Body functions involve chemical changes that occur within cells. 17. In combination with other minerals in the body, potassium forms salts that play an essential role in maintenance of the acid-base and water balance in the body. ✔ 33 –¿«ƒ≈À 1 1.7 √·„ÓÎ ‚ Ôӯ‰¯ÂÏ ÌÂÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌÌÓÏ ‚ÂÏÂÌË ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 9 ¿ œÓ¯Â‰¯Â œËÏÂ: ‚ÂÏˇ ‡Ì„ÎËÈÒÍÓ„Ó „·„Ó· Ó·ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚/Ô‚‡ˇ ÙÓχ ‚ÚÓ‡ˇ ÙÓχ/ÙÓχ Ôӯ‰¯Â„Ó ‚ÂÏÂÌË identify identified (Ô‡‚ËθÌ˚È „·„ÓÎ) ‡ÁÛÂÚÒˇ ‰‚ÛÏˇ come came (ÌÂÔ‡‚ËθÌ˚È „·„ÓÎ) ÒÔÓÒÓ·‡ÏË: (1) ÔË·‡‚ÎÂÌËÂÏ ÓÍÓ̘‡Ìˡ ´-edª Í ÓÒÌÓ‚Â Ô‡‚ËθÌÓ„Ó „·„Ó·, (2) ËÒÔÓθÁÓ‚‡ÌËÂÏ ÓÒÓ·ÓÈ ÙÓÏ˚ (Ú. Ì. ´‚ÚÓÓÈ ÙÓÏ˚ª) ÌÂÔ‡‚ËθÌÓ„Ó „·„Ó·. ¡ ՇȉËÚ ‚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡı Ò͇ÁÛÂÏ˚Â, ‚˚‡ÊÂÌÌ˚ ÌÂÔ‡‚ËθÌ˚ÏË „·„Ó·ÏË ‚ Ôӯ‰¯ÂÏ ‚ÂÏÂÌË Ë ÓÔ‰ÂÎËÚ ÔÂ‚Û˛ ÙÓÏÛ (ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚) ˝ÚËı „·„ÓÎÓ‚. ¬ ÒÎÓ‚‡Â Ôӯ‰¯Â ‚ÂÏˇ ÌÂÔ‡‚ËθÌ˚ı „·„ÓÎÓ‚ Ó·ÓÁ̇˜‡ÂÚÒˇ ÒËÏ‚ÓÎÓÏ ´past ÓÚ ...ª ¬ ✔ Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: came past ÓÚ come œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. In the past all medicines came from plants and animals. 2. Chemistry began thousands of years ago with the use of fire. 3. Stone Age people lit fires by rubbing sticks together. 4. The 18th century saw the emergence of chemistry in Europe and the discovery of several new elements. 34 ƒ≈…—“¬»“≈À‹Õ¤… «¿ÀŒ√ 5. D.I. Mendeleyev left three gaps in his table and made a prediction of the new elements' properties. ✔ 6. N. Bohr, a Danish physicist brought the idea of quanta into atomic physics. 7. M. Faraday found the nature of the link between electricity and magnetism. 8. Alchemy was a form of investigation which arose in Ancient China. 9. The ´agricultural revolutionª began about 10,000 years ago, when humans first domesticated animals and cultivated plants. 10. In the mid-19th century Louis Pasteur and others identified the bacteria and yeast that brought about the change in wine during fermentation. 35 –¿«ƒ≈À 1 ✔ 11. Early men dug up the underground parts of plants and ate those that tasted good. 12. The excellent biocompatibility and safety made collagen the primary resource in medical applications. 13. The discovery of plastic led to the development of a whole new family of materials. 14. The development of the microscope as a scientific tool during the 17th century brought new insights to botany. 36 ƒ≈…—“¬»“≈À‹Õ¤… «¿ÀŒ√ 1.8 «Ì‡˜ÂÌˡ „·„Ó· will ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 10 ¿ ¿Ì„ÎËÈÒÍËÈ „·„ÓÎ will ÒÎÛÊËÚ ‰Îˇ Ó·‡ÁÓ‚‡Ìˡ ÙÓÏ „·„Ó· ‚ ·Û‰Û˘ÂÏ ‚ÂÏÂÌË ‚Ó 2-Ï Ë 3-Ï Îˈ‡ı ‰ËÌÒÚ‚ÂÌÌÓ„Ó Ë ÏÌÓÊÂÒÚ‚ÂÌÌÓ„Ó ˜ËÒ·. œËÏÂ: The water will boil in two minutes. ¡ ¬ ̇ۘÌÓ-ÚÂıÌ˘ÂÒÍËı ÚÂÍÒÚ‡ı „·„ÓÎ will ̉ÍÓ ËÏÂÂÚ Á̇˜ÂÌË ̇ÒÚÓˇ˘Â„Ó ‚ÂÏÂÌË Ë ËÒÔÓθÁÛÂÚÒˇ ‰Îˇ ‚˚‡ÊÂÌˡ (1) ‚ÓÁÏÓÊÌÓÒÚË, ÒÔÓÒÓ·ÌÓÒÚË, (2) ÌÂËÁ·ÂÊÌÓÒÚË, (3) ÔË‚˚˜ÌÓ„Ó ÒÓÒÚÓˇÌˡ, ˜‡ÒÚÓ ÔÓ‚ÚÓˇ˛˘Â„ÓÒˇ ‰ÂÈÒڂˡ. Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: 1) The water will boil in two minutes. ¬Ó‰‡ Á‡ÍËÔËÚ ˜ÂÂÁ ‰‚ ÏËÌÛÚ˚. 2) Water will boil at 100∞C. ¬Ó‰‡ (Ó·˚˜ÌÓ) Á‡ÍËÔ‡ÂÚ ÔË 100∞C. ¬ œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ, „‰Â „·„ÓÎ will ËÒÔÓθÁÓ‚‡Ì ‚ ı‡‡ÍÚÂÌ˚ı ‰Îˇ ̇ۘÌÓ„Ó ÚÂÍÒÚ‡ Á̇˜ÂÌˡı (ÒÏ. Ô. ¡). 1. Magnesium will combine with most non-metals and with practically all acids. 2. An acid will turn litmus paper red. 3. Bases will turn litmus paper from pink to blue. 4. Oxygen is reactive and will form oxides with all other elements, except the noble gases. 5. In normal atmospheric conditions a substance will be either a solid, a liquid or a gas. 37 ✔ –¿«ƒ≈À 1 6. Generally, inorganic substances will dissolve in water. 7. Iron will conduct electricity, sulfur will not. 8. Vitamins alone will not take the place of a good diet and will not provide energy. 1.9 œÂÙÂÍÚ̇ˇ ÙÓχ „·„Ó· ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 11 ¿ ՇȉËÚ Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓÂ, Ëϲ˘Â ÙÓÏÛ to have (ÍÓÚÓÓ Òӄ·ÒÛÂÚÒˇ Ò ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘ËÏ ‚ ÎËˆÂ Ë ˜ËÒÎÂ Ë Û͇Á˚‚‡ÂÚ Ì‡ ‚ÂÏˇ) + Ô˘‡ÒÚË II (ÚÂÚ¸ˇ ÙÓχ „·„Ó·). œË˜‡ÒÚË II Ô‡‚ËθÌ˚ı „·„ÓÎÓ‚ ÒÓÓÚ‚ÂÚÒÚ‚ÛÂÚ ÙÓÏ Ôӯ‰¯Â„Ó ‚ÂÏÂÌË, Ú. Â. ËÏÂÂÚ ÓÍÓ̘‡ÌË ´-edª. œË˜‡ÒÚË II ÌÂÔ‡‚ËθÌ˚ı „·„ÓÎÓ‚ ËÏÂÂÚ ÓÒÓ·Û˛ ÙÓÏÛ, ÍÓÚÓ‡ˇ ‚ ÒÎÓ‚‡Â Ó·ÓÁ̇˜Â̇ ÒËÏ‚ÓÎÓÏ ´p.p. ÓÚÖª œËÏÂ: eaten ó p.p. ÓÚ eat ¡ “‡ÍÓ Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ ËÏÂÂÚ Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: ÙÓÏÛ Òӂ¯ÂÌÌÓ„Ó ‚ÂÏÂÌË have + V3 (Perfect) Ë Ó·ÓÁ̇Today the botanists have described about ˜‡ÂÚ ‰ÂÈÒÚ‚ËÂ, Á‡‚¯ÂÌÌÓÂ Í 400,000 species. ÏÓÏÂÌÚÛ, ÍÓÚÓ˚È ÎË·Ó Û͇ü ̇ÒÚÓˇ˘ÂÏÛ ‚ÂÏÂÌË ·ÓÚ‡ÌËÍË Á‡Ì ‚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËË, ÎË·Ó ÔÓ‰ÓÔËÒ‡ÎË ÓÍÓÎÓ 400 000 ‚ˉӂ ‡ÒÚÂÌËÈ. ‡ÁÛÏ‚‡ÂÚÒˇ ËÁ ÍÓÌÚÂÍÒÚ‡. Õ‡ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í Ú‡Í‡ˇ ÙÓχ Ô‚ӉËÚÒˇ, Í‡Í Ô‡‚ËÎÓ, „·„Ó·ÏË Òӂ¯ÂÌÌÓ„Ó ‚ˉ‡ ‚ Ôӯ‰¯ÂÏ ‚ÂÏÂÌË. ¬ 1) œÓ‡Ì‡ÎËÁËÛÈÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ Ë ÓÔ‰ÂÎËÚÂ, Í‡Í Ó·ÓÁ̇˜ÂÌ ÔÂËÓ‰ ‚ÂÏÂÌË, ‚ Ú˜ÂÌË ÍÓÚÓÓ„Ó ÍÓÌÒÚ‡ÚËÛÂÚÒˇ ÂÁÛÎ¸Ú‡Ú ‰ÂÈÒڂˡ, ÎË·Ó ÏÓÏÂÌÚ ‚ÂÏÂÌË, Í ÍÓÚÓÓÏÛ ‰ÂÈÒÚ‚Ë ÔËÓ·ÂÚ‡ÂÚ Á‡‚¯ÂÌÌ˚È ı‡‡ÍÚÂ. 38 ƒ≈…—“¬»“≈À‹Õ¤… «¿ÀŒ√ 2) œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. No one has ever invented a perpetual motion machine. 2. Humans have eaten vegetables, fruit, fish and meat since the Stone Age. 3. Wood has been one of the most important materials on Earth for millions of years. 4. There have never been more opportunities for pharmacy, and the new millennium will offer new challenges. 5. In the space age, the extraordinary properties of titanium have made it the new wonder metal. ✔ 6. The Periodic Table of the elements has undergone several adjustments and rearrangements since Mendeleev's original discovery. 7. Modern medical research has given us some powerful medicines. 39 –¿«ƒ≈À 1 8. Solar energy in its various forms has played a significant role in the progress of humanity. 9. Drugs have extended our lives and improved quality of life in countless ways. ✔ 10. Science has now identified every gene in humans. 11. Over the past 30 years, scientists have identified various proteins that activate or silence genes. 12. Over the past century the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has risen by about 25%. 13. There have been thousands of studies on the effects of herbs. 14. Opium and some of its derivatives are highly addictive and their use has led to severe problems of drug addiction. 15. Advances in drug therapy over the course of the 20th century have had a major impact on the treatment of infectious diseases. 40 ƒ≈…—“¬»“≈À‹Õ¤… «¿ÀŒ√ 1.10 œÓ‰ÓÎÊÂÌ̇ˇ ÙÓχ „·„Ó· ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 12 ¿ ¬ ‰‡ÌÌ˚ı Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡı ̇ȉËÚ Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓÂ, ÒÓÒÚÓˇ˘Â ËÁ ‰‚Ûı ˜‡ÒÚÂÈ: 1) „·„Ó· to be, ÍÓÚÓ˚È Òӄ·ÒÛÂÚÒˇ Ò ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘ËÏ ‚ ÎˈÂ, ˜ËÒÎÂ Ë Û͇Á˚‚‡ÂÚ Ì‡ ‚ÂÏˇ ÓÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ÎÂÌˡ ‰ÂÈÒڂˡ, 2) Ô˘‡ÒÚˡ I (4-‡ˇ ÙÓχ „·„Ó·; Ú. Â. Ving.) œËÏÂ: is influencing ¡ “‡ÍÓ Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ ËÏÂÕ‡ÔËÏÂ: ÂÚ ÙÓÏÛ ÔÓ‰ÓÎÊÂÌÌÓ„Ó ‚ÂÏÂÌË (Continuous) Ë The Sun is continually warming the Earth. Ó·ÓÁ̇˜‡ÂÚ ‰ÂÈÒÚ‚Ë ‚ ‡Á—ÓÎ̈ ÔÓÒÚÓˇÌÌÓ Ó·Ó„Â‚‡ÂÚ ÁÂÏβ. ‚ËÚËË, ÔÓˆÂÒÒÂ, ÔÓËÒıÓ‰ˇ˘Â ‚ ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌÌ˚È ÏÓÏÂÌÚ ‚ÂÏÂÌË (̇ÒÚÓˇ˘ÂÂ, Ôӯ‰¯Â ËÎË ·Û‰Û˘ÂÂ), ÍÓÚÓ˚È ÎË·Ó ÛÔÓÏË̇ÂÚÒˇ ‚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËË, ÎË·Ó ˇÒÂÌ ËÁ ÍÓÌÚÂÍÒÚ‡. Õ‡ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í Ú‡Í‡ˇ ÙÓχ „·„Ó·-Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ„Ó Ô‚ӉËÚÒˇ, Í‡Í Ô‡‚ËÎÓ, „·„Ó·ÏË ÌÂÒӂ¯ÂÌÌÓ„Ó ‚ˉ‡. Õ‰ÍÓ ‰Îˇ ‡‰ÂÍ‚‡ÚÌÓ„Ó Ô‚Ӊ‡ Ú‡ÍÓÈ „·„ÓθÌÓÈ ÙÓÏ˚, Ì Ëϲ˘ÂÈ ÔˇÏÓ„Ó ˝Í‚Ë‚‡ÎÂÌÚ‡ ‚ ÛÒÒÍÓÏ ˇÁ˚ÍÂ, ËÒÔÓθÁÛÂÚÒˇ ÒÓ˜ÂÚ‡ÌË „·„Ó· ÌÂÒӂ¯ÂÌÌÓ„Ó ‚ˉ‡ Ë ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓ„Ó, ÔË·„‡ÚÂθÌÓ„Ó ËÎË Ì‡Â˜Ëˇ. ƒÎˇ Ó·ÓÁ̇˜ÂÌˡ ÔÓˆÂÒÒ‡ ˜‡ÒÚÓ ËÒÔÓθÁÛ˛ÚÒˇ Ì‡Â˜Ëˇ: constantly, continually, now. ¬ œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ ÒÓ Ò͇ÁÛÂÏ˚ÏË, Ëϲ˘ËÏË ÙÓÏÛ ÔÓ‰ÓÎÊÂÌÌÓ„Ó ‚ÂÏÂÌË, ‚˚·‡‚ ËÁ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌÌÓ„Ó ÒÔËÒ͇ ‚‡Ë‡ÌÚ Ô‚Ӊ‡, ÔÓ‰ıÓ‰ˇ˘ËÈ ÔÓ ÒÏ˚ÒÎÛ. 1. Human activity is influencing the global environment. 2. The atoms of radioactive elements such as uranium and radium are very unstable; they are continuously breaking apart. 3. The particles are moving with different kinetic energies. 4. The increase in greenhouse gases is causing global warming. 5. Stars like the Sun are converting hydrogen and helium into carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, neon, magnesium, silicon and iron. 6. Industries are spending millions of dollars for research. a) ̇ıÓ‰ËÚÒˇ ‚ ÒÓÒÚÓˇÌËË ÌÂÔÂ˚‚ÌÓ„Ó ÓÒÚ‡ b) ÔÓÒÚÓˇÌÌÓ Û‚Â΢˂‡ÂÚÒˇ c) Ó͇Á˚‚‡ÂÚ ÔÓÒÚÓˇÌÌÓ ‚ÎˡÌË d) ÌÂÔÂ˚‚ÌÓ ‰‚ËÊÛÚÒˇ e) ̇ıӉ˷Ҹ ‚ ÒÓÒÚÓˇÌËË ·˚ÒÚÓ„Ó ‡Á‚ËÚˡ Ë Ó·‡ÁÓ‚‡Ìˡ f) ÔÓÒÚÓˇÌÌÓ ‡ÁÛ¯‡ÂÚÒˇ 41 –¿«ƒ≈À 1 7. Numerous kinds of chemical transformations are constantly occurring in physiologically active plant cells. 8. Botany like all the sciences is growing in size, scope and importance. 9. By the end of the 19th century, modern botany was developing rapidly and branching into many specific fields. 10. The concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is increasing. 11. Technology is changing fast. 12. Scientists are constantly seeking the solution of various practical problems. g) ÔÓÒÚÓˇÌÌÓ ÔÂÓ·‡ÁÛ˛Ú h) ‚˚Á˚‚‡ÂÚ ÔÓˆÂÒÒ i) ÔÂÚÂÔ‚‡ÂÚ ·˚ÒÚ˚ ËÁÏÂÌÂÌˡ j) ̇ıÓ‰ˇÚÒˇ ‚ ÔÓÒÚÓˇÌÌÓÏ ÔÓËÒÍ k) ÔÓÒÚÓˇÌÌÓ ËÌ‚ÂÒÚËÛÂÚ l) ÌÂÔÂ˚‚ÌÓ ÔÓËÒıÓ‰ˇÚ 42 ƒ≈…—“¬»“≈À‹Õ¤… «¿ÀŒ√ 1.11 —ËÒÚÂχ ‚ÂÏÂÌ ‡Ì„ÎËÈÒÍÓ„Ó „·„Ó· ‚ ‰ÂÈÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓÏ Á‡ÎÓ„Â ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 13 (Ó·ÁÓÌÓÂ) Œ¡–¿«Œ¬¿Õ»≈ ¬–≈Ã≈Õ ¿Õ√À»…—üŒ√Œ √À¿√ŒÀ¿ ¬ ƒ≈…—“¬»“≈À‹ÕŒÃ «¿ÀŒ√≈ (Ú‡·Îˈ‡ 1) Tenses (√ÛÔÔ˚ ‚ÂÏÂÌ) ¬ÂÏˇ Present V Vs Indefinite Continuous Perfect Perfect Continuous Past am is are } Ving V2 was V were } ing have V } 3 has had V3 have been V } ing has had been Ving 43 Future shall V will } shall be V ing will } shall have V 3 will } shall have been V ing will } –¿«ƒ≈À 1 ¿ œÓθÁÛˇÒ¸ Ú‡·ÎˈÂÈ 1, ËÎβÒÚËÛ˛˘ÂÈ Ó·‡ÁÓ‚‡ÌË ‚ÂÏÂÌ ‡Ì„ÎËÈÒÍÓ„Ó ˇÁ˚͇ ‚ ‰ÂÈÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓÏ Á‡ÎÓ„Â, ̇ȉËÚ Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ ‚ ͇ʉÓÏ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËË Ë ‰‡ÈÚÂ Â„Ó ÔÓÎÌÛ˛ ı‡‡ÍÚÂËÒÚËÍÛ: ÎˈÓ, ˜ËÒÎÓ, ‚ÂÏˇ, „ÛÔÔ‡. ¡ œËÏÂ: has raced ó 3 ÎˈÓ, ‰. ˜ËÒÎÓ, ̇ÒÚÓˇ˘Â ‚ÂÏˇ (Present), „ÛÔÔ‡ Perfect. œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. Since 1960s, the development of medicine has raced forward. 2. Inside every living organism, chemical reactions are going on all the time. 3. In his first article D.I. Mendeleyev pointed out the similarities of a number of properties of certain elements and changed the order of atomic weights where necessary. ✔ 4. A stable balance between acids and bases in the body is essential to life. 5. Chemistry emerged from alchemy around AD 1700. 6. In recent years, there have been all sorts of advances, in everything from molecular biology, neuroscience, psychology, anthropology, sociology. 44 ƒ≈…—“¬»“≈À‹Õ¤… «¿ÀŒ√ 7. Different parts of the spectrum provide different information about molecules in the cell. ✔ 8. Paleobotanists study the fossils of plants that lived thousands of years ago. 9. Large numbers of all kinds of molecules are raving about and bumping into one another. 10. Without human interference, air and water continually recycle and renew themselves. 11. Medical experts are constantly reviewing the effectiveness of immunization programs. 12. Much new material appears each year in the scientific literature. 13. Pharmacists are working on a number of research projects. 14. Biologists have described more than a million living species. 45 –¿«ƒ≈À 1 15. The chemical properties of amino acids of protein determine the biological activity of the protein. 16. Greenhouse gases are altering the climate on a global scale. “ÂÍÒÚ˚ ‰Îˇ ÚÂÌËÓ‚Ó˜ÌÓ„Ó Ô‚Ӊ‡ Í –‡Á‰ÂÎÛ 1 1. The field of chemistry is now very large. There are more than thirty different branches of chemistry. Some of them are analytical chemistry, pharmaceutical chemistry, nuclear chemistry, industrial chemistry, and colloidal chemistry. 2. Life has existed on earth for something like 2,000,000,000 (billion) years. For all of that time water has been essential to life and its properties have not changed. 46 ƒ≈…—“¬»“≈À‹Õ¤… «¿ÀŒ√ 3. The most abundant element on the earth is oxygen; the next most abundant is silicon. The most abundant element in the universe is hydrogen and the next most abundant is helium. 4. Plants grow in almost every part of the world. They grow in deserts, on high mountains, in ponds, creeks, and in the sea. There are even plants under the ice caps. All life depends on plants for food. 5. Elemental carbon is fairly inert substance. It is insoluble in water, dilute acids and bases, and organic solvents. The physical and chemical properties of carbon are dependent on the crystal structure of the element. 6. Crystalline boron is quite stable to heat and oxidation even at relatively high temperature. Amorphous boron oxidizes slowly in the air even at room t∞, and is spontaneously flammable at about 800∞C. 47 –¿«ƒ≈À 1 7. Elements consist of tiny particles ó atoms, which are the smallest complete units of the elements. An atom consists of the nucleus and one or more electrons that are in constant motion. Electrons which carry a negative electric charge are extremely small and have almost no weight. 8. Algae have lived in the waters of the Earth for at least 600 million years and maybe much longer. For a long time algae were the only plants on Earth. Algae do not have true roots, stems, or leaves. 9. Ancient men knew and used at least 12 elements: antimony, arsenic, carbon, copper, gold, iron, lead, mercury, silver, sulfur, tin, and zinc. By 1750 the list of natural elements included 20 names. By 1900 new discoveries raised the list to 75. 48 ƒ≈…—“¬»“≈À‹Õ¤… «¿ÀŒ√ 10. Tantalum is a shiny, silvery metal, which is soft, when pure. It is one of the transition metals and member 5 of the periodic table of the elements. Tantalum is virtually resistant to corrosion due to an oxide film on its surface. 11. Aluminium is stable in air and resistant to corrosion by seawater and many aqueous solutions and other chemical agents. This is due to protection of the metal by tough, impervious film of oxide. The thickness of this oxide depends on conditions and time of exposure. 12. Pure zirconium outwardly resembles steel, but is stronger and very ductile. One of its remarkable properties is its resistance to many aggressive media. In anticorrosion properties it is even superior to such resistant metals as niobium and titanium. 49 –¿«ƒ≈À 1 13. Cadmium is silvery white ductile metal with faint bluish tinge. It is softer and more malleable than zinc, but slightly harder than tin. Its chemical properties generally are intermediate between zinc and mercury. Cadmium is bivalent in all its stable compounds. 14. Hydrogen is an essential element for life because it is a constituent element of DNA and as such is part of the genetic code. It is a component of almost every molecule in every living cell. 90 per cent of all atoms in the universe are hydrogen atoms. 15. The alkaline-earth metals, none of which occurs free in nature, are all harder than potassium or sodium, softer than magnesium or beryllium, and about as hard as lead. The metals are somewhat brittle, but are malleable and extrudable. They conduct electricity well. All the alkaline-earth metals dissolve readily in acid. 50 ƒ≈…—“¬»“≈À‹Õ¤… «¿ÀŒ√ 16. The letters pH stand for ´power of hydrogenª. In simplest terms, pH indicates the acidity of a solution. The pH scale has a particular quirk: the acidity increases ó the pH number decreases. A solution of pH 2 is more acidic than a solution with a pH of 3, but less acidic than a solution with a pH of 1. The broad scope of pH values includes a significant range of solution types. Values below pH 7 are acid, values above pH are alkaline. 17. Atoms vary greatly in weight, but they are all about the same size. The smallest and lightest atom is the hydrogen atom. It consists of 1 proton and 1 electron. The largest and heaviest atom in nature is the uranium atom. It has 92 protons, 146 neutrons, and 92 electrons. An atom of uranium weighs more than 200 times as much as an atom of hydrogen. However, a uranium atom is only about 3 times as large in diameter as a hydrogen atom. 51 –¿«ƒ≈À 1 18. Astronomers predict that in 5,000,000,000 years the center of the sun will shrink and become hotter. The surface temperature will fall slightly. The hotter temperature of the center will increase the rate at which hydrogen changes into helium, and the amount of the sun's energy will also increase. The outer regions of the sun will expand to 50 million kilometers. The sun will then be a red giant star and the earth's temperature will become too high for life. 19. The sun gives off many kinds of radiation besides visible light and heat. These radiations include radio waves, ultraviolet rays and X-rays. Ultraviolet rays consist of waves of light that are shorter than the waves of violet light on the visible spectrum. They are invisible to the human eye. The atmosphere absorbs much of this radiation. The sun gives off more ultraviolet rays and X-rays during periods of violent activity than during calm periods. 52 ƒ≈…—“¬»“≈À‹Õ¤… «¿ÀŒ√ 20. Chlorophyll actually is a mixture of several complex pigments. The most important are the blue-green chlorophyll a and the yellow-green chlorophyll b. Chlorophyll a has 55 atoms of carbon, 72 atoms of hydrogen, 5 atoms of oxygen, 4 atoms of nitrogen, and one atom of magnesium. Its chemical formula is C55H72O5N4Mg. Chlorophyll b has 2 less atoms of hydrogen and one more of oxygen. Its formula is C55H70O6N4Mg. 53 –¿«ƒ≈À 2 –‡Á‰ÂÎ 2. —Ú‡‰‡ÚÂθÌ˚È Á‡ÎÓ„ (Passive Voice) Œ¡–¿«Œ¬¿Õ»≈ ¬–≈Ã≈Õ ¿Õ√À»…—üŒ√Œ √À¿√ŒÀ¿ ¬ —“–¿ƒ¿“≈À‹ÕŒÃ «¿ÀŒ√≈ (Ú‡·Îˈ‡ 2) Tenses (√ÛÔÔ˚ ‚ÂÏÂÌ) Indefinite Continuous Perfect ¬ÂÏˇ Present am is are am is are Past } V3 was V were } 3 } being V3 was being V 3 were } have been V } 3 has had been V3 Future shall be V 3 will } ó shall have been V 3 will } ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 14 ¿ √·„ÓÎ ‚ ÙÓÏ ÒÚ‡‰‡ÚÂθÌÓ„Ó Á‡ÎÓ„‡ (to be + V3) ËÒÔÓθÁÛÂÚÒˇ ‰Îˇ ‚˚‡ÊÂÌˡ œËÏÂ: ‰ÂÈÒڂˡ, Ì Òӂ¯‡ÂÏÓ„Ó ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘ËÏ is influenced ó ̇ÒÚÓˇ˘Â (Ú.Â. ‰ÂÈÒÚ‚ËÂ, ‚˚‡ÊÂÌÌÓ „·„ÓÎÓÏ-Ò͇‚ÂÏˇ „ÛÔÔ˚ Indefinite ÁÛÂÏ˚Ï, ̇ԇ‚ÎÂÌÓ Ì‡ ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘ÂÂ). ü‡Í is being produced ó ̇ÒÚÓˇ˘ÂÂ Ë „·„ÓÎ˚ ‚ ‰ÂÈÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓÏ Á‡ÎÓ„Â, „·„Ó‚ÂÏˇ „ÛÔÔ˚ Continuous Î˚ ‚ ÒÚ‡‰‡ÚÂθÌÓÏ Á‡ÎÓ„Â ÏÓ„ÛÚ Ó·ÓÁ̇have been made ó ̇ÒÚÓˇ˘Â ˜‡Ú¸ „ÛΡÌ˚Â, ÔÓ‚ÚÓˇ˛˘ËÂÒˇ ‰ÂÈÒڂˡ (Indefinite), ‰ÂÈÒڂˡ ‚ ÔÓˆÂÒÒ ‚ÂÏˇ „ÛÔÔ˚ Perfect (Continuous) Ë Á‡‚¯ÂÌÌ˚ ‰ÂÈÒڂˡ (Perfect) Ë ÓÚÌÓÒËÚ¸Òˇ Í Ì‡ÒÚÓˇ˘ÂÏÛ (Present), Ôӯ‰¯ÂÏÛ (Past) Ë ·Û‰Û˘ÂÏÛ (Future). ¡ œÂ‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ ÒÓ Ò͇ÁÛÂÏ˚ÏË ‚ ÒÚ‡‰‡ÚÂθÌÓÏ Á‡Îӄ ̇ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í ÏÓ„ÛÚ Ô‚ӉËÚ¸Òˇ ÌÂÒÍÓθÍËÏË ÒÔÓÒÓ·‡ÏË, Ë Ì‰ÍÓ ÛÒÒÍÓ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌË ÓÚ΢‡ÂÚÒˇ ÓÚ ‡Ì„ÎËÈÒÍÓ„Ó ÔÓ ÒÚÛÍÚÛÂ. Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: Some reactions are greatly affected by light. ÕÂÍÓÚÓ˚ ‡͈ËË ‚ Á̇˜ËÚÂθÌÓÈ ÒÚÂÔÂÌË ÔÓ‰‚ÂÊÂÌ˚ ‚ÓÁ‰ÂÈÒڂ˲ Ò‚ÂÚ‡. —‚ÂÚ Ó͇Á˚‚‡ÂÚ ÒËθÌÓ ‚ÓÁ‰ÂÈÒÚ‚Ë ̇ ÔÓÚÂ͇ÌË ÌÂÍÓÚÓ˚ı ‡͈ËÈ. ¬ 1) œÓθÁÛˇÒ¸ “‡·ÎˈÂÈ 2, ËÎβÒÚËÛ˛˘ÂÈ Ó·‡ÁÓ‚‡ÌË ‚ÂÏÂÌ ‡Ì„ÎËÈÒÍÓ„Ó „·„Ó· ‚ ÒÚ‡‰‡ÚÂθÌÓÏ Á‡ÎÓ„Â, ̇ȉËÚ Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ ‚ ͇ʉÓÏ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËË, ‰‡ÈÚÂ Â„Ó ÔÓÎÌÛ˛ ı‡‡ÍÚÂËÒÚËÍÛ: ÎˈÓ, ˜ËÒÎÓ, ‚ÂÏˇ, „ÛÔÔ‡. 54 —“–¿ƒ¿“≈À‹Õ¤… «¿ÀŒ√ 2) œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ, ËÒÔÓθÁÛˇ Ô‡‚Ë·, ÓÔËÒ‡ÌÌ˚ ‚ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌˡı 5, 11, 12. 1. The first steps towards scientific explanation of the world were taken in ancient Greece. 2. The discovery of many elements is lost in antiquity. 3. Knowledge of the Sun has been drawn from many different areas of research. 4. More and more is continually being learned about plants. 5. In the early stages of the development of chemistry, considerable emphasis was placed on the origins of the various substances. ✔ 6. During the chemical reaction a number of bonds will be formed or broken. 7. Medicinal properties have been ascribed to iron from time immemorial. 55 –¿«ƒ≈À 2 ✔ 8. Extensive amounts of carbon are found in the form of its compounds. 9. Gallium was discovered in 1875 but its existence had already been predicted six years earlier by D. Mendeleev. 10. For centuries, drugs have been made from animal and plant extracts. 11. Much research is being carried on in various areas of plant physiology. 12. Chemical formulas and equations are written in terms of atoms and molecules. 13. The symbols of the elements have been established by international agreement and are used throughout the world. 14. Enzymes and their products were first obtained from bacteria, yeast, and molds. 56 —“–¿ƒ¿“≈À‹Õ¤… «¿ÀŒ√ 15. As a result of respiration carbon dioxide is constantly being generated in root cells. ✔ 16. Carrot has been cultivated since the 16th century; it is grown for its edible roots. 17. Pain relief by bark of the willow tree has been known since antiquity. 18. Plants are found throughout the world, on land, in water, and in the air. 19. The greenness of plants is caused by chlorophyll. 20. Mistletoe is currently being tested for its potential as a cancer therapy. 21. Vitamins were formerly extracted from natural sources, but now the majority is made by synthetic methods. 57 –¿«ƒ≈À 2 ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 15 ¿ ŒÔ‰ÂÎËÚÂ, ͇ÍËÏ Á‡ÎÓ„ÓÏ ó ‰ÂÈÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌ˚Ï (Active) ËÎË ÒÚ‡‰‡ÚÂθÌ˚Ï (Passive) ‚˚‡ÊÂÌ˚ Ò͇ÁÛÂÏ˚ ‚ ‰‡ÌÌ˚ı Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡı, ‡ Ú‡ÍÊ ‚ÂÏˇ (Present, Past, Future) Ë ‡ÒÔÂÍÚ (Indefinite, Continuous, Perfect) ¡ œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ Ò Û˜ÂÚÓÏ ‚ÒÂı ı‡‡ÍÚÂËÒÚËÍ „·„Ó·-Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ„Ó. 1. Like oil, supplies of coal and gas are ultimately limited and will run out. 2. Solutions of ascorbic acid deteriorate very rapidly and the vitamin is not stored. 3. At present, about a thousand chemical reactions are known which occur within the cell. ✔ 4. Only about one two billionth of the sun's light and heat reaches the earth, the rest is lost in space. 5. The exact vitamin requirements for good health often are not known with accuracy; they vary with age, weight, sex, and state of health. 58 —“–¿ƒ¿“≈À‹Õ¤… «¿ÀŒ√ 6. During the Middle Ages the role of pharmacist was filled by herbalists, who supplied physicians with the raw materials for the medicines. ✔ 7. For centuries Dioscorides (1 BC) who described about 600 plants useful in medicine was looked upon as the chief authority on medicinal plants. 8. Manuscripts on plants had existed for centuries before the invention of printing in the 15th century. 9. Botany was represented among the Romans by the elder Pliny (AD 23ñ79) who assembled all the knowledge of his time in the 37 books of his ´Historia Naturalisª. 10. Plants absorb many kinds of ions and absorption of ions is not necessarily followed by their utilization. 59 –¿«ƒ≈À 2 ✔ 11. The outer layers of the cork are constantly being destroyed, but new layers are in progress of formation within. 12. Samarium is not taken up by plants roots to any great extent so it does not get into the human food chain. 13. The lack of arsenic function in the human body is suggested by the fact that arsenic accumulates in the hair and nails which are essentially nonliving. 14. Boron is classified as a metalloid and is the only non-metallic element which has fewer than four electrons in its outer shell. 60 —“–¿ƒ¿“≈À‹Õ¤… «¿ÀŒ√ “ÂÍÒÚ˚ ‰Îˇ ÚÂÌËÓ‚Ó˜ÌÓ„Ó Ô‚Ӊ‡ Í –‡Á‰ÂÎÛ 2 1. Despite the dangers, elemental phosphorus was widely used pharmaceutically. It was given only in doses of twentieth of a grain (3 milligrams) but was particularly recommended for numerous conditions, such as a depression, epilepsy, pneumonia, alcoholism, tuberculosis, cholera and cataracts. 2. Very few metals occur in their pure or ´nativeª state. Most occur in minerals where they are combined with other elements. The mineral in which a metal occurs is called the ore. The commonest metals in the Earth crust are aluminium and iron. 3. Various aspects of plant physiology are being investigated carefully. For example, problems of plant development, such as polarity, symmetry, differentiation, and regeneration are being studied by many researchers. 4. Simple diatomic molecules of a single element are designated by the symbol for the element with subscript 2. Thus the hydrogen molecule is H2; the nitrogen molecule, N2; the oxygen molecule is O2. 61 –¿«ƒ≈À 2 5. In a chemical change, atoms do not break up but act as individual units. The chemical behavior of an atom is controlled by the number and spatial arrangements of electrons in orbit around the nucleus. 6. Bromides produce depression of the central nervous system, and were once widely used for their sedative effect. But they cause serious disturbances, and are now seldom used, except occasionally. 7. Coal is a fossil fuel. It was formed hundreds of years ago, mainly around swamps. Trees and other plants that died fell into the swamps and sank under the water where there was little oxygen. There they decayed and were compressed by other material that fell on top. 62 —“–¿ƒ¿“≈À‹Õ¤… «¿ÀŒ√ 8. Petroleum was formed million of years ago when oceans covered much of the Earth's surface. In prehistoric times, tiny plants and animals lived in the shallow waters and swamps. When these plants and animals died, their remains settled on the muddy ocean floors. Heat, pressure and natural forces changed the remains into oil and natural gas. 9. Adhesives have been in use since ancient times and are even mentioned in Bible. The first adhesives were of natural origin, for example, bitumen, fish oil, and tree resins. In more modern times adhesives were still derived from natural products, but were processed before use. 10. We know very little about the early history of life on Earth for two reasons. First, the life forms were soft, and had no skeleton or other hard parts, so they didn't form fossils when they died. Secondly, at first life existed entirely in the sea, so that any remains that were left were on the sea floor, which has been recycled completely several times. 63 –¿«ƒ≈À 2 11. The air is the mixture of several substances. The normal composition of dry air is 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and 1% other gases. There are also small amounts of carbon dioxide and water. Oxygen is almost immediately essential for life. It is absorbed into our bodies through the lungs. Nitrogen is much less active than oxygen and it is exhaled from our lungs without change. 64 ÃŒƒ¿À‹Õ¤≈ √À¿√ŒÀ¤ –‡Á‰ÂÎ 3. ÃÓ‰‡Î¸Ì˚ „·„ÓÎ˚ (Modal Verbs) ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 16 ¿ ÃÓ‰‡Î¸Ì˚ „·„ÓÎ˚ Ó·ÓÁ̇˜‡˛Ú Ì ҇ÏÓ ‰ÂÈÒÚ‚ËÂ, ‡ Û͇Á˚‚‡˛Ú ̇ ÓÚÌÓ¯ÂÌË „Ó‚Óˇ˘Â„Ó Í ˝ÚÓÏÛ ‰ÂÈÒڂ˲. ŒÌË ‚˚‡Ê‡˛Ú: can ó ÒÔÓÒÓ·ÌÓÒÚ¸ may ó ‚ÓÁÏÓÊÌÓÒÚ¸ must ó ‰ÓÎÊÂÌÒÚ‚Ó‚‡ÌË should ó ÂÍÓÏẨ‡ˆË˛, ÒÓ‚ÂÚ ÃÓ‰‡Î¸Ì˚ „·„ÓÎ˚ ÛÔÓÚ·Ρ˛ÚÒˇ ÚÓθÍÓ ‚ ÒÓ˜ÂÚ‡œËÏÂ: ÌËË Ò ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚ÓÏ ÒÏ˚ÒÎÓ‚Ó„Ó „·„Ó· (·ÂÁ ˜‡ÒÚˈ˚ to), ÍÓÚÓ˚È ÏÓÊÂÚ ËÏÂÚ¸ ÙÓÏÛ ‰ÂÈÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓ„Ó (V) can suppress ËÎË ÒÚ‡‰‡ÚÂθÌÓ„Ó (be+V3) Á‡ÎÓ„‡. ÃÓ‰‡Î¸Ì˚ „·„Óshould be given Î˚ ˜‡ÒÚÓ Ì‡Á˚‚‡˛ÚÒˇ ̉ÓÒÚ‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ÏË, Ú‡Í Í‡Í ÓÌË: (‡) Ì ËÏÂ˛Ú ÌÂ΢Ì˚ı ÙÓÏ ó ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚‡, Ô˘‡ÒÚˡ, „ÂÛÌ‰Ëˇ; (·) Ì ËÁÏÂÌˇ˛ÚÒˇ ÌË ÔÓ Îˈ‡Ï, ÌË ÔÓ ˜ËÒÎ‡Ï (Ú. Â. Ì ËÏÂ˛Ú ÓÍÓ̘‡Ìˡ ‚ 3-Ï Îˈ ‰. ˜ËÒ·). ¡ Õ‡ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓÂ Ò ÏÓ‰‡Î¸Ì˚ÏË „·„Ó·ÏË Ô‚ӉËÚÒˇ ‚ Á‡‚ËÒËÏÓÒÚË ÓÚ Á̇˜ÂÌˡ ÏÓ‰‡Î¸ÌÓ„Ó „·„Ó· Ë ÙÓÏ˚ ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚‡. Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: 1) This drug can suppress inflammation. ›ÚÓÚ ÔÂÔ‡‡Ú ÏÓÊÂÚ ÔÓ‰‡‚Ρڸ ‚ÓÒÔ‡ÎÂÌËÂ. 2) You may warm the ear drops to body temperature. ¬˚ ÏÓÊÂÚ ̇„ÂÚ¸ (Ú.Â. ˝ÚÓ ‡Á¯‡ÂÚÒˇ) ˝ÚË Û¯Ì˚ ͇ÔÎË ‰Ó ÚÂÏÔ‡ÚÛ˚ Ú·. 3) This medicine must be used regularly. ›ÚÓ ÎÂ͇ÒÚ‚Ó ÌÂÓ·ıÓ‰ËÏÓ ÔËÏÂÌˇÚ¸ (‰ÓÎÊÌÓ ÔËÏÂÌˇÚ¸Òˇ) „ÛΡÌÓ. 4) These medicines should be given with care. ›ÚË ÎÂ͇ÒÚ‚ÂÌÌ˚ ÔÂÔ‡‡Ú˚ ÒΉÛÂÚ ÔËÏÂÌˇÚ¸ Ò ÓÒÚÓÓÊÌÓÒÚ¸˛. ¬ ՇȉËÚ ˇ‰Ó Í‡Ê‰Ó„Ó Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ, „‰Â ÒÓÒÚ‡‚ÌÓ Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ ‚Íβ˜‡ÂÚ ÏÓ‰‡Î¸Ì˚È „·„ÓÎ Ë ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚ ‚ ‡ÍÚË‚ÌÓÈ ËÎË Ô‡ÒÒË‚ÌÓÈ ÙÓÏ ·ÂÁ ˜‡ÒÚˈ˚ to. œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. The number of leaves on a plant can vary from several to thousands. 2. Carbon dioxide gas may be liquefied or solidified. 65 –¿«ƒ≈À 3 ✔ 3. Many of these drugs are toxic and should be given with care. 4. The atoms in diatomic molecules may be similar or they may be dissimilar. 5. A compound can be broken down by chemical reactions into its constituent elements. 6. A new medicine must undergo extensive testing in the laboratory. 7. Acetylene must be handled with special precautions. 8. A chemical element is a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler stuff by any chemical means. 9. Aspirin should not be given to children who have viral infections. 66 ÃŒƒ¿À‹Õ¤≈ √À¿√ŒÀ¤ 10. Unlike humans and animals, plants cannot move from one location to another and therefore must adapt genetically to their atmospheric environment. ✔ 11. All pharmacists must be familiar with the action of drugs on the body. 12. Oral solutions may be absorbed along the entire alimentary canal and must pass through various fluids and tissues and survive encounters with several enzyme systems. 13. Heavy water cannot be distinguished from ordinary water by its colour, smell, or taste. 14. Alluminium should not be used in contact with mercury or its compounds. 15. Many plants can regrow parts that have been destroyed. 67 –¿«ƒ≈À 3 ✔ 16. Contact with cobalt salts can lead to dermatitis. 17. Aspirin should not be taken with alcohol, because this increases gastrointestinal damage. 18. Narcotics can be legally obtained only with a doctor's prescription. 19. Radioactive pollution can result from accidents at nuclear stations, and it is very deadly. 20. Local anesthetics may be applied topically or injected into the tissues. 21. A toxic syndrome can result from excessive vitamin intake. 22. Radioactivity takes several forms and can vary from very weak to very dangerous. 23. Febrium may be mildly toxic by ingestion but its insoluble salts are non-toxic. 68 ÃŒƒ¿À‹Õ¤≈ √À¿√ŒÀ¤ 24. The sugar content of antacids must be taken into account, particularly in the case of patients with diabetes mellitus. ✔ 25. All vessels, bottles, glass tubes, etc. must be clean and ready for use. 26. Ozone can be condensed into a blue liquid or frozen into a violet-black solid. 27. Benzonatate is administered orally in capsule or tablet form, but should not be chewed or dissolved in the mouth because the local anesthetic action may cause numbness of the oral mucosa. 28. Salts may be produced by means other than neutralization. 69 –¿«ƒ≈À 3 “ÂÍÒÚ˚ ‰Îˇ ÚÂÌËÓ‚Ó˜ÌÓ„Ó Ô‚Ӊ‡ Í –‡Á‰ÂÎÛ 3 1. Twenty amino acids are necessary for protein synthesis. Eleven can be synthesized by the human body; nine must be obtained from the diet. 2. In many societies gold has been regarded as a symbol of power and wealth. It was seen as a magic substance which could protect people against illness or evil spirit. 3. Molecules are always changing. They break in two or more pieces, or they may add on an atom or two. Or they may exchange atoms with another molecule. All sorts of changes are going all the time. 4. The most important properties of copper are its high electrical and thermal conductivity. There is only one metal ó silver ó that is characterized by higher conductivity of heat and electricity. But silver is expensive and cannot be used on a sufficiently large scale. 70 ÃŒƒ¿À‹Õ¤≈ √À¿√ŒÀ¤ 5. The Greek philosophers developed the first theories of matter. Empedocles (492ñ432 BC) introduced the four elements of earth, water, air and fire. These should not be understood as literally earth, water, and so on, but in a slightly more abstract manner of solid, liquid, gas, and fire or as principles of solidity, fluidity, gaseousness and fireness. ◊‡ÒÚ¸ II. Õ≈À»◊Õ¤≈ ‘Œ–ä √À¿√ŒÀ¿ (Non-Finite Forms of the Verb) ÕÂ΢Ì˚ ÙÓÏ˚ „·„Ó· ó ˝ÚÓ „·„ÓθÌ˚ ÙÓÏ˚, ÍÓÚÓ˚ ҇ÏÓÒÚÓˇÚÂθÌÓ Ì ÏÓ„ÛÚ ·˚Ú¸ Ò͇ÁÛÂÏ˚ÏË Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ, Ú. Í. ÓÌË Ì ËÁÏÂÌˇ˛ÚÒˇ ÔÓ Îˈ‡Ï, ˜ËÒÎ‡Ï Ë ‚ÂÏÂ̇Ï. ü ÌÂ΢Ì˚Ï ÙÓÏ‡Ï „·„Ó· ÓÚÌÓÒˇÚÒˇ: Ô˘‡ÒÚË I, II, „ÂÛ̉ËÈ, ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚. œË˜‡ÒÚË (the Participle) ó ÌÂ΢̇ˇ ÙÓχ „·„Ó·, ÍÓÚÓ‡ˇ ӷ·‰‡ÂÚ Í‡Í ÔËÁ͇̇ÏË „·„Ó·, Ú‡Í Ë Ò‚ÓÈÒÚ‚‡ÏË ÔË·„‡ÚÂθÌÓ„Ó Ë Ì‡Â˜Ëˇ. √ÂÛ̉ËÈ (the Gerund) ó ÌÂ΢̇ˇ ÙÓχ „·„Ó·, ÍÓÚÓ‡ˇ ӷ·‰‡ÂÚ Í‡Í ÔËÁ͇̇ÏË „·„Ó·, Ú‡Í Ë ÌÂÍÓÚÓ˚ÏË ÔËÁ͇̇ÏË ËÏÂÌË ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓ„Ó. »ÌÙËÌËÚË‚ (the Infinitive) ó ÌÂÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌ̇ˇ ÙÓχ „·„Ó·, ÍÓÚÓ‡ˇ Óڂ˜‡ÂÚ Ì‡ ‚ÓÔÓÒ˚ ´˜ÚÓ ‰Â·ڸ?ª, ´˜ÚÓ Ò‰Â·ڸ?ª ‘”Õü÷»» Õ≈À»◊Õ¤’ ‘Œ–à √À¿√ŒÀ¿ ¬ œ–≈ƒÀŒ∆≈Õ»» (Ú‡·Îˈ‡ 3) ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ ‰ÓÔÓÎÌÂÌË ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌË ӷÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚Ó Participle I Active Participle I Passive Participle I Perfect Active Participle I Perfect Passive Participle II Gerund Infinitive Œ·ÓÁ̇˜ÂÌˡ: ó ‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇÂÚ ÙÛÌÍˆË˛ 72 ó ‚ıÓ‰ËÚ ‚ ÒÓÒÚ‡‚. œ–»◊¿—“»≈ –‡Á‰ÂÎ 4. œË˜‡ÒÚË (The Participle) œË˜‡ÒÚË ó ÌÂ΢̇ˇ ÙÓχ „·„Ó·, ÍÓÚÓ‡ˇ ÍÓÏ ÒÓ·ÒÚ‚ÂÌÌÓ „·„ÓθÌ˚ı ÔËÁ̇ÍÓ‚ (Ú. Â. ËÏÂÂÚ Á‡ÎÓ„, ‡ÒÔÂÍÚ, ÏÓÊÂÚ ÒÓÔÓ‚Óʉ‡Ú¸Òˇ ‰ÓÔÓÎÌÂÌËÂÏ), ӷ·‰‡ÂÚ Ú‡ÍÊ ҂ÓÈÒÚ‚‡ÏË ÔË·„‡ÚÂθÌÓ„Ó (ÏÓÊÂÚ ·˚Ú¸ ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌËÂÏ) ËÎË Ì‡Â˜Ëˇ (ÏÓÊÂÚ ı‡‡ÍÚÂËÁÓ‚‡Ú¸ ‰ÂÈÒÚ‚ËÂ). À˛·ÓÈ ÒÏ˚ÒÎÓ‚ÓÈ „·„ÓÎ ËÏÂÂÚ ‰‚‡ Ô˘‡ÒÚˡ: Ô˘‡ÒÚË I ó Ô˘‡ÒÚË ̇ÒÚÓˇ˘Â„Ó ‚ÂÏÂÌË (the Present Participle) ËÎË IV ÙÓχ „·„Ó·, ‚ ÒÎÓ‚‡ˇı Ó·ÓÁ̇˜‡ÂÚÒˇ ´pres. p.ª, Ó·‡ÁÛÂÚÒˇ ÔË·‡‚ÎÂÌËÂÏ Í ÓÒÌÓ‚Â „·„Ó· ÓÍÓ̘‡Ìˡ -ing (Ving); ÏÓÊÂÚ ËÏÂÚ¸ ÒÎÓÊÌ˚ ÙÓÏ˚: Participle I Passive (being +V3) Participle I Perfect Active (having+V3) Participle I Perfect Passive (having been+V3) Ô˘‡ÒÚË II ó Ô˘‡ÒÚË Ôӯ‰¯Â„Ó ‚ÂÏÂÌË (the Past Participle) ËÎË III ÙÓχ „·„Ó·, Û Ô‡‚ËθÌ˚ı „·„ÓÎÓ‚ ÒÓ‚Ô‡‰‡ÂÚ Ò ÙÓÏÓÈ Ôӯ‰¯Â„Ó ‚ÂÏÂÌË (Past Indefinite), Ú.Â. ËÏÂÂÚ ÓÍÓ̘‡ÌË ´-edª, ÌÂÔ‡‚ËθÌ˚ „·„ÓÎ˚ ËÏÂ˛Ú ÓÒÓ·Û˛ ÙÓÏÛ, ÍÓÚÓ‡ˇ ‚ ÒÎÓ‚‡ˇı Ó·ÓÁ̇˜‡ÂÚÒˇ ´p.p.ª (V3). Œ·‡ Ô˘‡ÒÚˡ ÏÓ„ÛÚ ˇ‚ÎˇÚ¸Òˇ ˜‡ÒÚ¸˛ ÒÓÒÚ‡‚ÌÓ„Ó Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ„Ó, ‡ Ò‡ÏÓÒÚÓˇÚÂθÌÓ ‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇ˛Ú ‚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËË ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌˡ Ë Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡ (ÒÏ. “‡·ÎËˆÛ ÙÛÌ͈ËÈ ÌÂ΢Ì˚ı ÙÓÏ „·„Ó·). 4.1 œË˜‡ÒÚË I ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌˡ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 17 ¿ œË˜‡ÒÚË I ‚ ‡ÍÚË‚ÌÓÏ Á‡ÎÓ„Â (Ving), ‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇ˛˘Â ÙÛÌÍˆË˛ ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌˡ, ı‡‡ÍÚÂËÁÛÂÚ ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓÂ Ë ÏÓÊÂÚ ÒÚÓˇÚ¸ Í‡Í ‰Ó, Ú‡Í Ë ÔÓÒΠÓÔ‰ÂΡÂÏÓ„Ó ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓ„Ó. œËÏÂ: 1. Burning coal causes air pollution. 2. Copper and nickel form alloys having low electrical conductivity. ¡ œË˜‡ÒÚË I ‚ ‡ÍÚË‚ÌÓÏ Á‡ÎÓ„Â ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌˡ ı‡‡ÍÚÂËÁÛÂÚ ‰ÂÈÒÚ‚ËÂ, ‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇÂÏÓ ÓÔ‰ÂΡÂÏ˚Ï ÒÎÓ‚ÓÏ, ˜ÚÓ ‚ ÛÒÒÍÓÏ ˇÁ˚Í ÒÓÓÚ‚ÂÚÒÚ‚ÛÂÚ Ô˘‡ÒÚ˲ ‰ÂÈÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓ„Ó Á‡ÎÓ„‡ ËÎË Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓÏÛ ÓÔ‰ÂÎËÚÂθÌÓÏÛ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌ˲ ÒÓ Ò͇ÁÛÂÏ˚Ï ‚ ‰ÂÈÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓÏ Á‡ÎÓ„Â. Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: Alloys having low electrical conductivity... —Ô·‚˚, Ëϲ˘Ë ÌËÁÍÛ˛ ˝ÎÂÍÚ˘ÂÒÍÛ˛ ÔÓ‚Ó‰ËÏÓÒÚ¸... —Ô·‚˚, ÍÓÚÓ˚ ËÏÂ˛Ú ÌËÁÍÛ˛ ˝ÎÂÍÚ˘ÂÒÍÛ˛ ÔÓ‚Ó‰ËÏÓÒÚ¸... 73 –¿«ƒ≈À 4 ¬ œÓ‡Ì‡ÎËÁËÛÈÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ, ̇ȉËÚ Ô˘‡ÒÚË I (Ô˘‡ÒÚÌ˚È Ó·ÓÓÚ) Ë ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓÂ, ÍÓÚÓÓ ËÏ ÓÔ‰ÂΡÂÚÒˇ. œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. Grass is a green, leafy, flowering plant. 2. More than 80% of all plants living today are flowering plants. 3. A leaf is the main food-making part of a plant. 4. Fast moving water has kinetic energy. 5. Matter is changing all the time because of changing conditions in the world around us. 6. Zinc containing enzymes regulates growth, development longevity and fertility. ✔ 7. The number of electrons revolting around the nucleus of an atom is equal to its atomic number. 8. An isotope of a chemical element consists of atoms having the same number of neutrons. 74 œ–»◊¿—“»≈ 9. Solutions of acids have a sour taste and produce a burning feeling when they touch skin. ✔ 10. Oxygen is a highly reactive substance, readily combining with many other elements in the process of oxidation. 11. In naturally occurring compounds, boron exists as a mixture of two stable isotopes with atomic weights of 10 and 11. 12. Salts resulting from the combination of strong acids and weak bases will give acidic water solutions. 13. Carbon dioxide is the focus of public concern in recent years due to the increasing concentrations of this gas in the atmosphere as a result of the combustion of fossil fuels. 14. The actual volume of the molecules making up the air is only about 1/1000th of the total volume of the gas. 75 –¿«ƒ≈À 4 ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 18 ¿ ‘ÛÌÍˆË˛ ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌˡ ÏÓÊÂÚ ‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇÚ¸ Ú‡ÍÊ Ô˘‡ÒÚË I ‚ Ô‡ÒÒË‚ÌÓÏ Á‡ÎÓ„Â (being + V3), ÍÓÚÓÓ ‚Ò„‰‡ ÒÚÓËÚ ÔÓÒΠÓÔ‰ÂΡÂÏÓ„Ó ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓ„Ó. ¡ œË˜‡ÒÚË I ‚ Ô‡ÒÒË‚ÌÓÏ Á‡ÎÓ„Â ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌˡ ÒÓÓÚ‚ÂÚÒÚ‚ÛÂÚ ‚ ÛÒÒÍÓÏ ˇÁ˚Í ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌ˲, ‚˚‡ÊÂÌÌÓÏÛ ÒÚ‡‰‡ÚÂθÌ˚Ï Ô˘‡ÒÚËÂÏ ËÎË Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓÏÛ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌ˲ ÒÓ Ò͇ÁÛÂÏ˚Ï ‚ ÒÚ‡‰‡ÚÂθÌÓÏ Á‡ÎÓ„Â. œËÏÂ: The experiments being performed on animals have shown promising results. Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: The experiments being performed on animalsÖ ›ÍÒÔÂËÏÂÌÚ˚, ÔÓ‚Ó‰ËÏ˚ (‚ ̇ÒÚÓˇ˘Â ‚ÂÏˇ) ̇ ÊË‚ÓÚÌ˚ı... ›ÍÒÔÂËÏÂÌÚ˚, ÍÓÚÓ˚ ÔÓ‚Ó‰ˇÚÒˇ ̇ ÊË‚ÓÚÌ˚ı... ¬ œÓ‡Ì‡ÎËÁËÛÈÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ, ̇ȉËÚ Ô˘‡ÒÚË I (Ô˘‡ÒÚÌ˚È Ó·ÓÓÚ) ‚ Ô‡ÒÒË‚ÌÓÏ Á‡ÎÓ„Â Ë ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓÂ, ÍÓÚÓÓ ËÏ ÓÔ‰ÂΡÂÚÒˇ. œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. ✔ 1. The respiratory ratio of a plant tissue depends upon the type of substrate being oxidized. 2. Many of the drugs being developed today are the product of years of intensive research. 3. Life extension experiments being performed on animals have shown promising results. 76 œ–»◊¿—“»≈ 4. Many people being treated for HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) infection undergo a redistribution of body fat which can cause abnormal levels of fat in the blood. ✔ 5. The main vaccine being used to eradicate polio consists of a live, weak form of the virus. 6. The amount of carbon dioxide constantly being taken from the atmosphere during daylight hours by all green plants is enormous. 7. Ointments are applied directly to the area being treated. 8. The damage being done to the ozone layer is very serious. 77 –¿«ƒ≈À 4 4.2 œË˜‡ÒÚË I ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 19 ¿ œË˜‡ÒÚË I (Ving) ÏÓÊÂÚ ı‡‡ÍÚÂËÁÓ‚‡Ú¸ „·„ÓÎ-Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓÂ, ÛÚÓ˜Ìˇˇ ‡Á΢Ì˚ ӷÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡, ÔÓËÒıÓ‰ˇ˘Ë ӉÌÓ‚ÂÏÂÌÌÓ Ò ‰ÂÈÒÚ‚ËÂÏ „·„Ó·-Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ„Ó. Œ·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚Ó, ‚˚‡ÊÂÌÌÓ Ô˘‡ÒÚËÂÏ I (Ô˘‡ÒÚÌ˚Ï Ó·ÓÓÚÓÏ), ÏÓÊÂÚ ÒÚÓˇÚ¸ Í‡Í ‰Ó, Ú‡Í Ë ÔÓÒΠˇ‰‡ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ Ë Ì‰ÍÓ ‚‚Ó‰ËÚÒˇ ÒÓ˛ÁÌ˚ÏË ÒÎÓ‚‡ÏË when, while, thus Ë ‰. ¡ œË Ô‚Ӊ ̇ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í Ô˘‡ÒÚË I ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡ ÏÓÊÂÚ ÒÓÓÚ‚ÂÚÒÚ‚Ó‚‡Ú¸: ó ‰ÂÂÔ˘‡ÒÚ˲ ÌÂÒӂ¯ÂÌÌÓ„Ó ‚ˉ‡ ó ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓÏÛ Ò Ô‰ÎÓ„ÓÏ ó Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓÏÛ Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚ÂÌÌÓÏÛ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌ˲. œËÏÂ: 1. Using light energy, plant cells convert simple compounds into more complex materials. 2. —are must be taken when working with X-rays. Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: Using light energy, plant cells convert simple compounds into more complex materials. »ÒÔÓθÁÛˇ Ò‚ÂÚÓ‚Û˛ ˝ÌÂ„Ë˛Ö œË ËÒÔÓθÁÓ‚‡ÌËË Ò‚ÂÚÓ‚ÓÈ ˝Ì„ËËÖ üÓ„‰‡ ‡ÒÚÂÌˡ ËÒÔÓθÁÛ˛Ú Ò‚ÂÚÓ‚Û˛ ˝ÌÂ„Ë˛Ö ¬ œÓ‡Ì‡ÎËÁËÛÈÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ, ̇ȉËÚ ˇ‰Ó Ë Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚Ó, ‚˚‡ÊÂÌÌÓ Ô˘‡ÒÚËÂÏ I (Ô˘‡ÒÚÌ˚Ï Ó·ÓÓÚÓÏ). œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. When an atomic nucleus is unstable it decomposes spontaneously, emitting high-energy particles. 2. After cell division, plant cells rearrange or restructure their cell walls, removing cellulose in some places and building it up in others. 78 œ–»◊¿—“»≈ 3. Being one of the lightest metals, beryllium at the same time is remarkably strong, stronger than steel. ✔ 4. Algae being simple plants do not develop flowers; they do not have true roots, stems, or leaves. 5. X-rays are harmful to living things so care must be taken when working with them. 6. When growing on a bare surface such as rock, mosses slowly build up a thin layer of soil on the rock. 7. While burning, magnesium emits large quantities of ultraviolet rays and heat. 8. An atom is a basic structural unit of matter, being the smallest particle of an element that can enter into chemical combination. 79 –¿«ƒ≈À 4 ✔ 9. Neptunium occurs naturally on Earth, being present in minute quantities in uranium ores. 10. Some tantalum compounds are used in diagnostic medicine because they are more visible on X-rays than other agents, especially when examining the lungs. 11. Thorium is surprisingly abundant in the Earth's crust, being almost as abundant as lead. 12. Combining theory with practical activity D.I. Mendeleyev carried out enormous research in coal, petroleum, iron, and steel industries in Russia. 13. An unstable atomic nucleus decomposes, emitting high-energy particles. 14. The discovery of the cell brought about a revolution in biology, opening up a new field of inquiry into the structure and function of living systems. 80 œ–»◊¿—“»≈ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 20 ¿ œÂÙÂÍÚÌ˚ ÙÓÏ˚ Ô˘‡ÒÚˡ I ‚ ‰ÂÈÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓÏ ËÎË ÒÚ‡‰‡ÚÂθÌÓÏ Á‡ÎÓ„Â (having + V3; having + been + V3), ‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇ˛Ú ÙÛÌÍˆË˛ Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡ ‚ÂÏÂÌË ËÎË Ô˘ËÌ˚ Ë Ô‰‡˛Ú Á̇˜ÂÌË Ô‰¯ÂÒÚ‚Ó‚‡Ìˡ ËÎË Á‡ÍÓ̘ÂÌÌÓÒÚË ‰ÂÈÒڂˡ ÔÓ ÓÚÌÓ¯ÂÌ˲ Í ‰ÂÈÒڂ˲, ‚˚‡ÊÂÌÌÓÏÛ „·„ÓÎÓÏ-Ò͇ÁÛÂÏ˚Ï. ¡ Œ·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚Ó, ‚˚‡ÊÂÌÌÓ ÔÂÙÂÍÚÌ˚ÏË ÙÓχÏË Ô˘‡ÒÚˡ I, Ô‰‡ÂÚÒˇ ̇ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í Ó‰ÌËÏ ËÁ ÒÎÂ‰Û˛˘Ëı ÒÔÓÒÓ·Ó‚: ó ‰ÂÂÔ˘‡ÒÚËÂÏ Òӂ¯ÂÌÌÓ„Ó ‚ˉ‡ ó ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌ˚Ï Ò Ô‰ÎÓ„ÓÏ ó Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚Ï Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚ÂÌÌ˚Ï Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËÂÏ. Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: Having passed through all the body blood enters the right auricle. œÓȉˇ ˜ÂÂÁ ‚ÂÒ¸ Ó„‡ÌËÁÏ... œÓÒΠÔÓıÓʉÂÌˡ ÔÓ ‚ÒÂÏÛ Ó„‡ÌËÁÏÛ... œÓÒΠÚÓ„Ó, Í‡Í ÍÓ‚¸ Ôӯ· ÔÓ ‚ÒÂÏÛ Ó„‡ÌËÁÏÛ... ¬ œÓ‡Ì‡ÎËÁËÛÈÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ, ̇ȉËÚ ˇ‰Ó Ë Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚Ó, ‚˚‡ÊÂÌÌÓ ÔÂÙÂÍÚÌÓÈ ÙÓÏÓÈ Ô˘‡ÒÚˡ I (Ô˘‡ÒÚÌ˚Ï Ó·ÓÓÚÓÏ). œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. Having invaded living cells viruses grow and multiply. ✔ 2. In the infant at birth the entire gastro-intestinal canal is sterile, but remains so for only a few hours, when a number of bacteria appear in faeces, probably having gained access to the intestines by way of the mouth. 81 –¿«ƒ≈À 4 ✔ 3. Having benefited from the medical and nutritional advances of the past ninety years, people are on the average living much longer than their ancestors. 4. Having been formed, the bones continue to grow until the body has acquired its full structure. 5. A hormone is a chemical messenger which, having been formed in one organ or gland, is carried in the blood to another organ or tissue, where it influences activity, growth and nutrition. 6. Having determined the proper blood groups, the blood of the donor and the recipient are directly cross-matched, that is, the red cells of the donor are placed in contact with the serum of the recipient, and vice versa. 82 œ–»◊¿—“»≈ 4.2.1 ÕÂÁ‡‚ËÒËÏ˚È Ô˘‡ÒÚÌ˚È Ó·ÓÓÚ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 21 ¿ ՇȉËÚ ‚ ͇ʉÓÏ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËË ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘ÂÂ Ë Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓÂ, Ë Ú.Ì. ´ÌÂÁ‡‚ËÒËÏ˚È Ô˘‡ÒÚÌ˚È Ó·ÓÓÚª, ÍÓÚÓ˚È ‚Íβ˜‡ÂÚ ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓ (ËÌÓ„‰‡ Ò Ô‰ÎÓ„ÓÏ with) Ë Ô˘‡ÒÚË I Ò ÓÚÌÓÒˇ˘ËÏËÒˇ Í ÌÂÏÛ ÒÎÓ‚‡ÏË; Ô˘ÂÏ ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓÂ, ÒÚÓˇ˘Â Ô‰ Ô˘‡ÒÚËÂÏ, ÌËÍÓ„‰‡ Ì ÒÓ‚Ô‡‰‡ÂÚ Ò ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘ËÏ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. œËÏÂ: Molecules are in constant motion, the motion speeding up or slowing down with an increase or decrease in temperature. ¡ Õ‡ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í ´ÌÂÁ‡‚ËÒËÏ˚È Ô˘‡ÒÚÌ˚È Ó·ÓÕ‡ÔËÏÂ: ÓÚª Ô‰‡ÂÚÒˇ Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜Molecules are in constant motion, the Ì˚Ï Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚ÂÌÌ˚Ï motion speeding up or slowing down with Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËÂÏ ËÎË ÒÓ˜ËÌËan increase or decrease in temperature. ÚÂθÌ˚Ï Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËÂÏ, „‰Â ÃÓÎÂÍÛÎ˚ ̇ıÓ‰ˇÚÒˇ ‚ ÔÓÒÚÓˇÌÌÓÏ ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓ Ô˘‡ÒÚÌÓ‰‚ËÊÂÌËË, Ô˘ÂÏ ‰‚ËÊÂÌË ÛÒÍÓˇÂÚÒˇ „Ó Ó·ÓÓÚ‡ ÒÚ‡ÌÓ‚ËÚÒˇ ÔÓ‰ÎÂËÎË Á‡Ï‰ΡÂÚÒˇ ÔË ÔÓ‚˚¯ÂÌËË ËÎË Ê‡˘ËÏ, ‡ Ô˘‡ÒÚË ó Ò͇ÔÓÌËÊÂÌËË ÚÂÏÔ‡ÚÛ˚. ÁÛÂÏ˚Ï. ƒÎˇ ÔËÒÓ‰ËÌÂÌˡ Ú‡ÍËı Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËÈ Ó·˚˜ÌÓ ËÒÔÓθÁÛ˛ÚÒˇ ÒÎÓ‚‡ ´Ô˘ÂϪ, ´Ëª, ´‡ª, ´ÌÓª. »ÌÓ„‰‡ Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ ӷÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚ÂÌÌ˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ ËÎË ÒÓ˜ËÌËÚÂθÌ˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ ÔËÒÓ‰ËÌˇ˛ÚÒˇ ·ÂÁ ÒÓ˛Á‡. ¬ œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. Botany is one of the two major divisions of biology, the science of life, the other division being zoology, which deals with animals. 2. The Earth coat is the atmosphere which surrounds our planet, the water vapour acting like a layer of cotton wool. 83 –¿«ƒ≈À 4 ✔ 3. With any substance, there are limits to solubility, which may vary with temperature ó hot solvents dissolving more solute than a cold solvent. 4. Phosphates are widely distributed in the body, the largest amounts being in the bones and teeth. 5. All fats are esters of fatty acids and glycerol, the fatty acids accounting for 90 per cent of the molecule of most natural fats. 6. Calcium is the most abundant metal in the human body, the reason being that bone contains a great deal. 7. Magnesium disperses throughout the body, with the most (60%) going into the skeleton where it helps maintain bone structure. 84 œ–»◊¿—“»≈ 8. Enzymes are large, complex proteins and are highly specific, each chemical reaction requiring its own particular enzyme. ✔ 9. Beta-particles are the result of the disintegration of neutrons, their source being the unstable atom of radioactive metals. 10. Belladonna contains several important medicinal alkaloids, the chief one being atropine. 11. Overdoses of vitamins A, D, or K may result in serious disease, the excess vitamins acting like poisons. 12. Ozone is found in trace quantities throughout the atmosphere, the largest concentration being located in a layer in the lower stratosphere. 85 –¿«ƒ≈À 4 13. Although there are thousands of alloys, with many new alloys appearing each year, there are certain traditional alloys that serve the vast majority of material needs. 14. In Linnaeus' classification scheme, called binomial nomenclature, the scientific name of a species is composed of two words, the first being the genus and the second being the species. 4.3 œË˜‡ÒÚË II ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌˡ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 22 ¿ œË˜‡ÒÚË II (V3), ‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇ˛˘Â ÙÛÌÍˆË˛ ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌˡ, ı‡‡ÍÚÂËÁÛÂÚ ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓÂ Ë ÏÓÊÂÚ ÒÚÓˇÚ¸ Í‡Í ‰Ó, Ú‡Í Ë ÔÓÒΠÓÔ‰ÂΡÂÏÓ„Ó ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓ„Ó. œËÏÂ: 1. Polluted air and pure air differ in composition. 2. All oxygen used industrially comes from the air. ¡ œË˜‡ÒÚË II ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌˡ ı‡‡ÍÚÂËÁÛÂÚ Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: ‰ÂÈÒÚ‚ËÂ, ‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇÂÏÓ ‚ ÓÚpolluted air ó Á‡„ˇÁÌ∏ÌÌ˚È ‚ÓÁ‰Ûı ÌÓ¯ÂÌËË ÓÔ‰ÂΡÂÏÓ„Ó ÒÎÓoxygen used ó ÍËÒÎÓÓ‰, ËÒÔÓθÁÛÂÏ˚È = ‚‡, Ú. Â. ËÏÂÂÚ Ô‡ÒÒË‚ÌÓ Á̇ÍËÒÎÓÓ‰, ÍÓÚÓ˚È ËÒÔÓθÁÛÂÚÒˇ ˜ÂÌËÂ, ˜ÚÓ ‚ ÛÒÒÍÓÏ ˇÁ˚Í ÒÓÓÚ‚ÂÚÒÚ‚ÛÂÚ Ô˘‡ÒÚ˲ ÒÚ‡‰‡ÚÂθÌÓ„Ó Á‡ÎÓ„‡ ËÎË Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓÏÛ ÓÔ‰ÂÎËÚÂθÌÓÏÛ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌ˲ ÒÓ Ò͇ÁÛÂÏ˚Ï ‚ ÒÚ‡‰‡ÚÂθÌÓÏ Á‡ÎÓ„Â. 86 œ–»◊¿—“»≈ ¬ œÓ‡Ì‡ÎËÁËÛÈÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ, ̇ȉËÚ Ô˘‡ÒÚË II (Ô˘‡ÒÚÌ˚È Ó·ÓÓÚ) Ë ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓÂ, ÍÓÚÓÓ ËÏ ÓÔ‰ÂΡÂÚÒˇ. œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. Silver dissolved in water kills many harmful bacteria. 2. An element is a substance made up of only one type of atom. 3. Nitrogen gas carried in the atmosphere eventually falls as dissolved inorganic and organic nitrogen. 4. Despite the health risks associated with lead, it was used by doctors for around 2000 years. ✔ 5. Metallic mercury dispersed in fat was used as an ointment for skin complaints. 6. Neutron is a non-charged nuclear particle with the same mass as the proton. 7. Polluted air and pure air differ in composition. 87 –¿«ƒ≈À 4 ✔ 8. Much of the organic matter produced through photosynthesis is eventually used in the building of protoplasm and cell walls. 9. A compound is a pure substance made up of two or more elements in a fixed, characteristic chemical combination and composition. 10. A molecule is a combination of a fixed number of atoms, held together by chemical bonds in certain geometric arrangement. 11. There is enormous amount of information stored in the DNA of a cell. 12. The degree of relaxation produced by sedatives varies with the kind of the drug, the dose, the means of administration, and the mental state of the patient. 13. Cellulose is the most abundant substance found in the plant kingdom. 88 œ–»◊¿—“»≈ 14. The atomic spectra of an element are lines which are present at characteristic wavelengths in the light emitted from an electric arc between electrodes of that element. ✔ 15. Accumulated evidence acquired through repeated experimentation makes possible the formulation of a theory. 16. Bacterial decomposition of the organic matter formed in photosynthesis results in the release of dissolved ammonium, some of which is used directly in photosynthesis. 17. All the life on earth ó human beings, animals and plants ó depend on the heat, light and other kinds of energy given off by the sun. 89 –¿«ƒ≈À 4 4.4 œË˜‡ÒÚË II ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 23 ¿ œË˜‡ÒÚË II (V3) ÏÓÊÂÚ ‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇÚ¸ ÙÛÌÍˆË˛ Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡ Ò‡ÏÓÒÚÓˇÚÂθÌÓ ËÎË ‚ ÒÓÒÚ‡‚ Ô˘‡ÒÚÌÓ„Ó Ó·ÓÓÚ‡ Ë ÏÓÊÂÚ ÒÚÓˇÚ¸ ‰Ó Ë ÔÓÒΠˇ‰‡ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. ü‡Í Ô‡‚ËÎÓ, ÓÌÓ ‚‚Ó‰ËÚÒˇ ÒÓ˛ÁÌ˚ÏË ÒÎÓ‚‡ÏË when, if, whether, Ë ‰. œËÏÂ: 1. When heated albumin hardens into a solid mass. 2. Nitrogen is fatal if breathed alone. ¡ œË˜‡ÒÚÌ˚È Ó·ÓÓÚ Ô‰ÒÚ‡‚ΡÂÚ ÒÓ·ÓÈ ÔÓ ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚Û Í‡ÚÍËÈ ‚‡Ë‡ÌÚ Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓ„Ó Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚ÂÌÌÓ„Ó Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ ÒÓ Ò͇ÁÛÂÏ˚Ï ‚ Ô‡ÒÒË‚ÌÓÏ Á‡ÎÓ„Â. Õ‡ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚ÂÌÌ˚È Ô˘‡ÒÚÌ˚È Ó·ÓÓÚ Ô‚ӉËÚÒˇ ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌ˚Ï Ò Ô‰ÎÓ„ÓÏ ËÎË Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚Ï Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËÂÏ. œËÏÂ: 1. When heated albumin hardens into a solid mass. = When it is heated albumin hardens into a solid mass. 2. Nitrogen is fatal if breathed alone. = Nitrogen is fatal if it is breathed alone. Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: When heated albumin hardens into a solid mass. œË ̇„‚‡ÌËË ‡Î¸·ÛÏËÌ Á‡Ú‚‰‚‡ÂÚ ‚ ÔÎÓÚÌÛ˛ χÒÒÛ. üÓ„‰‡ ‡Î¸·ÛÏËÌ Ì‡„‚‡˛Ú, ÓÌ Á‡Ú‚‰‚‡ÂÚ ‚ ÔÎÓÚÌÛ˛ χÒÒÛ. ¬ œÓ‡Ì‡ÎËÁËÛÈÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ, ̇ȉËÚ ˇ‰Ó Ë Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚Ó, ‚˚‡ÊÂÌÌÓ Ô˘‡ÒÚËÂÏ II (Ô˘‡ÒÚÌ˚Ï Ó·ÓÓÚÓÏ). œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. Titanium becomes brittle when exposed to hydrogen gas. 2. Gallium will melt when held in hand. 3. Hydrogen explodes easily when mixed with air or oxygen. 90 œ–»◊¿—“»≈ 4. When heated, dry ice (solid CO2) becomes a gas. ✔ 5. When taken through the mouth, beryllium compounds may be less toxic. 6. Potassium is silvery when first cut but it oxidizes rapidly in air and tarnishes within minutes. 7. Nitroglycerin is not effective when swallowed. 8. Most poisonous plants are poisonous only when eaten. 9. Zinc is lost from the body at about 1% of the total per day, excreted via the intestines, urine and sweat. 10. Too much fluoride, whether taken in from the soil by roots, or absorbed from the atmosphere by the leaves, retards the growth of plants and reduces crop yields. 91 –¿«ƒ≈À 4 ✔ 11. When injected intravenously, epinephrine causes an immediate and pronounced elevation in blood pressure. 12. When added to steel, carbon forms a wide range of alloys with useful properties. 13. Anesthetics are agents which, when suitably applied, cause a general or localized loss of feeling or sensation. 14. When heated strongly under certain conditions, electrons escape from the metal surface. 15. When poured into a container, liquids take the shape of the container. 16. Nitrogen is not poisonous but is fatal if breathed alone because of oxygen deprivation. 92 œ–»◊¿—“»≈ 17. Glucose that is not needed for energy, is stored in the form of glycogen as a source of potential energy, readily available when needed. 18. Although helium itself has no chemical therapeutic value, when combined with oxygen it facilitates the delivery of this gas to the lungs. ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 24* ¿ ¬ هχˆÂ‚Ú˘ÂÒÕ‡ÔËÏÂ: ÍÓÈ ‰ÓÍÛÏÂÌÚ‡ˆËË ˜‡ÒÚÓ ‚ÒÚ˜‡ÂÚÒˇ Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθDo not use this medicine for more than ten ÒÚ‚ÂÌÌ˚È Ô˘‡ÒÚÌ˚È days unless otherwise directed by your doctor. Ó·ÓÓÚ ´unless otherwise Õ ÔËÌËχÈÚ ˝ÚÓ ÎÂ͇ÒÚ‚Ó ·ÓΠ‰ÂÒˇÚË directed (by your doc‰ÌÂÈ, ÂÒÎË ‚‡˜ Ì ‰‡Î ËÌ˚ı ÂÍÓÏẨ‡ˆËÈ. tor/dentistÖ)ª, ÍÓÚÓ˚È ÓÁ̇˜‡ÂÚ ´ÂÒÎË Ë̇˜Â Ì Ô‰ÔËÒ‡ÌÓ (‚‡¯ËÏ ‚‡˜ÓÏ/ÒÚÓχÚÓÎÓ„ÓÏ...)ª ¡ œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. If this medicine upsets your stomach, take it with food, unless otherwise directed by your doctor. 2. Do not use this medicine more often than recommended on the label, unless otherwise directed by your doctor. 93 –¿«ƒ≈À 4 ✔ 3. Do not give this medicine to children under 13 years of age, unless otherwise directed by your doctor. 4. Take this medicine 15 minutes before meals and at bedtime with a beverage, unless otherwise directed by your doctor. 5. This medicine is best taken on an empty stomach one hour before meals, unless otherwise directed by the doctor. 6. Unless otherwise directed by your doctor, do not take mor of this medicine than is recommended by your doctor. 7. Unless otherwise directed by your dentist, do not drink alcoholic beverages for about 24 hours after you have received a general anesthetic. 94 œ–»◊¿—“»≈ 8. Don't eat anything for 12 hours before the test, unless otherwise directed by your doctor. ✔ 9. Don't take vitamin A while taking this medicine, unless otherwise directed by your doctor. 10. Unless otherwise directed by your health care professional, do not apply this medicine to open wounds, burns, broken or inflamed skin. 11. The liquid is removed by filtration unless otherwise indicated. 12. A parallel control test is conducted in the same conditions unless otherwise specified. 13. Unless otherwise stipulated a residue weighing less than 0.005 g is regarded as weightless. 14. Heparinization should be instituted immediately, unless otherwise contraindicated. 95 –¿«ƒ≈À 4 4.5 ‘ÛÌ͈ËË Ô˘‡ÒÚËÈ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 25 (Ó·ÁÓÌÓÂ) ¿ œÓ‡Ì‡ÎËÁËÛÈÚ ÒÚÛÍÚÛÛ Í‡Ê‰Ó„Ó Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ Ë ÓÔ‰ÂÎËÚÂ Â„Ó ˇ‰Ó. ՇȉËÚ Ô˘‡ÒÚË I Ë Ô˘‡ÒÚË II Ë ÓÔ‰ÂÎËÚ Ëı ÙÛÌ͈ËË. ¡ œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. In nature, many molecules lose or gain electrons, becoming positively charged particles called ions. 2. If kept in an atmosphere devoid of oxygen many plant tissues continue to release carbon dioxide. ✔ 3. Copper and nickel, both having good electrical conductivity, form solid-solution type alloys having very low conductivity, making them useful as electrical resistance wires. 96 œ–»◊¿—“»≈ 4. Having discovered helium and argon, W. Ramsay (1852ñ1916) was convinced that he had stumbled upon a new group of elements of the periodic table, and so knew that there must be others. ✔ 5. Excessive fluid loss produces volume deficit causing cellular dehydration and impaired cellular function. 6. One of the causes of ozone destruction is a series of reactions involving water vapour and its breakdown products. 7. Nitrous oxide, originally prepared by Prienstly in 1772 and known as ´laughing gasª was first used for its anesthetic properties by H. Davy in 1800. 8. Lithium chloride is one of the most water absorbing solids known. 97 –¿«ƒ≈À 4 9. The oldest known sample of mercury, contained in a coconut-shaped vessel, was found in an ancient Egyptian tomb, which dated from around 1600 BC. 10. In certain localities the amount of radon escaping from the ground, or from the building constructed of granite, is much higher than average and this can accumulate indoors, putting the occupants at risk. 11. Being embedded in the nutrient tissue of the seed and surrounded by a protective seed coat, the developing plant embryo can withstand the rigors of environmental change and germinate only when conditions are favorable. 12. The body does not tolerate differences in osmotic pressure. Thus, whenever there is an imbalance in the concentration of fluids, there is shifting of the fluids, with water moving from less concentrated fluids, to the more concentrated until equilibrium is established. 98 √≈–”Õƒ»… –‡Á‰ÂÎ 5. √ÂÛ̉ËÈ (The Gerund) √ÂÛ̉ËÈ ó ˝ÚÓ ÌÂ΢̇ˇ ÙÓχ „·„Ó·, ÍÓÚÓ‡ˇ ÔÓ ÙÓÏ ÒÓ‚Ô‡‰‡ÂÚ Ò Ô˘‡ÒÚËÂÏ I (Ving), Ӊ̇ÍÓ ‚ ÓÚ΢ˠÓÚ ÌÂ„Ó Ó·Î‡‰‡ÂÚ ‰Û„ËÏ ÍÓÏÔÎÂÍÒÓÏ ÔËÁ̇ÍÓ‚. √ÂÛ̉ËÈ ËÏÂÂÚ „·„ÓθÌ˚ ı‡‡ÍÚÂËÒÚËÍË (Á‡ÎÓ„, ‡ÒÔÂÍÚ, ̇΢ˠ‰ÓÔÓÎÌËÚÂθÌ˚ı ÒÎÓ‚), ‡ Ú‡ÍÊ ÌÂÍÓÚÓ˚ ÔËÁ̇ÍË ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓ„Ó, Ú.Â. ÏÓÊÂÚ: ó ÓÔ‰ÂÎˇÚ¸Òˇ ÏÂÒÚÓËÏÂÌˡÏË ËÎË ‰Û„ËÏË ÒÎÓ‚‡ÏË, ó ·˚Ú¸ ˜‡ÒÚ¸˛ ÒÓÒÚ‡‚ÌÓ„Ó ËÏÂÌÌÓ„Ó Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ„Ó, ó ‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇÚ¸ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â„Ó Ë ‰ÓÔÓÎÌÂÌˡ, ó ‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇÚ¸ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌˡ Ë Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡ („‰Â ‚Ò„‰‡ ËÒÔÓθÁÛÂÚÒˇ Ò Ô‰ÎÓ„ÓÏ). √ÂÛ̉ËÈ Ò ÓÚÌÓÒˇ˘ËÏËÒˇ Í ÌÂÏÛ ÒÎÓ‚‡ÏË Ó·‡ÁÛÂÚ „ÂÛ̉ˇθÌ˚È Ó·ÓÓÚ. 5.1 √ÂÛ̉ËÈ ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â„Ó ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 26 ¿ √ÂÛ̉ËÈ ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â„Ó ‚Ò„‰‡ ÒÚÓËÚ ‚ ̇˜‡Î Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ Ë Òӄ·ÒÛÂÚÒˇ Ò „·„ÓÎÓÏ-Ò͇ÁÛÂÏ˚Ï ‚ 3-Ï Îˈ ‰ËÌÒÚ‚ÂÌÌÓ„Ó ˜ËÒ·. ¡ Õ‡ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í „ÂÛ̉ËÈ ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â„Ó (‚ Ú.˜. ‚ ÒÓÒÚ‡‚ „ÂÛ̉ˇθÌÓ„Ó Ó·ÓÓÚ‡), Í‡Í Ô‡‚ËÎÓ, Ô‚ӉËÚÒˇ ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌ˚Ï. œËÏÂ: Taking too much of this medicine increases the chance of side effects. Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: Taking too much of this medicine increases the chance of side effects. ”ÔÓÚ·ÎÂÌË ‰‡ÌÌÓ„Ó ÎÂ͇ÒÚ‚‡ ‚ Á̇˜ËÚÂθÌ˚ı ÍÓ΢ÂÒÚ‚‡ı Û‚Â΢˂‡ÂÚ ¯‡ÌÒ ‚ÓÁÌËÍÌÓ‚ÂÌˡ ÔÓ·Ó˜Ì˚ı ˝ÙÙÂÍÚÓ‚. ¬ ՇȉËÚ ˇ‰Ó Í‡Ê‰Ó„Ó Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ, „‰Â ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â ‚˚‡ÊÂÌÓ „ÂÛ̉ˇθÌ˚Ï Ó·ÓÓÚÓÏ, Ë ÓÔ‰ÂÎËÚÂ, Ò Í‡ÍËÏ Ò͇ÁÛÂÏ˚Ï ÓÌÓ Òӄ·ÒÛÂÚÒˇ. œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. Storing lithium is a problem. 2. Adding a little neodymium metal to magnesium alloys greatly strengthens them. 99 –¿«ƒ≈À 5 ✔ 3. Getting enough light and raw materials for growth is important for survival of any plant. 4. Drinking extra water will help prevent some unwanted effects of sulfa medicines. 5. Giving drugs with food may reduce bioactivity, enhance absorption or have no or little effect. 6. Prescribing adult medications for kids remains more art than science. 7. Taking too much of this medicine may increase the chance of side effects, while taking too little may not improve your condition. 8. Taking extra potassium can reduce blood pressure increasing sodium excretion. 9. Changing from once-a-day to twice-a-day administration (of the drug) may eliminate or reduce the severity of side effects. 100 √≈–”Õƒ»… 5.2 √ÂÛ̉ËÈ ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ‰ÓÔÓÎÌÂÌˡ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 27 ¿ √ÂÛ̉ˇθÌ˚È Ó·ÓÓÚ ÏÓÊÂÚ ‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇÚ¸ ÙÛÌÍˆË˛ ÔˇÏÓ„Ó ËÎË ÍÓÒ‚ÂÌÌÓ„Ó (Ô‰ÎÓÊÌÓ„Ó) ‰ÓÔÓÎÌÂÌˡ, ÍÓÚÓÓ ÓÚÌÓÒËÚÒˇ Í „·„ÓÎÛ-Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓÏÛ Ë ‚Ò„‰‡ ÒÚÓËÚ ÔÓÒΠ̄Ó. ¡ Õ‡ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í „ÂÛ̉ËÈ („ÂÛ̉ˇθÌ˚È Ó·ÓÓÚ) ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ‰ÓÔÓÎÌÂÌˡ, Í‡Í Ô‡‚ËÎÓ, Ô‚ӉËÚÒˇ ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌ˚Ï, ÎË·Ó Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚Ï Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËÂÏ. œËÏÂ: Technetium is unusual in being a relatively light element. Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: 1) Technetium is unusual in being a relatively light element. “Âı̈ËÈ ÌÂÓ·˚˜ÂÌ ÚÂÏ, ˜ÚÓ ˇ‚ΡÂÚÒˇ Ò‡‚ÌËÚÂθÌÓ Î∏„ÍËÏ ˝ÎÂÏÂÌÚÓÏ. 2) The effective therapy depends on maintaining a stable level of the drug in the serum. ›ÙÙÂÍÚË‚ÌÓÒÚ¸ ΘÂÌˡ Á‡‚ËÒËÚ ÓÚ ÔÓ‰‰ÂʇÌˡ ÔÓÒÚÓˇÌÌÓÈ ÍÓ̈ÂÌÚ‡ˆËË ‰‡ÌÌÓ„Ó ÔÂÔ‡‡Ú‡ ‚ Ò˚‚ÓÓÚÍ ÍÓ‚Ë. ¬ œÓ‡Ì‡ÎËÁËÛÈÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ, ̇ȉËÚ „ÂÛ̉ˇθÌ˚È Ó·ÓÓÚ, ‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇ˛˘ËÈ ÙÛÌÍˆË˛ ‰ÓÔÓÎÌÂÌˡ. œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. This element is suspected of being carcinogenic for some animals. 2. Many of these substances have been very useful in studying the mechanism of these processes. 3. Animals obtain their nitrogen from eating plants or other animals. 4. Effective antimicrobial therapy depends on maintaining an optimum and stable level of the drug in the serum and body tissues. 101 –¿«ƒ≈À 5 ✔ 5. Technetium is a radioactive metal that is unusual in being a relatively light element, yet having no stable isotopes. 6. The reactions often result in new molecules being formed. 7. Diabetes mellitus is a disease which results from insufficient insulin being produced by the special cells in the pancreas. 8. The work being done at present in the laboratory is aimed at solving such problems as blood clotting and infection. 9. Women being treated with this drug should avoid breastfeeding. 10. In the US alone, some 14,000 people are infected and die each year from drugresistant microbes being picked up in hospitals. 102 √≈–”Õƒ»… 5.3 √ÂÛ̉ËÈ ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌˡ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 28 ¿ √ÂÛ̉ËÈ („ÂÛ̉ˇθÌ˚È Ó·ÓÓÚ) ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌˡ ‚Ò„‰‡ ÒÚÓËÚ ÔÓÒΠÓÔ‰ÂΡÂÏÓ„Ó ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓ„Ó Ë ‚Ò„‰‡ ËÏÂÂÚ Ô‰ÎÓ„. ¡ Õ‡ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í „ÂÛ̉ËÈ ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌˡ, Í‡Í Ô‡‚ËÎÓ, Ô‚ӉËÚÒˇ ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌ˚Ï, ËÌÓ„‰‡ Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚Ï Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËÂÏ. œËÏÂ: There are various methods of purifying water. Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: There are various methods of purifying water. —Û˘ÂÒÚ‚Û˛Ú ‡Á΢Ì˚ ÒÔÓÒÓ·˚ Ó˜ËÒÚÍË ‚Ó‰˚. ¬ œÓ‡Ì‡ÎËÁËÛÈÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ, ̇ȉËÚ „ÂÛ̉ˇθÌ˚È Ó·ÓÓÚ, ‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇ˛˘ËÈ ÙÛÌÍˆË˛ ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌˡ. ”͇ÊËÚÂ, ͇ÍÓ ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓ ÓÔ‰ÂΡÂÚÒˇ „ÂÛ̉ˇθÌ˚Ï Ó·ÓÓÚÓÏ. œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. There are various methods of purifying organic compounds. ✔ 2. In extremely dry climates plants have special ways of absorbing and storing water. 3. All methods of measuring temperature changes are based on the ways in which materials change physically when heated. 103 –¿«ƒ≈À 5 ✔ 4. The atoms of most elements have the property of binding to other atoms of the same or different elements and forming new combinations. 5. R. Boyle (1627ñ91) introduced many new methods of determining the identity and chemical composition of substances. 6. Iron is essential to almost all living things, from micro-organisms to humans, but this does not exclude the possibility of its being poisonous in excess. 7. Today the carbon cycle is in danger of being disrupted by the increased consumption and burning of fossil fuels. 8. Enzymes often have the important property of being very specific, that is they only attack certain types of molecules. 104 √≈–”Õƒ»… 5.4 √ÂÛ̉ËÈ ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 29 ¿ √ÂÛ̉ˇθÌ˚È Ó·ÓÓÚ, ÍÓÚÓ˚È ‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇÂÚ ‚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËË ÙÛÌÍˆË˛ Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡, ÏÓÊÂÚ ÒÚÓˇÚ¸ Í‡Í ‰Ó, Ú‡Í Ë ÔÓÒΠˇ‰‡ Ë ‚Ò„‰‡ ‚‚Ó‰ËÚÒˇ Ô‰ÎÓ„ÓÏ (by, in, after, before, on, at, without, for Ë ‰.). ¡ Õ‡ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í „ÂÛ̉ËÈ ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡ Ô‚ӉËÚÒˇ ÎË·Ó ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌ˚Ï Ò Ô‰ÎÓ„ÓÏ, ÎË·Ó ‰ÂÂÔ˘‡ÒÚËÂÏ, ÎË·Ó Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚Ï Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚ÂÌÌ˚Ï Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËÂÏ. œËÏÂ: 1. By mixing different metals alloys can be created. 2. Vitamin B1 is easily lost by dissolving in the cooking water. Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: By mixing different metals alloys can be created. œÛÚÂÏ ÒÓ‰ËÌÂÌˡ ‡Á΢Ì˚ı ÏÂÚ‡ÎÎÓ‚... œË ÒÓ‰ËÌÂÌËË ‡Á΢Ì˚ı ÏÂÚ‡ÎÎÓ‚Ö —Ó‰ËÌˇˇ ‡Á΢Ì˚ ÏÂÚ‡ÎÎ˚Ö üÓ„‰‡ ÒÓ‰ËÌˇ˛Ú ‡Á΢Ì˚ ÏÂÚ‡ÎÎ˚Ö ¬ œÓ‡Ì‡ÎËÁËÛÈÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ, ̇ȉËÚ ˇ‰Ó Ë „ÂÛ̉ˇθÌ˚È Ó·ÓÓÚ, ÍÓÚÓ˚È ‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇÂÚ ÙÛÌÍˆË˛ Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡. œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. By mixing different metals in different amounts, alloys can be created with a wide range of properties. 2. Thiamine (vitamin B1) is easily destroyed by cooking and may also be lost by dissolving in the cooking water. 3. Wash your hands before and after using this medicine. 105 –¿«ƒ≈À 5 ✔ 4. Local anesthetics act by altering the permeability of the nerve cell to sodium ions and thus blocking the conduction of nerve impulses. 5. Some desert plants have met the problem of water supply by confining their active life to the short rainy season. 6. Osmotic diuretics produce a very rapid loss of sodium and water by inhibiting their reabsorption in the kidney tubules. 7. Concrete is very useful because it is very hard and can withstand enormous pressures without breaking or cracking. 8. Most lead passes through the body without being digested. 9. Most aluminum in food passes through the gut without being digested. 106 √≈–”Õƒ»… 10. By using the laws of genetics, breeders often can produce plants which combine the best features of different kinds of related plants. ✔ 11. The kidneys maintain bicarbonate levels by filtering bicarbonate and returning it to the blood. 12. After being swallowed, injected, inhaled or absorbed through the skin, most drugs enter the bloodstream and circulate through the body. “ÂÍÒÚ˚ ‰Îˇ ÚÂÌËÓ‚Ó˜ÌÓ„Ó Ô‚Ӊ‡ Í –‡Á‰ÂÎ‡Ï 4, 5 1. Up to about 110 million years ago, non-flowering plants were dominant. Today, fewer than twenty percent of known living plants are non-flowering plants. 107 –¿«ƒ≈À 5 2. Each atom has a tiny nucleus consisting of particles called neutrons, which have no electrical charges. The positive electric charges of protons balance the negative charges of electrons, making the atom electrically neutral. 3. Some elements, such as hydrogen do not exist in independent atomic form. Hydrogen for instance consists of atoms combined in pairs (H2). Such combinations of atoms are known as molecules ó which can be made up of similar or dissimilar elements. 4. The nucleus is a protected environment within the cell where the genes are stored in the form of specific DNA sequences. These genes are organized into units called chromosomes. Each type of chromosomes has characteristic genes lined up end-to-end. 108 √≈–”Õƒ»… 5. The stimulants affect the central nervous system, producing increased physical and mental activity, excitability, and prevention of sleep. Prolonged use of these drugs can lead to acute toxic psychosis accompanied by hallucinations and delusions. 6. The safest and the most effective initial drug for rheumatoid disease is aspirin. It is the most potent anti-inflammatory agent when given at dosages that achieve a serum level of 20ñ30 mg/100ml. For those who suffer stomach upset or other gastrointestinal side effects from aspirin, enteric-coated tablets or antacid mixtures of aspirin are available. 7. In the Periodic Table nickel is situated next to iron and cobalt. Having many properties in common, these elements are sometimes referred to the iron triad. Out of the 104 elements known to science today only the members of the iron triad are characterized by ferromagnetic properties under ordinary conditions. 109 –¿«ƒ≈À 5 8. Early humans obtained the food by gathering fruits and vegetables and hunting animals without using weapons. Food was their most natural resource. However, because the supply of food was not reliable, finding it took up most of their lives. Eventually people developed techniques of growing food and tools made out of stone and later, metal. 9. A tree must support the canopy that gives it life. There is a problem of pumping the water, lifting against gravity from soil to sky. This requires energy, yet plants have no moving parts, like the heart of the animal, that can supply the pumping energy needed. The force is provided instead by evaporation. 110 √≈–”Õƒ»… 10. Alcohols in free form are not a common occurrence in nature; they are found mainly in the essential or volatile oils obtained from the flowers, leaves, and stems of plants. Chiefly, these are a group of monohydric primary alcohols with carbon chains of 7 to 12 atoms. More complex alcohols with branched structures and unsaturated linkages are found in rose and geranium oils. 11. Hales (1677ñ1761) began the study of the functional activity of plants, and his work was the most important in that department until the 19th century. He measured the amount of water taken in by the roots and given off by the leaves, comparing this with the amount of moisture in the earth and showing the relationship of one to another. His most important contribution for botanical physiology was perhaps his demonstration that the air contributes something to the building up of the substance of plants. 111 –¿«ƒ≈À 6 –‡Á‰ÂÎ 6. »ÌÙËÌËÚË‚ (The Infinitive) »ÌÙËÌËÚË‚ ó ˝ÚÓ ÌÂ΢̇ˇ (Ú. Ì. ´ÌÂÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌ̇ˇª) ÙÓχ „·„Ó·, Óڂ˜‡˛˘‡ˇ ̇ ‚ÓÔÓÒ ´˜ÚÓ ‰Â·ڸ?ª ËÎË ´˜ÚÓ Ò‰Â·ڸ?ª. »ÌÙËÌËÚË‚ ˇ‚ΡÂÚÒˇ ÓÒÌÓ‚ÌÓÈ ÙÓÏÓÈ „·„Ó·, ÓÚ ÍÓÚÓÓÈ Ó·‡ÁÛ˛ÚÒˇ Â„Ó ÙÓÏ˚: Vs, Ved, Ving. ‘ÓχθÌ˚Ï ÔËÁ̇ÍÓÏ ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚‡ ‡Ì„ÎËÈÒÍÓ„Ó „·„Ó· ˇ‚ΡÂÚÒˇ ˜‡ÒÚˈ‡ ´toª. ü‡Í Ë Î˛·‡ˇ ÌÂ΢̇ˇ ÙÓχ „·„Ó·, ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚ ÒÓ˜ÂÚ‡ÂÚ ‚ Ò· ÔËÁ̇ÍË ‡Á΢Ì˚ı ˜‡ÒÚÂÈ Â˜Ë. ƒÎˇ ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚‡ ˝ÚÓ Ò‚ÓÈÒÚ‚‡ „·„Ó· (Á‡ÎÓ„, ‡ÒÔÂÍÚ, ̇΢ˠ‰ÓÔÓÎÌÂÌˡ) Ë ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓ„Ó (ÏÓÊÂÚ ‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇÚ¸ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â„Ó Ë ‰ÓÔÓÎÌÂÌˡ, ˇ‚ÎˇÚ¸Òˇ ˜‡ÒÚ¸˛ Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ„Ó). »ÌÙËÌËÚË‚ ÏÓÊÂÚ ‚˚ÒÚÛÔ‡Ú¸ ‚ ÓÎË ‚ÒÂı ˜‡ÒÚÂÈ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ, Ú. Â. ÍÓÏ Û͇Á‡ÌÌ˚ı ‚˚¯Â, ÏÓÊÂÚ ‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇÚ¸ Ú‡ÍÊ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌˡ, Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡. 6.1 »ÌÙËÌËÚË‚ ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â„Ó, ˜‡ÒÚË ÒÓÒÚ‡‚ÌÓ„Ó Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ„Ó Ë ‰ÓÔÓÎÌÂÌˡ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 30 ¿ ¬ ‰‡ÌÌ˚ı ÔËχı ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚ ‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇÂÚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â„Ó, ˜‡ÒÚË ÒÓÒÚ‡‚ÌÓ„Ó Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ„Ó Ë ‰ÓÔÓÎÌÂÌˡ. œËÏÂ: 1. To maintain normal acid-base balance is the main task of the kidneys. 2. The aim of the publication is to present up-to-date views on the fundamental concepts in biology. 3. Alchemists were trying to turn ordinary metals into gold. ¡ Õ‡ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚, ‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇ˛˘ËÈ ‰‡ÌÌ˚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË, Ô‚ӉËÚÒˇ, Í‡Í Ô‡‚ËÎÓ, ÌÂÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌÌÓÈ ÙÓÏÓÈ „·„Ó·, ‡ ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â„Ó ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚ ̉ÍÓ Ô‚ӉˇÚ ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌ˚Ï. Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: 1) To maintain normal acid-base balance is the main task of the kidneys. œÓ‰‰ÂʇÌË ÌÓχθÌÓ„Ó ÍËÒÎÓÚÌÓ-˘ÂÎÓ˜ÌÓ„Ó ·‡Î‡ÌÒ‡ ˇ‚ΡÂÚÒˇ ÓÒÌÓ‚ÌÓÈ ÙÛÌ͈ËÂÈ ÔÓ˜ÂÍ. œÓ‰‰ÂÊË‚‡Ú¸ ÌÓχθÌ˚È ÍËÒÎÓÚÌÓ-˘ÂÎÓ˜ÌÓÈ ·‡Î‡ÌÒ ó ÓÒÌӂ̇ˇ ÙÛÌÍˆËˇ ÔÓ˜ÂÍ. 2) The aim of the publication is to present up-to-date views on the fundamental concepts in biology. ÷Âθ ‰‡ÌÌÓÈ ÔÛ·ÎË͇ˆËË Á‡Íβ˜‡ÂÚÒˇ ‚ ÚÓÏ, ˜ÚÓ·˚ Ô‰ÒÚ‡‚ËÚ¸ ÒÓ‚ÂÏÂÌÌ˚ ‚Á„Ρ‰˚ ̇ ·‡ÁÓ‚˚ ÔÓÌˇÚˡ ‚ ·ËÓÎÓ„ËË. 3) Alchemists were trying to turn ordinary metals into gold. ¿ÎıËÏËÍË ÒÚÂÏËÎËÒ¸ Ô‚‡ÚËÚ¸ ÔÓÒÚ˚ ÏÂÚ‡ÎÎ˚ ‚ ÁÓÎÓÚÓ. 112 »Õ‘»Õ»“»¬ ¬ œÓ‡Ì‡ÎËÁËÛÈÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ, ̇ȉËÚ ‚ ÌËı ˇ‰Ó Ë ÓÔ‰ÂÎËÚÂ, ͇ÍÛ˛ ÙÛÌÍˆË˛ ‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇÂÚ ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚. œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. Liquid is constantly trying to flow. 2. One answer to pollution is to reduce wastes. 3. Hot gases in the sun have high pressure and try to expand. 4. During the 1700s scientists began to investigate the gases that make up the air. 5. The use of fire enabled people to change the properties of substances and to create new substances. ✔ 6. Through photosynthesis, plants are able to combine carbon dioxide and water into high-energy carbohydrates. 7. The sun will continue to be a source of our energy needs for at least 5 billion years. 113 –¿«ƒ≈À 6 ✔ 8. To determine the proportions of various chemical elements present in the human body is comparatively simple. 9. Shortage of water in the body begins to cause obvious changes when the water is reduced by about 10 per cent. 10. The central role of DNA in life processes began to be studied in detail in the late 1920s. 11. To develop a vaccine against any parasite is a long-term effort that can take 20 to 30 years. 12. Cholera vaccine is to be administered only by or under the supervision of a doctor. 13. To make mathematics into a science has been the privilege of Greeks. 14. Physicians advise to eat food with good things in them ó vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients. 114 »Õ‘»Õ»“»¬ 6.2 —ÎÓÊÌÓ ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 31 ¿ »ÌÙËÌËÚË‚ ÏÓÊÂÚ ‚ıÓ‰ËÚ¸ ‚ ÒÓÒÚ‡‚ Ú. Ì. œËÏÂ: ´ÒÎÓÊÌÓ„Ó ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘ÂAt very high magnification, the plasma membrane „Óª. ŒÌÓ ÒÓÒÚÓËÚ ËÁ ‰‚Ûı 1-ˇ ˜‡ÒÚ¸ ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â„Ó ˜‡ÒÚÂÈ: (1) ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚Ëis seen to have three layers. ÚÂθÌÓ„Ó ‚ Ó·˘ÂÏ Ô‡‰ÂÒ͇ÁÛÂÏÓ 2-ˇ ˜‡ÒÚ¸ ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â„Ó Ê ËÎË ÏÂÒÚÓËÏÂÌˡ ‚ ËÏÂÌËÚÂθÌÓÏ Ô‡‰ÂÊÂ Ë (2) ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚‡ ‚ ‡ÍÚË‚ÌÓÈ ËÎË Ô‡ÒÒË‚ÌÓÈ ÙÓÏÂ. ÃÂÊ‰Û ‰‚ÛÏˇ ˜‡ÒÚˇÏË ÒÎÓÊÌÓ„Ó ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â„Ó Ì‡ıÓ‰ËÚÒˇ Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ, ÍÓÚÓÓ ÏÓÊÂÚ ·˚Ú¸ ‚˚‡ÊÂÌÓ, ̇ÔËÏÂ, „·„Ó·ÏË ÙËÁ˘ÂÒÍÓ„Ó Ë ÛÏÒÚ‚ÂÌÌÓ„Ó ‚ÓÒÔˡÚˡ ‚ ÒÚ‡‰‡ÚÂθÌÓÏ Á‡ÎÓ„Â. ¡ Õ‡ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í Ú‡ÍË Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ Ô‚ӉˇÚÒˇ, Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: ̇˜Ë̇ˇ ÒÓ Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ„Ó, ÌÂÓAt very high magnification, the plasma Ô‰ÂÎÂÌÌÓ-΢Ì˚ÏË Ô‰membrane is seen to have three layers. ÎÓÊÂÌˡÏË ËÎË ‚‚Ó‰Ì˚ÏË œË Ó˜Â̸ ÒËθÌÓÏ Û‚Â΢ÂÌËË ‚ˉÌÓ, ˜ÚÓ ÒÎÓ‚‡ÏË, ÔË ˝ÚÓÏ 1-ˇ ˜‡ÒÚ¸ Ô·ÁÏÂÌ̇ˇ ÏÂÏ·‡Ì‡ ËÏÂÂÚ ÚË ÒÎÓˇ. ÒÎÓÊÌÓ„Ó ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â„Ó ÒÚ‡ÌÓ‚ËÚÒˇ ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘ËÏ, ‡ ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚ (2-ˇ ˜‡ÒÚ¸) ó Ò͇ÁÛÂÏ˚Ï ÛÒÒÍÓ„Ó Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. ¬ ՇȉËÚ ‚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡı ÍÓÌÒÚÛÍˆË˛ ´—ÎÓÊÌÓ ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Âª. œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. The atoms are known to be compounds of electron, proton, and neutron. 2. Manganese is believed to be essential in animals for utilization of vitamin B1. 3. Riboflavin (vitamin B12) deficiency is believed to be one of the most common vitamin deficiency diseases. 115 –¿«ƒ≈À 6 ✔ 4. Silicon is known to be more plentiful than carbon in the earth's crust. 5. The original ´vitamin Bª was found to be a group of vitamins, each differing chemically and each individually important in the body. 6. Atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide and ozone-depleting chemicals are expected to increase at rates that could alter the world's climate significantly by 2050. 7. Caffeine is not expected to cause different side effects or problems in children than it does in adults. 8. Liquid chlorine has been found to be the most effective water disinfectant. 9. The nucleic acids have been shown to be widely distributed in living tissues. 116 »Õ‘»Õ»“»¬ 10. Cobalt compounds are generally thought to be of low toxicity but they may affect the thyroid and damage the heart. ✔ 11. Transfusions of magnesium salts are reported to reduce the number of deaths among people suffering heart attacks. 12. The properties, valences and weights of elements are now known to result from the arrangement of subatomic particles within the atom. 13. Mercury was thought by the alchemists to be the key to transforming other metals into gold. 14. When used properly, these medicines have not been shown to cause problems in humans. 117 –¿«ƒ≈À 6 ✔ 15. A deficiency of selenium is said to be linked to all kinds of conditions: anemia, high blood pressure, cancer, arthritis, muscular dystrophy and multiple sclerosis. 16. When the reaction is accompanied by the release of heat it is said to be exothermic. 17. This medicine has been tested in children and has not been reported to cause different side effects. ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 32 ¿ ՇȉËÚ ÍÓÌÒÚÛÍˆË˛ ´—ÎÓÊÌÓ ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Âª. Œ·‡ÚËÚ ‚ÌËχÌËÂ, ˜ÚÓ Ò͇ÁÛÂÏ˚ ‚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡı ‚˚‡ÊÂÌ˚ ÎË·Ó „·„ÓÎÓÏ to be + ÔË·„‡ÚÂθÌÓ ÒÓ Á̇˜ÂÌËÂÏ ‡ÁÌÓÈ ÒÚÂÔÂÌË ‚ÂÓˇÚÌÓÒÚË (likely, sure, certain ó ´‚ÂÓˇÚÌÓª, ´Ì‡‚ÂÌˇÍ‡ª, ´ÌÂÒÓÏÌÂÌÌÓª), ÎË·Ó ˇ‰ÓÏ „·„ÓÎÓ‚ ‚ ‰ÂÈÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓÏ Á‡ÎÓ„Â ÒÓ Á̇˜ÂÌËÂÏ ´Í‡Á‡Ú¸Òˇ, Ó͇Á˚‚‡Ú¸Òˇª: appear, seem, prove, happen, turn out. ¡ Õ‡ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í Ú‡ÍË Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ Ô‚ӉˇÚÒˇ Òӄ·ÒÌÓ Ô‡‚ËÎÛ, Ú. Â. Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ Ô‰‡ÂÚÒˇ ÌÂÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌÌÓ-΢Ì˚Ï Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËÂÏ ËÎË ‚‚Ó‰Ì˚ÏË ÒÎÓ‚‡ÏË, ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓ (1-ˇ ˜‡ÒÚ¸ ÒÎÓÊÌÓ„Ó ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â„Ó) ÒÚ‡ÌÓ‚ËÚÒˇ ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘ËÏ, ‡ ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚ (2-ˇ ˜‡ÒÚ¸) ó Ò͇ÁÛÂÏ˚Ï ÛÒÒÍÓ„Ó Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: 1) Iodine appears to be a trace element essential to animal and vegetable life. …Ó‰, Í‡Í Ó͇Á˚‚‡ÂÚÒˇ, ˇ‚ΡÂÚÒˇ ‚‡ÊÌ˚Ï ÏËÍÓ˝ÎÂÏÂÌÚÓÏ ‰Îˇ ÊË‚ÓÚÌ˚ı Ë ‡ÒÚÂÌËÈ. 2) These drugs are likely to produce serious side effects in some patients. ¬ÂÓˇÚÌÓ, ˜ÚÓ ˝ÚË ÎÂ͇ÒÚ‚‡ ‚˚ÁÓ‚ÛÚ Û ÌÂÍÓÚÓ˚ı Ô‡ˆËÂÌÚÓ‚ Ò¸∏ÁÌ˚ ÔÓ·Ó˜Ì˚ ‰ÂÈÒڂˡ. 118 »Õ‘»Õ»“»¬ ¬ ՇȉËÚ ‚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡı ÍÓÌÒÚÛÍˆË˛ ´—ÎÓÊÌÓ ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Âª. œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. The presence of boron in extremely small amounts seems to be necessary in nearly all forms of plant life. 2. Boracite occurs in crystals, which appear to be isometric in external form. 3. Potassium appears to play an essential role in the water economy of plant, through the action of its soluble compounds on osmotic pressure. 4. The shape of the protein turns out to be closely related to its properties and functions. ✔ 5. Argon turned out to be not quite so chemically inert as had always been assumed. 6. Heavy water proved to be dead in real sense of the word, for it cannot sustain life. 119 –¿«ƒ≈À 6 ✔ 7. Many vitamins of the B-complex appear to operate as hormones in plants. 8. The biochemical pathway along which respiration proceeds appears to be the same or very similar in most kinds of plant and animal cells. 9. Vacuoles appear to be universally present in living plant cells. 10. Some enzymes appear to consist solely of protein molecules. 11. Many kinds of plant cells appear to possess a capacity of accumulating salts. 12. Some twenty different amino acids occur in proteins and each protein molecule is likely to contain all of them arranged in a variety of sequence. 13. The modern Western diet is more likely to be deficient in zinc then in iron. 120 »Õ‘»Õ»“»¬ 14. Potassium deficiency is unlikely to be caused by an unbalanced diet, because most food contains a good supply of potassium. ✔ 15. Elderly patients may be more likely to get thyroid problems with this medicine. 16. Stomach problems may be more likely to occur if you drink alcoholic beverages while being treated with this medicine. 17. The drugs used in antineoplastic therapy are highly toxic and likely to produce troublesome and sometimes extremely dangerous reactions. 18. In plants there does not appear to be antibody production, however, there is a native immunity to disease. 121 –¿«ƒ≈À 6 6.3 —ÎÓÊÌÓ ‰ÓÔÓÎÌÂÌË ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 33 ¿ »ÌÙËÌËÚË‚ ÏÓÊÂÚ ‚ıÓ‰ËÚ¸ ‚ œËÏÂ: ÒÓÒÚ‡‚ Ú. Ì. ´ÒÎÓÊÌÓ„Ó ‰ÓÔÓÎÌÂAncient philosophers thought all things Ìˡª. ŒÌÓ ÒÓÒÚÓËÚ ËÁ ‰‚Ûı ˜‡ÒÚÂÈ: (1) ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓ„Ó ‚ Ó·to be made of four elements. ˘ÂÏ Ô‡‰ÂÊ (ËÎË ÏÂÒÚÓËÏÂÌˡ ‚ Ó·˙ÂÍÚÌÓÏ Ô‡‰ÂÊÂ) Ë (2) ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚‡ Ò ˜‡ÒÚˈÂÈ ´tÓª ËÎË ·ÂÁ ÌÂÂ. ¡ Õ‡ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í Ú‡Í‡ˇ ÍÓÌÒÚÛÍˆËˇ Ô‚ӉËÚÒˇ ‡Á‚ÂÌÛÚ˚Ï Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚Ï ‰ÓÔÓÎÌËÚÂθÌ˚Ï Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËÂÏ Ò ÒÓ˛Á‡ÏË: ´˜ÚÓª, ´˜ÚÓ·˚ª, ´Í‡Íª. œÓÒΠ„·„ÓÎÓ‚ ÒÓ Á̇˜ÂÌËÂÏ ÔËÌÛʉÂÌˡ, ‡Á¯ÂÌˡ, Á‡ÔÂÚ‡ (to cause, to let, to make, to order Ë ‰.) ÒÎÓÊÌÓ ‰ÓÔÓÎÌÂÌË ÏÓÊÂÚ Ô‚ӉËÚ¸Òˇ ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌ˚Ï ËÎË ÌÂÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌÌÓÈ ÙÓÏÓÈ „·„Ó·, ‡ Ì Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚Ï Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËÂÏ. Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: 1) Ancient philosophers thought all things to be made of four elements. ƒÂ‚ÌË ÙËÎÓÒÓÙ˚ Ò˜ËÚ‡ÎË, ˜ÚÓ ‚Ò∏ ‚ ÏË ÒÓÒÚÓËÚ ËÁ ˜ÂÚ˚∏ı ˝ÎÂÏÂÌÚÓ‚. 2) Light lets people and animals see things. ¡Î‡„Ó‰‡ˇ Ò‚ÂÚÛ Î˛‰Ë Ë ÊË‚ÓÚÌ˚ ÏÓ„ÛÚ ‚ˉÂÚ¸ ÓÍÛʇ˛˘Ë Ô‰ÏÂÚ˚. (·ÛÍ‚. —‚ÂÚ ÔÓÁ‚ÓΡÂÚ Î˛‰ˇÏ Ë ÊË‚ÓÚÌ˚Ï ‚ˉÂÚ¸ Ô‰ÏÂÚ˚). ¬ œÓ‡Ì‡ÎËÁËÛÈÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ Ë Ì‡È‰ËÚ ÍÓÌÒÚÛÍˆË˛ ´—ÎÓÊÌÓ ‰ÓÔÓÎÌÂÌ˪. œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. Allow the medicine to dry on the skin. 2. Toxicity tests indicate the product to be completely harmless. 3. An insufficient supply of vitamin D in the body causes a person's bones to soften. 4. In the ancient world there were significant thinkers who considered alchemy to be science. 122 »Õ‘»Õ»“»¬ 5. These medicines may worsen bone disease because they cause the body to lose more calcium. ✔ 6. This medicine may cause your eyes to become more sensitive to light than they are normally. 7. Heat or moisture may cause the medicine to break down. 8. Heat from the Sun causes the water in the plant's leaves to evaporate, in a process called transpiration. 9. The damage being done to the ozone layer is allowing more ultraviolet light to reach the Earth. 10. Scientists do not consider the dust, water droplets, and ice crystals to be part of the air. 123 –¿«ƒ≈À 6 ✔ 11. Enzymes work by binding molecules so that they are held in a particular geometric configuration that allows the reaction to occur. 12. These medicines may make you sweat less, causing your body temperature to increase. 13. This medicine should never be taken in its dry form since it can cause you choke. 14. Pharmacologists consider all chemicals that affect living thing to be drugs. 6.4 »ÌÙËÌËÚË‚ ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡ ƒÎˇ ÒÚËΡ ‡Ì„ÎËÈÒÍÓÈ Ì‡Û˜ÌÓÈ ÎËÚ‡ÚÛ˚ ı‡‡ÍÚÂÌÓ ¯ËÓÍÓ ËÒÔÓθÁÓ‚‡ÌË ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚‡ ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ‡Á΢ÌÓ„Ó Ó‰‡ Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚, ‡ ËÏÂÌÌÓ: Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡ ˆÂÎË, ÒΉÒڂˡ, Ó·‡Á‡ ‰ÂÈÒڂˡ, ÒÓÔÛÚÒÚ‚Û˛˘Ëı Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚ Ë ‰. ¬ هχˆÂ‚Ú˘ÂÒÍÓÈ Ë Ï‰ˈËÌÒÍÓÈ ÎËÚ‡ÚÛ ̇˷ÓΠ˜‡ÒÚÓ ‚ÒÚ˜‡˛ÚÒˇ Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡ ˆÂÎË Ë Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡ ÒΉÒڂˡ. 124 »Õ‘»Õ»“»¬ 6.4.1 »ÌÙËÌËÚË‚ ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡ ˆÂÎË ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 34 ¿ »ÌÙËÌËÚË‚ ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡ ˆÂÎË ÏÓÊÂÚ ÒÚÓˇÚ¸ ‰Ó ËÎË ÔÓÒΠˇ‰‡ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ (ËÌÓ„‰‡ Ô‰ ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚ÓÏ ËÒÔÓθÁÛÂÚÒˇ ‚˚‡ÊÂÌË in order to ó ´‰Îˇ ÚÓ„Ó, ˜ÚÓ·˚ª). œËÏÂ: 1. All living organisms require oxygen to maintain life. 2. In order to survive animals must have a supply of oxygen. ¡ ÕÂÁ‡‚ËÒËÏÓ ÓÚ Ì‡ÎË˜Ëˇ ËÎË ÓÚÒÛÚÒڂˡ ‚ ‡Ì„ÎËÈÒÍÓÏ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËË ÒÎÓ‚ÓÒÓ˜ÂÚ‡Ìˡ in order to, ̇ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚ ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡ ˆÂÎË ‚Ò„‰‡ Ô‚ӉËÚÒˇ ÒÎÓ‚‡ÏË ´‰Îˇª, ´‰Îˇ ÚÓ„Ó, ˜ÚÓ·˚ª, ´˜ÚÓ·˚ª. Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: 1) All living organisms require oxygen to maintain life. ¬ÒÂÏ ÊË‚˚Ï Ó„‡ÌËÁÏ‡Ï ÌÂÓ·ıÓ‰ËÏ ÍËÒÎÓÓ‰ ‰Îˇ ÔÓ‰‰ÂʇÌˡ ÊËÁÌË. 2) In order to survive animals must have an adequate supply of oxygen. ƒÎˇ ÚÓ„Ó, ˜ÚÓ·˚ ‚˚ÊËÚ¸ ÊË‚ÓÚÌ˚Ï ÌÂÓ·ıÓ‰ËÏÓ ‡‰ÂÍ‚‡ÚÌÓ Ò̇·ÊÂÌË ÍËÒÎÓÓ‰ÓÏ. ¬ œÓ‡Ì‡ÎËÁËÛÈÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ, ̇ȉËÚ ˇ‰Ó Ë Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚Ó ˆÂÎË, ‚˚‡ÊÂÌÌÓ ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚ÓÏ (ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚Ì˚Ï Ó·ÓÓÚÓÏ). œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. For thousands of years humans used plants to cure sickness. 2. The food provides plants with energy to grow, to produce flowers and seeds. 3. To store a gas, it needs to be placed in a container. 4. Like many crops, cotton must be kept dry after harvest to prevent mold. 5. The water is chlorinated to kill disease-causing organisms. 125 –¿«ƒ≈À 6 ✔ 6. Plants take up boron in order to mobilize sugars. 7. The alkali metals and barium are usually stored in oil to prevent reaction with water and air. 8. Phenol should be properly labeled and stored to avoid accidental poisoning. 9. To prevent the escalation of climate change, scientists advise that we must reduce carbon dioxide emission by 60 per cent. 10. Some medicines should be taken with, or after food to avoid the possibility of stomach upsets. 11. Medicines may be inhaled through the mouth or nose to produce a rapid effect on the lungs and airways. 126 »Õ‘»Õ»“»¬ 12. Chemical exchanges of hydrogen ions must take place continuously in order to maintain the state of equilibrium. ✔ 13. Carbon dioxide is an important gas because all green plants require it to live and to make their own food. 14. Scientists use a variety of instruments and techniques to study atoms. 15. Antiseptics are applied to skin and mucous membranes to help prevent infection. 16. Take this medicine with food or a full glass of water to lessen stomach irritation. 17. For this medicine to be effective, it must be taken everyday as ordered by your doctor. 127 –¿«ƒ≈À 6 ✔ 18. In order for this medicine to work properly, it must be used every day in regular spaced doses as ordered by your doctor. 19. Copper compounds were used by Egyptians as long as 3000 BC to treat diseases of the eye. 20. The body needs certain levels of proteins (or amino acids), vitamins and minerals in order to work normally. 21. Light from the sun takes about 8 minutes and 20 seconds to reach the earth. 22. Be careful not to get this medicine in your eyes. 23. The cell membrane serves to confine the delicate internal chemical components of the cell and to defend them from the effects of substances outside. 24. Take the last dose at least 6 hours before bedtime to help prevent trouble in sleep. 128 »Õ‘»Õ»“»¬ 6.4.2 »ÌÙËÌËÚË‚ ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡ ÒΉÒڂˡ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 35 ¿ Õ‰ÍÓ ÔË ÓÔËÒ‡ÌËË ‡Á΢Ì˚ı ÔÓœËÏÂ: ˆÂÒÒÓ‚, ̇ÔËÏ ıËÏ˘ÂÒÍËı ‡͈ËÈ, ËÒOxygen and hydrogen combine ÔÓθÁÛÂÚÒˇ ˇ‰ „·„ÓÎÓ‚ ‚ ÙÓÏ ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚‡, ̇ÔËÏÂ, to form. “‡ÍË ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚Ì˚ to form water. Ó·ÓÓÚ˚ Ó·ÓÁ̇˜‡˛Ú ÂÁÛÎ¸Ú‡Ú (ËÎË ÒÓÔÛÚÒÚ‚Û˛˘Â ‰ÂÈÒÚ‚ËÂ) ÔÓ ÓÚÌÓ¯ÂÌ˲ Í „·„ÓÎÛ-Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓÏÛ Ë ‚Ò„‰‡ ÒÚÓˇÚ ÔÓÒΠˇ‰‡ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. ¡ “‡ÍË ӷÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚ÂÌÌ˚ ӷÓÓÚ˚ ÏÓÊÌÓ Ô‚ӉËÚ¸ ̇ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í ÌÂÒÍÓθÍËÏË ÒÔÓÒÓ·‡ÏË: ‰ÂÂÔ˘‡ÒÚÌ˚Ï Ó·ÓÓÚÓÏ, Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚Ï Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËÂÏ ËÎË ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌ˚Ï Ò Ô‰ÎÓ„ÓÏ. Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: Oxygen and hydrogen combine to form water. üËÒÎÓÓ‰ Ë ‚Ó‰ÓÓ‰ ‚ÒÚÛÔ‡˛Ú ‚ Â‡ÍˆË˛, Ó·‡ÁÛˇ ‚Ó‰Û. üËÒÎÓÓ‰ ‚ÒÚÛÔ‡ÂÚ ‚ Â‡ÍˆË˛ Ò ‚Ó‰ÓÓ‰ÓÏ, ‚ ÂÁÛθڇÚ ˜Â„Ó Ó·‡ÁÛÂÚÒˇ ‚Ó‰‡. üËÒÎÓÓ‰ ‡„ËÛÂÚ Ò ‚Ó‰ÓÓ‰ÓÏ Ò Ó·‡ÁÓ‚‡ÌËÂÏ ‚Ó‰˚. ¬ œÓ‡Ì‡ÎËÁËÛÈÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ, ̇ȉËÚ ˇ‰Ó Ë Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚Ó ÒΉÒڂˡ, ‚˚‡ÊÂÌÌÓ ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚Ì˚Ï Ó·ÓÓÚÓÏ. œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. Ice melts to form water. 2. At 100∞C the water boils to form a gas or vapour steam. 3. The thirty common elements can and do combine to form a huge variety of substances, solid, liquid and gaseous. 4. Photosynthesis involves the uptake of carbon dioxide, water and other nutrients by plants to form organic matter and oxygen. 129 –¿«ƒ≈À 6 ✔ 5. When iron rusts it combines with oxygen in the air to make iron oxide. 6. All acids react with bases to form salts and water. 7. During a chemical reaction atoms are never created or destroyed, they only get rearranged to form new substances. 8. Metals combine with oxygen to give oxides which are basic, whereas the nonmetals give acidic oxides. 9. Upon heating, boric acid partially vaporizes and loses water to form metaboric acid (HBO2). 10. There are about 20 kinds of amino acids that link together in a specific order to form protein molecule. 130 »Õ‘»Õ»“»¬ 11. These amino-acids are joined end-to-end to form the long polypeptide chains of protein molecules. 6.5 »ÌÙËÌËÚË‚ ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌˡ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 36 ¿ »ÌÙËÌËÚË‚ (ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚Ì˚È Ó·ÓÓÚ) ‚ ÙÓÏ ‡ÍÚË‚ÌÓ„Ó Á‡ÎÓ„‡, ‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇ˛˘ËÈ ÙÛÌÍˆË˛ ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌˡ, ‚Ò„‰‡ ÒÚÓËÚ ÔÓÒΠÓÔ‰ÂΡÂÏÓ„Ó ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓ„Ó. ¡ Õ‡ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚ ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌˡ Ô‚ӉËÚÒˇ ÎË·Ó Ô˘‡ÒÚËÂÏ, ÎË·Ó Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚Ï ÓÔ‰ÂÎËÚÂθÌ˚Ï Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËÂÏ. ¬ ˇ‰Â ÒÎÛ˜‡Â‚ ‚ Á‡‚ËÒËÏÓÒÚË ÓÚ ÍÓÌÚÂÍÒÚ‡ ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌËÂ, ‚˚‡ÊÂÌÌÓ ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚Ì˚Ï Ó·ÓÓÚÓÏ, ÏÓÊÂÚ Ô‰‡‚‡Ú¸ ÓÚÚÂÌÓÍ Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡ ˆÂÎË. œËÏÂ: The salts to form stones are always present in the urine. Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: 1) The salts to form stones are always present in the urine. ¬ ÏӘ ‚Ò„‰‡ ̇ıÓ‰ˇÚÒˇ ÒÓÎË, Ó·‡ÁÛ˛˘Ë ͇ÏÌË. —ÓÎË, ÍÓÚÓ˚ ӷ‡ÁÛ˛Ú Í‡ÏÌË, ‚Ò„‰‡ ̇ıÓ‰ˇÚÒˇ ‚ ÏÓ˜Â. 2) Certain medications to treat angina are placed under the tongue. ŒÔ‰ÂÎÂÌÌ˚ ÎÂ͇ÒÚ‚ÂÌÌ˚ ÔÂÔ‡‡Ú˚, Ô‰̇Á̇˜ÂÌÌ˚ ‰Îˇ ΘÂÌˡ ÒÚÂÌÓ͇‰ËË, ÔÓÏ¢‡˛Ú ÔÓ‰ ˇÁ˚Í. ¬ œÓ‡Ì‡ÎËÁËÛÈÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ, ̇ȉËÚ ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌËÂ, ‚˚‡ÊÂÌÌÓ ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚Ì˚Ï Ó·ÓÓÚÓÏ, Ë ÓÔ‰ÂΡÂÏÓ ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓÂ. œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. Oxygen is the most important substance to enter the blood. 2. Insulin is the only hormone to lower blood glucose level directly. 131 –¿«ƒ≈À 6 ✔ 3. Scientists have developed many vaccines to use in prevention of serious diseases. 4. Certain medications to treat angina are placed under the tongue or between the teeth and the cheek. 5. Perhaps the least known among the remarkable properties of water is its ability to form an extremely strong surface film. 6. Prolonged courses of treatment with high doses of this drug can suppress the ability of the body to respond to severe stresses for many months or even years. 7. Folic acid deficiency may result from the inability of the body to utilize the vitamins. 132 »Õ‘»Õ»“»¬ 8. Lack of chromium may lead to nerve problems and may decrease the body's ability to use sugar properly. 9. Nuclear physics grew naturally from attempts at the end of the 19th century to understand the structure and composition of atoms and has had profound effects on the development of science as a whole. ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 37 ¿ »ÌÙËÌËÚË‚ (ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚Ì˚È Ó·ÓÓÚ) ‚ ÙÓÏ ‡ÍÚË‚ÌÓ„Ó (to V) Ë Ô‡ÒÒË‚ÌÓ„Ó Á‡ÎÓ„‡ (to be+ V3), ‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇ˛˘ËÈ ÙÛÌÍˆË˛ ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌˡ, ˜‡ÒÚÓ ‚ÒÚ˜‡ÂÚÒˇ ‚ ÒÓ˜ÂÚ‡ÌËË Ò ÔÓˇ‰ÍÓ‚˚Ï ˜ËÒÎËÚÂθÌ˚Ï (̇ÔËÏÂ, the first). ¡ Õ‡ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚ ‚ Ú‡ÍËı Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡı ÏÓÊÂÚ Ô‚ӉËÚ¸Òˇ Ò͇ÁÛÂÏ˚Ï ÔÓÒÚÓ„Ó ËÎË Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓ„Ó ÓÔ‰ÂÎËÚÂθÌÓ„Ó Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. œËÏÂ: 1. Plants were the first to colonize the land on this planet. 2. Copper was one of the first metals to be made and used by humans. Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: 1) Plants were the first to colonize the land on this planet. –‡ÒÚÂÌˡ Ô‚˚ÏË Ì‡ ̇¯ÂÈ Ô·ÌÂÚ Á‡ÒÂÎËÎË ÁÂÏβ. 2) Copper was one of the first metals to be made and used by humans. ɸ ó Ó‰ËÌ ËÁ Ô‚˚ı ÏÂÚ‡ÎÎÓ‚, ÍÓÚÓ˚ β‰Ë ÒÚ‡ÎË ‰Ó·˚‚‡Ú¸ ËÒÔÓθÁÓ‚‡Ú¸. 133 –¿«ƒ≈À 6 ¬ œÓ‡Ì‡ÎËÁËÛÈÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ, ̇ȉËÚ ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌËÂ, ‚˚‡ÊÂÌÌÓ ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚Ì˚Ï Ó·ÓÓÚÓÏ. œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. Bronze was one of the first metals to be widely used by people. 2. Discovered in 1895 by J.Thomson the electron was the first elementary particle to be identified. 3. R. Boyle (1627ñ91) was the first scientist to separate chemistry from alchemy and to formulate a precise definition of a chemical element. 4. Cohn (1828ñ98) was the first to devise a systematic classification for bacteria. ✔ 5. When a seed sprouts, the first thing to break out of the coat is the root. 6. The earliest plants to become adapted to living on a dry land where liverworts, hornworts, and mosses. 134 »Õ‘»Õ»“»¬ 7. Bacteria are thought to represent the first organisms to have arisen on earth from which all other organisms are descended. ✔ 8. Adrenaline was the first hormone to be isolated in pure form from a natural source. 9. Ramsay (1852ñ1916) is the only man to have discovered an entire periodic group of elements ó the noble gases. ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 38* ¿ »ÒÔÓθÁÛˇ Ù‡„ÏÂÌÚ˚ ËÁ ÚÂı ˜‡ÒÚÂÈ Ú‡·Îˈ˚ (I ó ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘ÂÂ, II ó Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓÂ, III ó ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚Ì˚È Ó·ÓÓÚ ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌˡ), ÒÓÒÚ‡‚¸Ú Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ Ó ÓÎË ËÁ‚ÂÒÚÌ˚ı Û˜ÂÌ˚ı ‚ ËÒÚÓËË Ï‰ˈËÌ˚. ¡ œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 135 –¿«ƒ≈À 6 I 1. Aristotle (384ñ322 B.C.) III II was the first a) to lay foundation of microbiology. 2. Auenbrugger (1722ó1809) b) to describe the signs of inflammation. 3. Harvey (1578ñ1657) c) to discover X-rays. 4. Fleming (1881ñ1955) d) to discover blood circulation. 5. Freud (1856ñ1939) e) to discover penicillin. 6. Celsus (1st century A.D.) f) to invent the scientific method. 7. Lister (1827ñ1912) g) to invent vaccination. 8. Pasteur (1822ñ1895) h) to use antiseptics. 9.Roentgen (1845ñ1923) j) to use percussion of the chest as a method of diagnosis. 10. Jenner (1749ñ1823) i) to found the analytical school of psychiatry. 136 »Õ‘»Õ»“»¬ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 39 ¿ »ÌÙËÌËÚË‚ (ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚Ì˚È Ó·ÓÓÚ) ‚ ÙÓÏ ‡ÍÚË‚ÌÓ„Ó, ‡ ˜‡˘Â Ô‡ÒÒË‚ÌÓ„Ó Á‡ÎÓ„‡, ‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇ˛˘ËÈ ÙÛÌÍˆË˛ ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌˡ, ÏÓÊÂÚ Ô‰‡‚‡Ú¸ ÓÚÚÂÌÓÍ ÏÓ‰‡Î¸ÌÓÒÚË (Ú. Â. ‡Á΢ÌÓÈ ÒÚÂÔÂÌË ‰ÓÎÊÂÌÒÚ‚Ó‚‡Ìˡ) ËÎË ÓÚÌÂÒÂÌÌÓÒÚË ‰ÂÈÒڂˡ Í ·ÎËʇȯÂÏÛ ·Û‰Û˘ÂÏÛ. Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: 1) The solution to be used must be freshly prepared. –‡ÒÚ‚Ó, ÍÓÚÓ˚È ·Û‰ÂÚ ËÒÔÓθÁÓ‚‡Ì, ‰ÓÎÊÂÌ ·˚Ú¸ Ò‚ÂÊÂÔË„ÓÚÓ‚ÎÂÌÌ˚Ï. 2) The amount of carbon dioxide to be removed increases during hard physical exercise. üÓ΢ÂÒÚ‚Ó Û„ÎÂÍËÒÎÓ„Ó „‡Á‡, ÍÓÚÓÓ ÔÓ‰ÎÂÊËÚ ‚˚‚‰ÂÌ˲ ËÁ Ó„‡ÌËÁχ, ‚ÓÁ‡ÒÚ‡ÂÚ ‚Ó ‚ÂÏˇ ÚˇÊÂÎÓÈ ÙËÁ˘ÂÒÍÓÈ Ì‡„ÛÁÍË. 137 –¿«ƒ≈À 6 ¡ œÓ‡Ì‡ÎËÁËÛÈÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ, ̇ȉËÚ ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌËÂ, ‚˚‡ÊÂÌÌÓ ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚ÓÏ ‚ Ô‡ÒÒË‚ÌÓÏ Á‡ÎÓ„Â, Ë ÓÔ‰ÂΡÂÏÓ ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓÂ. œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. Wet the area to be shaved. 2. The study to be published suggests that in this case the genetic side is very important. 3. The liver absorbs the substances to be removed from the blood, alters their chemical structure, makes them soluble, and excretes them in the bile. 4. Another difficulty to be expected with these drugs is postural hypotension. 5. The selection of one or more antibiotics to be given as aerosol therapy is determined by the patient's specific condition and the preference of the attending physician. 138 ✔ »Õ‘»Õ»“»¬ 6. The amount of time and degree of temperature necessary for sterilization depend on the articles to be sterilized. 7. Dangerous, powerful, or habit-forming medicines to be used under a physician's supervision can be sold only by prescription. 6.6 ‘ÛÌ͈ËË ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚‡ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 40 (Ó·ÁÓÌÓÂ) ¿ œÓ‡Ì‡ÎËÁËÛÈÚ ÒÚÛÍÚÛÛ Í‡Ê‰Ó„Ó Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ Ë ÓÔ‰ÂÎËÚÂ Â„Ó ˇ‰Ó. ՇȉËÚ ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚ Ë ÓÔ‰ÂÎËÚÂ Â„Ó ÙÛÌÍˆË˛. ¡ œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. In order to protect ozone layer from further damage, the world's major producers signed a treaty in 1987 to reduce production of chlorofluorocarbons. 2. Nicotinic acid (niacin) appears to act in enzyme systems to utilize carbohydrates, fats, and amino acids. 139 –¿«ƒ≈À 6 ✔ 3. The first person to use X-rays to study the structure of crystals was L. Bragg, in 1912. 4. The development of methods to grow plant and animal cells in culture has provided new ways to study cells. 5. Many of the cell contents are colourless and transparent so they need to be stained to be seen. 6. An American doctor Long (1815ñ78) is thought to have been the first to use ether as an anesthetic in an operation. 7. Elements can combine to form compounds as when iron and oxygen combine to form rust. 8. The Sun's energy heats the surface of the ocean, causing water to evaporate. 140 »Õ‘»Õ»“»¬ 9. Many pure metals are too soft, rust too easily, or have other mechanical or chemical disadvantages to be useful by themselves. ✔ 10. The amount of vitamin C needed to meet normal daily recommended intakes will be different for different individuals. 11. The first antibiotic to receive widespread attention was penicillin, which was developed to meet the needs for effective anti-infectious agents during World War II. 12. Boyle (1627ñ91) was the first person to spell out the definition of an element as a substance that could combine with other elements to form compounds, but which could not be broken down into any simpler substance itself. 141 –¿«ƒ≈À 6 13. Beta rays were found to be very fast-moving electrons, and gamma rays turned out to be electromagnetic radiation like X-rays, but with even shorter wavelengths. 14. For water to evaporate ó that is, to change from a liquid to a gas ó the hydrogen bonds between the water molecules have to be broken. “ÂÍÒÚ˚ ‰Îˇ ÚÂÌËÓ‚Ó˜ÌÓ„Ó Ô‚Ӊ‡ Í –‡Á‰ÂÎÛ 6 I 1. The first radioactive element to be discovered was uranium. It was accidentally found to be radioactive at the end of the 19th century by French scientist H. Beequerel. 2. Zinc is generally thought to be non-toxic, and is essential element for animals and humans. It also has an essential role for plants and is believed to protect them against diseases. 142 »Õ‘»Õ»“»¬ 3. The function of leaves is not to absorb water. Indeed, if water lies on them too long, it will interfere with the process of gas exchange. Many leaves, therefore, have shapes and structures that help to get rid of it. 4. Ferns were some of the first land plants to be able to grow upwards. A plant that grows upwards instead of on the ground can spread its leaves out to catch the sunlight. 5. Farmers use various kinds of fertilizers in order to improve their crops. Home gardeners also add fertilizers to their soil in order to grow better lawns or flowers. 6. Grains were among the first plants to be cultivated by humans. They played an important part in the beginnings of civilization. Early human societies had to be on move often, collecting wild plants, especially grains, which allowed them to settle in one place. 143 –¿«ƒ≈À 6 7. After the ore is mined, the unwanted dirt, clay and sand are removed, leaving a concentrate. This is then melted. The metal obtained is in an impure form, and needs to be refined to remove the impurities. 8. Water was long thought to be elemental, not a compound. Because of early confusion between the atomic and molecular weights of gases, the formula of water was for some time erroneously thought to be HO rather than H2O. II 1. This medicine should not be swallowed whole. Let the tablet slowly dissolve in the mouth. Do not eat, drink, chew, or smoke while the tablet is dissolving. 144 »Õ‘»Õ»“»¬ 2. Don't chew gum or food while your mouth or throat feels numb after you use this medicine. To do so may cause an injury. You may accidentally bite your tongue or the inside of your cheek. 3. Take this medicine only as directed. Do not take more of it and do not take it more often than your doctor ordered. To do so may increase the chance of side effect. 4. Do not chew or swallow the tablet. This medicine is meant to be absorbed through the lining of the mouth. Place the tablet under your tongue and let it slowly dissolve there. 5. Unlike some other diuretics, these medicines do not cause your body to lose potassium. Potassium-sparing diuretics help to reduce the amount of water in the body by acting on the kidneys to increase the flow of urine. This also helps to lower blood pressure. 145 –¿«ƒ≈À 6 6. The liquid medicine must be mixed with orange juice or grape fruit juice just before you take it to make it easier to take. Do not take more of this medicine, do not take it more often, and do not take it for a longer time than your doctor ordered. To do so may increase the chance of unwanted effect. ◊‡ÒÚ¸ III. —»Õ“¿ü—»— (Syntax) œÂ‰ÎÓÊÂÌËÂ Í‡Í ‚ ÛÒÒÍÓÏ, Ú‡Í Ë ‚ ‡Ì„ÎËÈÒÍÓÏ ˇÁ˚Í ÒÎÛÊËÚ ‰Îˇ ‚˚‡ÊÂÌˡ Á‡ÍÓ̘ÂÌÌÓÈ Ï˚ÒÎË. ¬Ò Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ ÔÓ‰‡Á‰ÂΡ˛ÚÒˇ ̇ ÔÓÒÚ˚Â Ë ÒÎÓÊÌ˚Â, ‡ ÒÎÓÊÌ˚ ‚ Ò‚Ó˛ Ә‰¸ ó ̇ ÒÎÓÊÌÓÒÓ˜ËÌÂÌÌ˚Â Ë ÒÎÓÊÌÓÔÓ‰˜ËÌÂÌÌ˚Â. œÓÒÚÓ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌË ı‡‡ÍÚÂËÁÛÂÚÒˇ ̇΢ËÂÏ Ó‰ÌÓ„Ó ˇ‰‡, Ú.Â. ËÏÂÂÚ ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â (ÌÂÒÍÓθÍÓ Ó‰ÌÓÓ‰Ì˚ı ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Ëı) Ë Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ (ÌÂÒÍÓθÍÓ Ó‰ÌÓÓ‰Ì˚ı Ò͇ÁÛÂÏ˚ı). œËÏÂ: 1. Body cells have a high water content. 2. The alkali metals and barium are usually stored in oil. 3. In a chemical reaction, energy is released or absorbed. —ÎÓÊÌÓ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌË ÒÓÒÚÓËÚ ËÁ ‰‚Ûı ÏÓÊÂÚ ËÏÂÚ¸ ‰‚‡ Ë ·ÓΠˇ‰‡), ÍÓÚÓ˚ ÔËÒÓ‰ËÌˇ˛ÚÒˇ ‰Û„ Í ‰Û„Û ‡Á΢Ì˚ÏË ÒÔÓÒÓ·‡ÏË: Ò ÔÓÏÓ˘¸˛ ÒÓ˛ÁÓ‚ ËÎË ·ÂÒÒÓ˛ÁÌÓ. —ÎÓÊÌÓÒÓ˜ËÌÂÌÌÓ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌË ÒÓÒÚÓËÚ ËÁ ‰‚Ûı Ë ·ÓΠÌÂÁ‡‚ËÒËÏ˚ı ÔÓÒÚ˚ı Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËÈ. Ë ·ÓΠԉÎÓÊÂÌËÈ (Ë, ÒÓÓÚ‚ÂÚÒÚ‚ÂÌÌÓ, œËÏÂ: Starches and sugars must be broken down to simple compounds called monosaccharide; proteins must be broken down to their simplest elements, amino acids; and fats must be broken down to fatty acids and glycerol. —ÎÓÊÌÓÔÓ‰˜ËÌÂÌÌÓ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌË œËÏÂ: ÒÓÒÚÓËÚ ËÁ „·‚ÌÓ„Ó Ë Á‡‚ËÒËÏÓ„Ó ÓÚ ÌÂ„Ó Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓ„Ó Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ Because the molecules of compounds (Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ı Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËÈ), ÔËcontain atoms of several elements, ÒÓ‰ËÌˇÂÏÓ„Ó Í „·‚ÌÓÏÛ Ò ÔÓÏÓcompounds can be broken down into ˘¸˛ ‡Á΢Ì˚ı ÒÓ˛ÁÓ‚ (ÒÓ˛ÁÌ˚ı their elements by chemical reactions. ÒÎÓ‚) ËÎË ·ÂÒÒÓ˛ÁÌÓ. œË‰‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓÂ, Í‡Í ÒÓÒÚ‡‚̇ˇ ˜‡ÒÚ¸ ÒÎÓÊÌÓÔÓ‰˜ËÌÂÌÌÓ„Ó Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ, ÏÓÊÂÚ ‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇÚ¸ ÙÛÌÍˆË˛ β·Ó„Ó ˜ÎÂ̇ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ: ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â„Ó, ˜‡ÒÚË ÒÓÒÚ‡‚ÌÓ„Ó Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ„Ó, ‰ÓÔÓÎÌÂÌˡ, ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌˡ, Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡. 147 –¿«ƒ≈À 7 ¬»ƒ¤ —ÀŒ∆Õ¤’ œ–≈ƒÀŒ∆≈Õ»… (Ú‡·Îˈ‡ 4) ¬Ë‰˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËÈ ¿. —ÔÓÒÓ· ÔËÒÓ‰ËÌÂÌˡ ‡) ÒÓ˛Á˚: and, but, or ·) ·ÂÒÒÓ˛ÁÌÓ —ÎÓÊÌÓÒÓ˜ËÌ∏ÌÌ˚ ¡. —ÎÓÊÌÓÔÓ‰˜ËÌ∏ÌÌ˚ 1) Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Ë ‡) ÒÓ˛Á˚ Ë ÒÓ˛ÁÌ˚ ÒÎÓ‚‡: that, if, whether, how, what, why 2) Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ Ò͇ÁÛÂÏ˚ ‡) ÒÓ˛Á˚ Ë ÒÓ˛ÁÌ˚ ÒÎÓ‚‡: that, if, whether, how, what, why 3) Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ ‰ÓÔÓÎÌÂÌˡ ‡) ÒÓ˛Á˚ Ë ÒÓ˛ÁÌ˚ ÒÎÓ‚‡: that, if, whether, how, what, why ·) ·ÂÒÒÓ˛ÁÌÓ 4) Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌˡ ‡) ÒÓ˛Á˚ Ë ÒÓ˛ÁÌ˚ ÒÎÓ‚‡: that, which, who, whose ·) ·ÂÒÒÓ˛ÁÌÓ 5) Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡ ‡) ‚ÂÏÂÌË ·) ‚) „) ‰) ‡) ÒÓ˛Á˚: after, as, before, once, until, when, while ·) ÒÓ˛Á˚: as, because, for, since ‚) ÒÓ˛Á˚: if, unless „) ÒÓ˛Á˚: although, though, while ‰) ·ÂÒÒÓ˛ÁÌÓ ‚ ‡Ï͇ı ÍÓÌÒÚÛ͈ËË "the ... theÖ" Ô˘ËÌ˚ ÛÒÎӂˡ ÛÒÚÛÔËÚÂθÌ˚ ÒÓÓÚÌÓÒËÚÂθÌ˚ (‰‚ÓÈÌÓ„Ó Ò‡‚ÌÂÌˡ) –‡Á‰ÂÎ 7. —ÎÓÊÌÓÔÓ‰˜ËÌ∏ÌÌ˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ 7.1 œË‰‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Ë —ıÂχ 1 —ÎÓÊÌÓÔÓ‰˜ËÌÂÌÌÓ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌË „·‚ÌÓ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌË N V —Ó˛Á/ Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓ + ÒÓ˛ÁÌÓ ÒÎÓ‚Ó Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌË n v 148 —ÀŒ∆ÕŒœŒƒ◊»Õ®ÕÕ¤≈ œ–≈ƒÀŒ∆≈Õ»fl ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 41 ¿ ŒÔˇˇÒ¸ ̇ —ıÂÏÛ 1, ÔӇ̇ÎËÁËÛÈÚ ÒÎÓÊÌÓÔÓ‰œËÏÂ: N V ˜ËÌÂÌÌ˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ Ò Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ÏË ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘ËThat people need a balanced diet is a well known fact. n v ÏË. œÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â ‚ ˝ÚËı Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡı ‚˚‡ÊÂÌÓ Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚Ï Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËÂÏ (Ú.Â. ËÏÂÂÚ ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘ÂÂ Ë Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓÂ, ÍÓÚÓÓ Òӄ·ÒÛÂÚÒˇ Ò ÌËÏ „‡ÏχÚ˘ÂÒÍË), ̇˜Ë̇ÂÚÒˇ Ò ÒÓ˛Á‡ ËÎË ÒÓ˛ÁÌÓ„Ó ÒÎÓ‚‡ Ë Òӄ·ÒÛÂÚÒˇ ÒÓ Ò͇ÁÛÂÏ˚Ï „·‚ÌÓ„Ó Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ ‚ ‰ËÌÒÚ‚ÂÌÌÓÏ ˜ËÒÎÂ. ¡ ƒÎˇ Ô‡‚ËθÌÓ„Ó Ô‚Ӊ‡ ̇ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í ÌÂÓ·Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: ıÓ‰ËÏÓ: 1) ÔӇ̇ÎËÁËÓ‚‡Ú¸ ÒÚÛÍThat people need a balanced diet is a well ÚÛÛ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ Ë Ì‡ÈÚË known fact. ˇ‰Ó ‚ Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓÏ Ë „·‚“Ó, ˜ÚÓ ˜ÂÎÓ‚ÂÍÛ ÌÂÓ·ıÓ‰ËÏÓ ÌÓÏ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡı Ò·‡Î‡ÌÒËÓ‚‡ÌÌÓ ÔËÚ‡ÌË ó ıÓÓ¯Ó 2) Ó·‡ÚËÚ¸ ‚ÌËχÌË ̇ ÒÓËÁ‚ÂÒÚÌ˚È Ù‡ÍÚ. ˛ÁÌÓ ÒÎÓ‚Ó, ÍÓÚÓ˚Ï ‚‚Ó‰ËÚÒˇ ‡Ì„ÎËÈÒÍÓ Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓÂ-ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘ÂÂ Ë Ò ÍÓÚÓÓ„Ó ÒΉÛÂÚ Ì‡˜Ë̇ڸ Ô‚Ӊ ̇ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í Õ‡Ë·ÓΠÚËÔ˘Ì˚ÏË ÒÓ˛ÁÌ˚ÏË ÒÎÓ‚‡ÏË ˇ‚Ρ˛ÚÒˇ: that ó ´ÚÓ, ˜ÚÓª; ´ÚÓÚ Ù‡ÍÚ, ˜ÚÓª; whether ó ÒÓÓÚ‚ÂÚÒÚ‚ÛÂÚ ˜‡ÒÚˈ ´Î˪, ÍÓÚÓ‡ˇ ÔË Ô‚Ӊ ÒÚ‡‚ËÚÒˇ Í Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓÏÛ Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓ„Ó Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ; to what extend ó ´‚ ͇ÍÓÈ ÒÚÂÔÂÌ˪, ´‰Ó ͇ÍËı Ô‰ÂÎÓ‚ª Ë Ú. Ô. ¬ œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. That electrons are a universal constituent of matter was established by J. Thomson. 2. That movement of plant organs actually do occur can be confirmed by a series of observation of certain plant organ under suitable conditions. 149 –¿«ƒ≈À 7 ✔ 3. Whether an isotope is an alpha emitter, a beta emitter, or non-radioactive depends on the stability of the nucleus. 4. Whether a particular substance exists as a solid, a liquid, or a gas depends on the degree of interaction among the atoms or molecules involved. 5. Whether solutes can move simultaneously in both directions or can only move in an upward direction under certain conditions and in downward direction under others is not certain. 6. That autotropic organisms became diversified early in organic evolution has been evidenced by the discovery of fossil blue-green bacteria. 150 —ÀŒ∆ÕŒœŒƒ◊»Õ®ÕÕ¤≈ œ–≈ƒÀŒ∆≈Õ»fl 7. That humans and the anthropoid apes are closely related is supported not only by anatomical similarities but by biochemical evidence as well. ✔ 8. That the human nose projects does not mean that it is important but that the upper jaw has receded in the course of evolution. 9. What causes the cells to stick together is the puzzle in the theory of thrombosis. 10. How long animals sleep is very variable. 11. How and how long a drug is stored can affect drug bioavailability. 151 –¿«ƒ≈À 7 7.2 œË‰‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ Ò͇ÁÛÂÏ˚ —ıÂχ 2 —ÎÓÊÌÓÔÓ‰˜ËÌ∏ÌÌÓ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌË „·‚ÌÓ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌË N V is/are + ÒÓ˛Á Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓ + („·„ÓÎ-Ò‚ˇÁ͇) Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌË n v ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 42 ¿ ŒÔˇˇÒ¸ ̇ —ıÂœËÏÂ: ÏÛ 2, ÔӇ̇ÎËÁËÛÈÚ N V ÒÎÓÊÌÓÔÓ‰˜ËÌÂÌÌ˚ The strength of the book is that it is well written. Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ Ò Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ÏË, ‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇ˛˘Ën v ÏË ÙÛÌÍˆË˛ ˜‡ÒÚË ÒÓÒÚ‡‚ÌÓ„Ó Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ„Ó, Ë Ì‡È‰ËÚ ˇ‰Ó ‚ „·‚ÌÓÏ Ë Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓÏ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡı. ¬ Ú‡ÍËı Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡı ‚Ò„‰‡ ̇ Ô‚ÓÏ ÏÂÒÚ ÒÚÓËÚ ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â „·‚ÌÓ„Ó Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ, Á‡ ÌËÏ ÒΉÛÂÚ Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓÂ, ÍÓÚÓÓ ÒÓÒÚÓËÚ ËÁ „·„Ó·-Ò‚ˇÁÍË ´to beª Ë Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓ„Ó Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ, ‚‚Ó‰ËÏÓ„Ó ÒÓ˛Á‡ÏË. ¡ Õ‡ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í „·„ÓÎ-Ò‚ˇÁÍÛ ´to beª ÂÍÓÏẨÛÂÚÒˇ Ô‚ӉËÚ¸ Ù‡Á‡ÏË, ı‡‡ÍÚÂÌ˚ÏË ‰Îˇ ̇ۘÌÓ„Ó ÚÂÍÒÚ‡, ÚËÔ‡ ´ˇ‚ΡÂÚÒˇª, ´Á‡Íβ˜‡ÂÚÒˇ ‚ ÚÓÏ, ˜ÚÓª. ¬ Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: The strength of the book is that it is well written. ƒÓÒÚÓËÌÒÚ‚ÓÏ ˝ÚÓÈ ÍÌË„Ë ˇ‚ΡÂÚÒˇ ÚÓ, ˜ÚÓ Ó̇ Ó˜Â̸ ıÓÓ¯Ó Ì‡ÔË҇̇. œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. The strengths of the book are that it is well written, very readable, and with clear tables and pictures. 152 —ÀŒ∆ÕŒœŒƒ◊»Õ®ÕÕ¤≈ œ–≈ƒÀŒ∆≈Õ»fl 2. The trouble with many of the drugs used to fight viruses and cancer is that they are extremely toxic and so can damage healthy tissue. ✔ 3. The real value of the white blood cells is that most of them are transported to areas of serious inflammation, thereby providing a rapid and potent defense against any infectious agent. 4. The really puzzling question in immunology is how the immune system can distinguish ´selfª from ´non-selfª. 5. One of the corner-stones of the theory of organic evolution is that all species of living organisms are descendants of a common form of life. 153 –¿«ƒ≈À 7 7.3 œË‰‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ ‰ÓÔÓÎÌËÚÂθÌ˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ œË‰‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ, ‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇ˛˘Ë ÙÛÌÍˆË˛ ‰ÓÔÓÎÌÂÌˡ, ÓÚÌÓÒˇÚÒˇ Í Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓÏÛ „·‚ÌÓ„Ó Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ Ë ‚‚Ó‰ˇÚÒˇ ÒÓ˛Á‡ÏË that ´˜ÚÓª, how ´Í‡Íª, if, whether ´Î˪ (˜‡ÒÚˈ‡, ÔË·‡‚ΡÂÚÒˇ Í Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓÏÛ Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓ„Ó Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ) Ë ‰. ËÎË ·ÂÒÒÓ˛ÁÌÓ. —ıÂχ 3 —ÎÓÊÌÓÔÓ‰˜ËÌ∏ÌÌÓ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌË „·‚ÌÓ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌË N V ‰ÓÔÓÎÌÂÌË ÒÓ˛Á + Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌË n v ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 43 ¿ ŒÔˇˇÒ¸ ̇ —ıÂÏÛ 3, ÔӇ̇ÎËÁËÛÈÚ œËÏÂ: N V ÒÚÛÍÚÛÛ ÒÎÓÊÌÓÔÓ‰Studies indicate that excessive cholesterol level can clog arteries. ˜ËÌÂÌÌ˚ı Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËÈ n v Ë Ì‡È‰ËÚ ˇ‰Ó ‚ „·‚ÌÓÏ Ë Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓÏ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡı, ‡ Ú‡ÍÊ ÒÓ˛Á, Ò ÔÓÏÓ˘¸˛ ÍÓÚÓÓ„Ó Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓ ‰ÓÔÓÎÌËÚÂθÌÓ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌË ÔËÒÓ‰ËÌˇÂÚÒˇ Í „·‚ÌÓÏÛ. ¡ œË Ô‚Ӊ ̇ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í ÌÂÓ·ıÓ‰ËÏÓ Ô‡‚ËθÌÓ Ô‰‡Ú¸ Á̇˜ÂÌË ÒÓ˛Á‡, ÍÓÚÓ˚È ‚‚Ó‰ËÚ Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËÂ. Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: Studies indicate that excessive cholesterol level can clog arteries. »ÒÒΉӂ‡Ìˡ ÔÓ͇Á˚‚‡˛Ú, ˜ÚÓ ÔÓ‚˚¯ÂÌÌ˚È ÛÓ‚Â̸ ıÓÎÂÒÚÂË̇ ‚ ÍÓ‚Ë ÏÓÊÂÚ ‚˚Á˚‚‡Ú¸ Á‡ÍÛÔÓÍÛ ‚ ‡ÚÂˡı (·ÛÍ‚. ÏÓÊÂÚ Á‡ÍÛÔÓËÚ¸). 154 —ÀŒ∆ÕŒœŒƒ◊»Õ®ÕÕ¤≈ œ–≈ƒÀŒ∆≈Õ»fl ¬ œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. Doctors know how much of a drug should be given and how long a patient should take a drug. 2. The weight of a particular atom depends on how many protons and neutrons it has. 3. Botanists have estimated how much sugar plants can make on a sunny day. 4. Democritus (470ñ400 BC) proposed that the universe contains only a vacuum and atoms and that these atoms are invisibly small and hard, eternal and are in ceaseless motion. ✔ 5. Dutrochet (1776ñ1845) believed that cellular respiration is essentially similar in plants and animals. 6. The drug label tells how much of a drug to take and how often. 155 –¿«ƒ≈À 7 ✔ 7. Only a physician can determine which drug will help you. 8. Knowing or being able to measure the effect produced by a drug does not indicate where the drug acts in the body or how it acts. 9. Many experts agree that sleeping pills do not help and may add dependence and addiction to the problems of insomnia. 10. Experts can't decide if caffeine is truly addictive or not. 11. In 1885, Pasteur announced to the French Academy of Sciences that he had developed a vaccine for prevention of rabies. 12. One drug may alter how the body absorbs, distributes, metabolizes or excretes another drug. 156 —ÀŒ∆ÕŒœŒƒ◊»Õ®ÕÕ¤≈ œ–≈ƒÀŒ∆≈Õ»fl 13. Medical research has shown that a diet low in saturated fats and high in fibre contributes to good health and can reduce the risk of certain serious illnesses, such as cardiovascular disease. ✔ 14. Since the discovery of the structure of DNA (1953) work on nucleic acids has explained how genes determine all life processes by directing the synthesis of all cell proteins. 15. Darwin's theory describes how different species of animals and plants have changed over hundreds of thousands of years. 16. Psychological dependence means the user has an emotional need for a drug. 157 –¿«ƒ≈À 7 ✔ 17. Modern biology is discovering that long-sought answers to the causes of diseases, the mechanisms underlying food production by green plants, the passing of genetic information from parent to offspring, the budding of flowers, and myriad other phenomena will ultimately be found at the molecular and sub-molecular levels. 18. Molybdenum differs from the other micronutrients in soil in that it is less soluble in acid soils and more soluble in alkaline soils, the result being that its availability to plants is sensitive to pH and drainage conditions. 19. Differences in genetic makeup among individuals affect what the body does to what the drug does to the body. 158 —ÀŒ∆ÕŒœŒƒ◊»Õ®ÕÕ¤≈ œ–≈ƒÀŒ∆≈Õ»fl 7.4 œË‰‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ ÓÔ‰ÂÎËÚÂθÌ˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ œË‰‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ, ‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇ˛˘Ë ÙÛÌÍˆË˛ ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌˡ, ‚Ò„‰‡ ÒÚÓˇÚ ÔÓÒΠÓÔ‰ÂΡÂÏÓ„Ó ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓ„Ó. “‡ÍË Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ ÏÓ„ÛÚ ÓÔ‰ÂΡڸ ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â „·‚ÌÓ„Ó Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ, ËÏÂÌÌÛ˛ ˜‡ÒÚ¸ Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ„Ó, ‰ÓÔÓÎÌÂÌËÂ, Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚Ó. œË‰‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌË ÏÓÊÂÚ ÔËÒÓ‰ËÌˇÚ¸Òˇ Í „·‚ÌÓÏÛ ÌÂÒÍÓθÍËÏË ÒÔÓÒÓ·‡ÏË: ÒÓ˛Á‡ÏË Ë ÒÓ˛ÁÌ˚ÏË ÒÎÓ‚‡ÏË which, that, who, whose, Ô‰ ÍÓÚÓ˚ÏË ÏÓÊÂÚ ÒÚÓˇÚ¸ Ô‰ÎÓ„ (Ë); ËÌÓ„‰‡ ÒÓ˛Á ËÎË ÒÓ˛ÁÌÓ ÒÎÓ‚Ó ÓÚÒÛÚÒÚ‚ÛÂÚ, ÌÓ Â„Ó Á̇˜ÂÌˠ΄ÍÓ ´‚ÓÒÒڇ̇‚ÎË‚‡ÂÚÒˇª ËÁ ÍÓÌÚÂÍÒÚ‡. —ıÂχ 4 —ÎÓÊÌÓÔÓ‰˜ËÌ∏ÌÌÓ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌË „·‚ÌÓ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌË N ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌË V ... Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓ (Ô‰ÎÓ„) + Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌË ÒÓ˛Á n v ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 44 ¿ ŒÔˇˇÒ¸ ̇ —ıÂÏÛ 4, ÔӇ̇ÎËÁËÛÈÚ œËÏÂ: N V ÒÚÛÍÚÛÛ ÒÎÓÊÌÓÔÓ‰The fatty acids have carbon atoms to which hydrogen atoms attach. ˜ËÌÂÌÌ˚ı Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËÈ n v Ò Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ÏË ÓÔ‰ÂÎËÚÂθÌ˚ÏË Ë Ì‡È‰ËÚ ˇ‰Ó ‚ „·‚ÌÓÏ Ë Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓÏ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡı Ë Û͇ÊËÚ ÓÔ‰ÂΡÂÏÓ ÒÎÓ‚Ó, Í ÍÓÚÓÓÏÛ ÓÚÌÓÒËÚÒˇ Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËÂ. ¡ œË Ô‚Ӊ ̇ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í ÌÂÓ·ıÓ‰ËÏÓ Ô‡‚ËθÌÓ Ô‰‡Ú¸ Á̇˜ÂÌË ÒÓ˛Á‡ ËÎË ÒÓ˛ÁÌÓ„Ó ÒÎÓ‚‡, ÍÓÚÓ˚ ‚‚Ó‰ˇÚ Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓ ÓÔ‰ÂÎËÚÂθÌÓ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËÂ Ë ÏÓ„ÛÚ ËÏÂÚ¸ Ó‰ËÌ ËÎË ÌÂÒÍÓθÍÓ Ô‰ÎÓ„Ó‚, Ô‰‡˛˘Ëı Á̇˜ÂÌË ÛÒÒÍËı Ô‡‰ÂÊÂÈ. Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: The fatty acids have carbon atoms to which hydrogen atoms attach. ∆ËÌ˚ ÍËÒÎÓÚ˚ ËÏÂ˛Ú (‚ Ò‚ÓÂÏ ÒÓÒÚ‡‚Â) ‡ÚÓÏ˚ Û„ÎÂÓ‰‡, Í ÍÓÚÓ˚Ï ÔËÒÓ‰ËÌˇ˛ÚÒˇ ‡ÚÓÏ˚ ‚Ó‰ÓÓ‰‡. 159 –¿«ƒ≈À 7 ¬ œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. The acidity of the most enzymes is dependent on the temperature and acidity of the solution in which they function. 2. The chemistry of sulfur is complex because of the many oxidation states in which it can exist. 3. Matter is composed of elements, of which there are 107 known ó 17 have been produced artificially and 90 occur naturally on our planet. ✔ 4. There is much diversity in the appearance of plants, yet the cells from which they are built are remarkably similar. 5. The atomic orbitals are diffuse regions in space around the nucleus of an atom in which the electrons are most likely to be found. 160 —ÀŒ∆ÕŒœŒƒ◊»Õ®ÕÕ¤≈ œ–≈ƒÀŒ∆≈Õ»fl 6. The rate at which drugs move from one part of the body to another on their way to or from a site of infection is determined by several factors. ✔ 7. The rates at which different drugs are chemically altered by the body vary greatly, and there is also considerable variation in the rates at which different species biotransform the same drug. 8. Isotopes are two or more forms of the same element whose atoms differ in number of neutrons. 9. The fist animal whose naked-eye structure was adequately explored was man himself. 161 –¿«ƒ≈À 7 10. The very properties of inertness and durability that make plastics so desirable as replacements for natural materials also create serious problems with their disposal. ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 45 ¿ ŒÔˇˇÒ¸ ̇ —ıÂÏÛ 5, œËÏÂ: ÔӇ̇ÎËÁËÛÈÚ ÒÎÓÊÌÓN V ÔÓ‰˜ËÌÂÌÌ˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ The human body is made up of millions of cells Ò Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ÏË ÓÔ‰ÂÎËthat require nutrients and energy. ÚÂθÌ˚ÏË, „‰Â ÒÓ˛Á, ÔËÒÓn v ‰ËÌˇ˛˘ËÈ Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËÂ Í „·‚ÌÓÏÛ, ˇ‚ΡÂÚÒˇ ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘ËÏ Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓ„Ó Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. ՇȉËÚ ˇ‰Ó ‚ „·‚ÌÓÏ Ë Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓÏ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡı Ë Û͇ÊËÚ ÒÎÓ‚Ó, ÓÔ‰ÂΡÂÏÓ Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚Ï Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËÂÏ. —ıÂχ 5 —ÎÓÊÌÓÔÓ‰˜ËÌ∏ÌÌÓ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌË „·‚ÌÓ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌË N ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌË V Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌË n v —Ó˛Á/ÒÓ˛ÁÌÓ ÒÎÓ‚Ó ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â„Ó 162 ... —ÀŒ∆ÕŒœŒƒ◊»Õ®ÕÕ¤≈ œ–≈ƒÀŒ∆≈Õ»fl ¡ œË Ô‚Ӊ ̇ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í ÌÂÓ·ıÓ‰ËÏÓ ÔÓÏÌËÚ¸, ˜ÚÓ Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓ„Ó Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ Òӄ·ÒÛÂÚÒˇ ‚ ÎËˆÂ Ë ˜ËÒÎÂ Ò ÓÔ‰ÂΡÂÏ˚Ï ÒÎÓ‚ÓÏ (‡ ÌÂ Ò ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘ËÏ Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓ„Ó Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ, ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÍÓÚÓÓ„Ó ‚˚ÒÚÛÔ‡ÂÚ ÒÓ˛Á). ¬ Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: The human body is made up of millions of cells that require nutrients and energy. Œ„‡ÌËÁÏ ˜ÂÎÓ‚Â͇ ÒÓÒÚÓËÚ ËÁ ÏËÎÎËÓÌÓ‚ ÍÎÂÚÓÍ, ÍÓÚÓ˚ ÌÛʉ‡˛ÚÒˇ ‚ ÔËÚ‡ÚÂθÌ˚ı ‚¢ÂÒÚ‚‡ı Ë ˝Ì„ËË. œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. Under certain conditions, the glucose and other organic compounds that make up the plant only partially decompose. 2. The amount of phosphorus that is naturally present in food varies considerably. 3. Chemistry is the branch of science which deals with the composition of substances and the changes that take place in their composition. 4. Medicines that are applied directly to the part of the body which is being treated, e.g. the skin, eyes, ear or nose are called topical medicines. 163 ✔ –¿«ƒ≈À 7 ✔ 5. Titanium metal can cope with all kinds of extreme conditions due to the impervious layer of titanium dioxide which immediately forms on the surface of the metal. 6. Pasteur (1822ñ95) is one of the greatest figures in science, who made major changes in all the fields in which he worked. 7. Practically all of the numerous and complex biochemical reactions that take piece in animals, plants, and microorganisms are regulated by enzyme. 8. Nutrition may be defined as a science which deals with the food materials which the living organisms take in and the processes through which these materials maintain life and sustain all the activities of the organism. 164 —ÀŒ∆ÕŒœŒƒ◊»Õ®ÕÕ¤≈ œ–≈ƒÀŒ∆≈Õ»fl 9. The many important discoveries in human anatomy and physiology, infectious and other diseases, drugs, and the therapeutic procedures that took place during the 19th and 20th centuries have had a direct bearing on the important developments that occurred in the field of public health. ✔ 10. The Bronze Age which came after the Copper Age marked a whole epoch in the development of world culture. 11. Among the 21 mineral elements which have been reported to have been found in the human body there are at least 14 which are now recognized as doubtless essential. 165 –¿«ƒ≈À 7 ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 46 —ıÂχ 6 —ÎÓÊÌÓÔÓ‰˜ËÌ∏ÌÌÓ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌË „·‚ÌÓ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌË N ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌË V ... Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌË n v ¿ ŒÔˇˇÒ¸ ̇ —ıÂœËÏÂ: ÏÛ 6, ÔӇ̇ÎËÁËÛÈÚ N V ÒÚÛÍÚÛÛ ÒÎÓÊÌÓÔÓ‰The air you breathe in is a mixture of several substances. ˜ËÌÂÌÌ˚ı Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËÈ n v Ò Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ÏË ÓÔ‰ÂÎËÚÂθÌ˚ÏË. ՇȉËÚ ˇ‰Ó ‚ „·‚ÌÓÏ Ë Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓÏ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡı, ‡ Ú‡ÍÊ ÓÔ‰ÂΡÂÏÓ ÒÎÓ‚Ó ‚ „·‚ÌÓÏ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËË, Í ÍÓÚÓÓÏÛ Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓ ÓÔ‰ÂÎËÚÂθÌÓ ÔËÒÓ‰ËÌˇÂÚÒˇ ·ÂÒÒÓ˛ÁÌÓ. ¡ œË Ô‚Ӊ ̇ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í ÌÂÓ·ıÓ‰ËÏÓ, ÓÔˇˇÒ¸ ̇ ÍÓÌÚÂÍÒÚ, ´‚ÓÒÒÚ‡ÌÓ‚ËÚ¸ª ÔÓ‰‡ÁÛÏ‚‡ÂÏ˚È ÒÓ˛Á (ÒÓ˛ÁÌÓ ÒÎÓ‚Ó). Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: The air you breathe in (= which you breathe in) is a mixture of several substances. ¬ÓÁ‰Ûı, ÍÓÚÓ˚È ‚˚ ‚‰˚ı‡ÂÚÂ, Ô‰ÒÚ‡‚ΡÂÚ ÒÓ·ÓÈ ÒÏÂÒ¸ ÌÂÒÍÓθÍËı ‚¢ÂÒÚ‚. ¬ ŒÔˇˇÒ¸ ̇ ÍÓÌÚÂÍÒÚ, ‚˚·ÂËÚ ÒÓ˛Á (Ò Ô‰ÎÓ„ÓÏ ËÎË ·ÂÁ), ÔÓÔÛ˘ÂÌÌ˚È ‚ ‡Ì„ÎËÈÒÍÓÏ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËË: that, which, in which, when, by which. œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. Chemists investigate the way substances react and behave. 2. Obtain a new prescription each time illness occurs. 166 —ÀŒ∆ÕŒœŒƒ◊»Õ®ÕÕ¤≈ œ–≈ƒÀŒ∆≈Õ»fl 3. The earliest cosmetics we know of were made by the ancient Egyptians around 4000 BC. ✔ 4. There are a number of ways food can be preserved. 5. In deciding to use a medicine, the risk of taking the medicine must be weighed against the good it will do. 6. Titanium is highly dangerous because of the radiation it emits. 7. Each compound is represented by a formula which gives the proportions of the different elements it contains. 8. The amount of sodium a person consumes each day varies from individual to individual and from culture to culture. 167 –¿«ƒ≈À 7 ✔ 9. The degree of poisoning depends on the particular poison a plant contains, on the amount of poison it contains, on the plant that is eaten, and on the part of the plant that is eaten. 10. After you stop using this medicine, your body may need time to adjust. The length of time this takes depends on the amount of medicine you were using and how long you have used it. 7.5 œË‰‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ ӷÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚ÂÌÌ˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ œË‰‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ, ‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇ˛˘Ë ÙÛÌÍˆË˛ Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡, ı‡‡ÍÚÂËÁÛ˛Ú, Í‡Í Ô‡‚ËÎÓ, „·„ÓÎ-Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ „·‚ÌÓ„Ó Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ Ë ÏÓ„ÛÚ Á‡ÌËχڸ ÏÂÒÚÓ Í‡Í ‰Ó, Ú‡Í Ë ÔÓÒΠˇ‰‡ „·‚ÌÓ„Ó Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ (ÒÏ. —ıÂÏ˚ 7 Ë 8). 168 —ÀŒ∆ÕŒœŒƒ◊»Õ®ÕÕ¤≈ œ–≈ƒÀŒ∆≈Õ»fl —ıÂχ 7 —ÎÓÊÌÓÔÓ‰˜ËÌ∏ÌÌÓ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌË „·‚ÌÓ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌË N V Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚Ó ÒÓ˛Á + Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌË n v —ıÂχ 8 —ÎÓÊÌÓÔÓ‰˜ËÌ∏ÌÌÓ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌË „·‚ÌÓ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌË ӷÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚Ó ÒÓ˛Á + N V Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌË n v —Û˘ÂÒÚ‚Û˛Ú ÒÎÂ‰Û˛˘Ë ‚ˉ˚ Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ı Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚ÂÌÌ˚ı Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËÈ: Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ ‚ÂÏÂÌË (‚‚Ó‰ˇÚÒˇ ÒÓ˛Á‡ÏË/ÒÓ˛ÁÌ˚ÏË ÒÎÓ‚‡ÏË after, as,before, once, until, when, while Ë ‰.), Ô˘ËÌ˚ (‚‚Ó‰ˇÚÒˇ ÒÓ˛Á‡ÏË/ÒÓ˛ÁÌ˚ÏË ÒÎÓ‚‡ÏË as, because, for, since Ë ‰.), ÛÒÎӂˡ (‚‚Ó‰ˇÚÒˇ ÒÓ˛Á‡ÏË/ÒÓ˛ÁÌ˚ÏË ÒÎÓ‚‡ÏË if, unless Ë ‰.), ÛÒÚÛÔÍË (‚‚Ó‰ˇÚÒˇ ÒÓ˛Á‡ÏË/ÒÓ˛ÁÌ˚ÏË ÒÎÓ‚‡ÏË although, though, while Ë ‰.), ‰‚ÓÈÌÓ„Ó Ò‡‚ÌÂÌˡ (ÒÓÓÚÌÓÒËÚÂθÌ˚Â) Ë ‰. 7.5.1 œË‰‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡ ‚ÂÏÂÌË ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 47 ¿ ŒÔˇˇÒ¸ ̇ —ıÂÏ˚ 7 œËÏÂ: Ë 8, ÔӇ̇ÎËÁËÛÈÚ N V ÒÚÛÍÚÛÛ ÒÎÓÊÌÓÔÓ‰˜ËScientific observations of the air began in 1593, ÌÂÌÌ˚ı Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËÈ Ò when the Italian scientist Galileo invented a type Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ÏË Ó·ÒÚÓˇof thermometer. n v ÚÂθÒÚ‚‡ ‚ÂÏÂÌË: ̇ȉËÚ ˇ‰Ó ‚ „·‚ÌÓÏ Ë Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓÏ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡı, ‡ Ú‡ÍÊ Û͇ÊËÚ ÒÓ˛Á, ÍÓÚÓ˚Ï Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌË ÔËÒÓ‰ËÌˇÂÚÒˇ Í „·‚ÌÓÏÛ. 169 –¿«ƒ≈À 7 ¡ œË Ô‚Ӊ ̇ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í ÌÂÓ·ıÓ‰ËÏÓ Ô‡‚ËθÌÓ Ô‰‡Ú¸ Á̇˜ÂÌË ÒÓ˛Á‡ ËÎË ÒÓ˛ÁÌÓ„Ó ÒÎÓ‚‡, ÍÓÚÓ˚ ‚‚Ó‰ˇÚ Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓ ‚ÂÏÂÌË Ë ÏÓ„ÛÚ ‚ Á‡‚ËÒËÏÓÒÚË ÓÚ ÍÓÌÚÂÍÒÚ‡ ËÏÂÚ¸ ‡ÁÌ˚ ÓÚÚÂÌÍË Á̇˜ÂÌËÈ. after ó ÔÓÒΠÚÓ„Ó, Í‡Í as ó ÍÓ„‰‡, ÔÓ Ï ÚÓ„Ó Í‡Í before ó ÔÂʉ ˜ÂÏ; ‰Ó ÚÓ„Ó Í‡Í once ó Í‡Í ÚÓθÍÓ as soon as ó Í‡Í ÚÓθÍÓ ¬ until ó ÔÓ͇; (‰Ó ÚÂı ÔÓ) ÔÓ͇ (ÌÂ) till ó (‰Ó ÚÂı ÔÓ) ÔÓ͇ (ÌÂ) when óÍÓ„‰‡ whenever óÍÓ„‰‡ ·˚ ÌË; ‚ÒˇÍËÈ ‡Á, ÍÓ„‰‡ while ó ÔÓ͇; ‚ ÚÓ ‚ÂÏˇ ͇Í; ÚÓ„‰‡ ͇Í; ‚ ÚÓ Ê ‚ÂÏˇ œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. Cells must grow before they can divide. 2. Before a cell divides, it must replicate all its DNA. 3. Plants will tolerate quite high levels of lead in soil, before it affects their growth. ✔ 4. Many drugs now available are still in the investigational stage and must be approved by a human experimentation committee before they can be used in hospital. 5. Once a seeding emerges above the soil it begins to photosynthesize. 170 —ÀŒ∆ÕŒœŒƒ◊»Õ®ÕÕ¤≈ œ–≈ƒÀŒ∆≈Õ»fl 6. As the leaf ages, hormonal changes take place and at least two layers of cells become differentiated. ✔ 7. As soon as the reaction starts, more and more molecules are activated by the energy liberated as a result of the reaction. 8. Until man learned to develop nuclear energy, he depended entirely on sunlight for his energy needs. 9. Whenever the electrolysis of water is carefully carried out, the volume of hydrogen generated is always found to be twice the volume of oxygen. 10. After algae and other simple green plants appeared in the oceans about 3.5 billion years ago, the amount of oxygen started to increase as a result of photosynthesis. 171 –¿«ƒ≈À 7 ✔ 11. While you are being treated with this medicine, and after you stop treatment with it do not have any vaccinations without your doctor's approval. 12. When this medicine is used for short periods of time at low doses, side effects usually are rare. 13. Avoid alcoholic beverages until you have discussed their use with your doctor. 14. Do not swallow the tablet until it has dissolved completely. 15. Seeds enclosed in fleshy fruits, such as apples or tomatoes, do not sprout until they have been removed from the fruit. 16. The Incas of South America were growing and eating white potatoes long before the Spanish Conquerors arrived. 172 —ÀŒ∆ÕŒœŒƒ◊»Õ®ÕÕ¤≈ œ–≈ƒÀŒ∆≈Õ»fl 17. Counting of annual rings gives an accurate index of the age of the tree, while attention to details such as variable thickness of successive rings indicates environmental changes. 7.5.2 œË‰‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡ Ô˘ËÌ˚ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 48 ¿ ŒÔˇˇÒ¸ ̇ —ıÂÏ˚ 7 Ë 8, ÔӇ̇ÎËÁËÛÈÚ ÒÚÛÍÚÛÛ ÒÎÓÊÌÓÔÓ‰˜ËÌÂÌÌ˚ı Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËÈ Ò Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ÏË Ô˘ËÌ˚: ̇ȉËÚ ˇ‰Ó ‚ „·‚ÌÓÏ Ë Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓÏ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡı, ‡ Ú‡ÍÊ Û͇ÊËÚ ÒÓ˛Á, ÍÓÚÓ˚Ï Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌË œËÏÂ: N V Elements differ in atomic mass because their atoms differ in composition. n v ÔËÒÓ‰ËÌˇÂÚÒˇ Í „·‚ÌÓÏÛ. ¡ œË‰‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ Ô˘ËÌ˚ ‚‚Ó‰ˇÚÒˇ ÒÓ˛Á‡ÏË as, because, for, since, ˇ‚Ρ˛˘ËÏËÒˇ ÒËÌÓÌËχÏË, Ó·˙‰ËÌÂÌÌ˚ÏË Ó·˘ËÏ Á̇˜ÂÌËÂÏ, ÍÓÚÓÓ ‚ Á‡‚ËÒËÏÓÒÚË ÓÚ ÍÓÌÚÂÍÒÚ‡ Ë ÏÂÒÚÓÔÓÎÓÊÂÌˡ Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓ„Ó Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ (‰Ó ËÎË ÔÓÒΠ„·‚ÌÓ„Ó) ÏÓÊÂÚ Ô‰‡‚‡Ú¸Òˇ ̇ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í ÒÎÂ‰Û˛˘ËÏË ˝Í‚Ë‚‡ÎÂÌÚ‡ÏË: ´ÔÓÚÓÏÛ ˜ÚÓª, ´Ú‡Í ͇ͪ, ´ÔÓÒÍÓθÍÛª, ´ÔÓ Ô˘ËÌ ÚÓ„Ó, ˜ÚÓª. ¬ œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. Because proteins are the major source of nitrogen in the body, they are constantly being broken down and reconstructed. 2. Since many substances used as medications are themselves weak acids or weak bases, there is a high potential for drug-drug interaction. 173 –¿«ƒ≈À 7 ✔ 3. Mercury used in thermometers must be extra-pure since even microscopic impurities may substantially distort the readings. 4. Plants are very important as they help to maintain the balance of the atmosphere. 5. Since an enzyme is not affected by a chemical reaction, it can be used over and over again to catalyze the same reaction. 6. Calcium is an invariable constituent of all plants because it is essential for their growth. 7. Do not take this medicine mixed with chocolate syrup or ice cream since it may prevent the medicine working properly. 174 —ÀŒ∆ÕŒœŒƒ◊»Õ®ÕÕ¤≈ œ–≈ƒÀŒ∆≈Õ»fl 8. Since fungus infections may be very slow to clear up, you may have to continue using this medicine everyday for several months or longer. ✔ 9. Cesalpino's classification of plants (1583) was based on a wide knowledge of plants but was by no means satisfactory to everyone, for it was not a truly natural classification. 10. Because it conducts electricity well and does not tarnish, gold is used extensively in computers. 11. Neon poses no threat to the environment, because it is chemically unreactive and forms no compounds. 175 –¿«ƒ≈À 7 ✔ 12. Botany deals with facts of great importance to man, since man is directly or indirectly dependent on plants for food and other things. 13. Before the era of electricity, acetylene gas was used as a component of illuminating gas, for it burns with a colourless flame. 14. The cortex of a young stem is usually green, for its cells possess chloroplasts. 15. Since all matter is composed of one or more hundred elements the living and nonliving are structurally similar at the chemical level. 176 —ÀŒ∆ÕŒœŒƒ◊»Õ®ÕÕ¤≈ œ–≈ƒÀŒ∆≈Õ»fl 7.5.3 œË‰‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ ÛÒÎÓ‚Ì˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ “»œ¤ ”—ÀŒ¬Õ¤’ œ–≈ƒÀŒ∆≈Õ»… (Ú‡·Îˈ‡ 5) “ËÔ œËÏÂ˚ ‘ÓÏ˚ Ò͇ÁÛÂÏ˚ı «Ì‡˜ÂÌË Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓ „·‚ÌÓ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌË Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌË I ÚËÔ II ÚËÔ III ÚËÔ The smoke cloud will go away if the wind blows (tomorrow). The smoke cloud would go away if the wind blew (now). will+V would+V The smoke cloud would + have would have + V3 gone away if the wind had blown yesterday. V(Vs) ‚˚‡Ê‡˛Ú ‡θÌÓ ÛÒÎÓ‚ËÂ, ÓÚÌÓÒˇ˘ÂÂÒˇ Í Ì‡ÒÚÓˇ˘ÂÏÛ ËÎË ·ÎËʇȯÂÏÛ ·Û‰Û˘ÂÏÛ, Ë ÒÓÓÚ‚ÂÚÒÚ‚Û˛Ú ‚ ÛÒÒÍÓÏ ˇÁ˚Í ÛÒÎÓ‚Ì˚Ï Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËˇÏ Ò „·„ÓÎÓÏ ‚ ËÁ˙ˇ‚ËÚÂθÌÓÏ Ì‡ÍÎÓÌÂÌËË: œËÏÂ: ƒ˚ÏÓ‚Ó ӷ·ÍÓ ‡Á‚ÂÂÚÒˇ, ÂÒÎË ÔÓ‰ÛÂÚ ‚ÂÚÂ. V2 ‚˚‡Ê‡˛Ú ̇θÌÓ ԇÍÚ˘ÂÒÍË ÌÂÓÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÏÓ ÛÒÎÓ‚ËÂ, ÓÚÌÓÒˇ˘ÂÂÒˇ Í Ì‡ÒÚÓˇ˘ÂÏÛ ËÎË ·Û‰Û˘ÂÏÛ, Ë ÒÓÓÚ‚ÂÚÒÚ‚Û˛Ú ‚ ÛÒÒÍÓÏ ˇÁ˚Í ÛÒÎÓ‚Ì˚Ï Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËˇÏ Ò „·„ÓÎÓÏ ‚ ÒÓÒ·„‡ÚÂθÌÓÏ Ì‡ÍÎÓÌÂÌËË: œËÏÂ: ƒ˚ÏÓ‚Ó ӷ·ÍÓ ‡Á‚¡ÎÓÒ¸ ·˚, ÂÒÎË ·˚ ÔÓ‰ÛÎ ‚ÂÚÂ. had + V3 177 ‚˚‡Ê‡˛Ú ̇θÌÓ ÌÂÓÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚Î∏ÌÌÓ ÛÒÎÓ‚ËÂ, ÓÚÌÓÒˇ˘ÂÂÒˇ Í Ôӯ‰¯ÂÏÛ, Ë ÒÓÓÚ‚ÂÚÒÚ‚Û˛Ú ‚ ÛÒÒÍÓÏ ˇÁ˚Í ÛÒÎÓ‚Ì˚Ï Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËˇÏ Ò „·„ÓÎÓÏ ‚ ÒÓÒ·„‡ÚÂθÌÓÏ Ì‡ÍÎÓÌÂÌËË: œËÏÂ: ƒ˚ÏÓ‚Ó ӷ·ÍÓ ‡Á‚¡ÎÓÒ¸ ·˚, ÂÒÎË ·˚ ‚˜Â‡ ‰ÛÎ ‚ÂÚÂ. –¿«ƒ≈À 7 ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 49 ¿ œÓ‡Ì‡ÎËÁËÛÈÚ ÒÎÓÊÌÓÔÓ‰˜ËÌÂÌÌ˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ Ò Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ÏË ÛÒÎӂˡ: ËÒÔÓθÁÛˇ Ú‡·ÎËˆÛ Ì‡ ÒÚ. 79 (—ıÂÏÛ 2), ÓÔ‰ÂÎËÚ ÙÓÏÛ „·„Ó·-Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ„Ó ‚ „·‚ÌÓÏ Ë Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓÏ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡı Ë Û͇ÊËÚÂ, ͇ÍÓ ÛÒÎÓ‚Ë (‡θÌÓ ËÎË Ì‡θÌÓÂ) ÓÔËÒ‡ÌÓ ‚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡı. ¡ ¬ Á‡‚ËÒËÏÓÒÚË ÓÚ ÚËÔ‡ ÛÒÎӂˡ, ‚˚‡ÊÂÌÌÓ„Ó Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚Ï Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËÂÏ, Ô‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ (ÔËÏÂ˚ Ô‚Ӊ‡ Ô˂‰ÂÌ˚ ‚ “‡·Îˈ 5). 1. If water reaches 100∞C, it boils. 2. If the water is not pure, but contains other substances such as salt, the temperature at which it boils and freezes will change. 3. If the hydrogen bonds in water were weaker, water would have a much lower boiling temperature and require less energy to boil. ✔ 4. If the nucleus were enlarged so that it was as big as a beach ball, the atom would be larger than an average-sized professional stadium. 178 —ÀŒ∆ÕŒœŒƒ◊»Õ®ÕÕ¤≈ œ–≈ƒÀŒ∆≈Õ»fl 5. If the nucleus of a hydrogen atom were the size of a dot, the orbit of the electron would be about 30 feet in diameter. ✔ 6. If the Earth's atmosphere did not exist the surface of the planet would be subjected to high levels of radiant energy. 7. If the ozone layer continues to be damaged, more ultraviolet rays will get through to the Earth. 8. If we recycle the product we use every day, our natural resources will not be used up as quickly. 9. If we could save the heat from the summer to warm during the winter, we could conserve the portion of the fossil fuels we now burn for that purpose. 179 –¿«ƒ≈À 7 ✔ 10. If soils are badly damaged they may never recover. 11. It diuretics are given the patient must be watched for potassium depletion. 12. If you are taking this medicine without a prescription, carefully read and follow any precautions on the label. 13. If too much fluid has been lost by the body due to diarrhea a serious condition may develop. 14. Read directions carefully before using the medicine, even if it was prescribed by your doctor. 15. If thin slices of tissue are rapidly transferred into a warm medium of suitable composition, the slices will continue to take up oxygen and give off carbon dioxide. 180 —ÀŒ∆ÕŒœŒƒ◊»Õ®ÕÕ¤≈ œ–≈ƒÀŒ∆≈Õ»fl 16. If the Sun were the size of a skyscraper, the Earth would be the size of a person. The Moon would be the cocker spaniel standing next to person. ✔ 17. If you are taking this medicine to treat another medical problem, be sure that you discuss the risks and benefits of this medicine with your doctor. 18. Elderly people may be more likely than younger adults to develop serious kidney problems if they take large amounts of these medicines for a long time. 19. If we are careful in our use of forests and water, they will replace themselves naturally. 20. If the Earth were smaller, colder or less massive, then life would have taken on different forms. 181 –¿«ƒ≈À 7 21. If the people of the world hadn't been so careless of their environment in the past, there would still be many large areas of rainforest left today, and so much of the planet's resources wouldn't have disappeared. 22. If you have been prescribed antibiotics, you should make sure you complete the course, even if you feel better. If you don't, the bacteria causing the infection may not be completely destroyed and the infection could return. ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 50 ¿ œÓ‡Ì‡ÎËÁËÛÈÚ ÒÚÛÍÚÛÛ ÛÒÎÓ‚Ì˚ı Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËÈ ÓÒÓ·Ó„Ó ‚ˉ‡, „‰Â ÚËÔ ÛÒÎӂˡ (‡θÌÓÂ, ̇θÌÓÂ, ÌÂÓÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ÎÂÌÌÓÂ Ë Ú. Ô.) ‚˚‡ÊÂÌ ÙÓÏÓÈ „·„Ó·-Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ„Ó, ‡ Ò‡ÏÓ ÛÒÎÓ‚Ë ó Ó·ÓÓÚÓÏ Ò Ô‰ÎÓ„ÓÏ without, ÍÓÚÓ˚È ‚ ÛÒÒÍÓÏ ˇÁ˚Í ÏÓÊÂÚ ËÏÂÚ¸ ÒÎÂ‰Û˛˘Ë ˝Í‚Ë‚‡ÎÂÌÚ˚: ´·ÂÁª; ´‚ ÓÚÒÛÚÒÚ‚Ë˪; ´ÂÒÎË ·˚ Ì ·˚ÎÓ/Ì ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚Ó‚‡ÎÓª. ¡ ŒÔ‰ÂÎËÚ ÙÓÏÛ „·„Ó·-Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ„Ó, Û͇ÊËÚÂ, ͇ÍÓÏÛ ÚËÔÛ ÛÒÎӂˡ ÒÓÓÚ‚ÂÚÒÚ‚ÛÂÚ ˝Ú‡ ÙÓχ, Ë Ô‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. Without oxygen life on Earth could not exist. 2. Without plants, the atmosphere would soon fill up with carbon dioxide, and human beings and the other animals would suffocate. 182 —ÀŒ∆ÕŒœŒƒ◊»Õ®ÕÕ¤≈ œ–≈ƒÀŒ∆≈Õ»fl 3. Enzymes speed up chemical reactions in the cell. Without enzymes, these reactions would occur very slowly, and the cell could not function normally. ✔ 4. The human body contains more than 1,000 types of enzymes. Each kind of enzyme performs one specific job. Without enzymes, a person could not breathe, see, digest food, nor move any part of his body. 5. Many discoveries and advances would not have been made without microscope. 6. Without cholesterol we would surely die ó every cell in the body depends on the waxy substance to provide strength and resilience to its outer membrane. 7. Without oxygen the food that all living things take in would be useless to them and they would die. 183 –¿«ƒ≈À 7 ✔ 8. Without Darwin's evolution progress in genetics today would not have been possible. 9. Without salt the fluids in the body could not be kept in their proper balance. 10. Without bacterial decomposition, the elements would remain in dead organisms and animal wastes, and the earth would be covered with dead matter and life would stop. 11. Without the ozone layer, dangerous radiation capable of harming living cells would penetrate the Earth's surface. 184 —ÀŒ∆ÕŒœŒƒ◊»Õ®ÕÕ¤≈ œ–≈ƒÀŒ∆≈Õ»fl 7.5.4 œË‰‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ ÒÓÓÚÌÓÒËÚÂθÌ˚ ‚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡı ‰‚ÓÈÌÓ„Ó Ò‡‚ÌÂÌˡ —ıÂχ 9 —ÎÓÊÌÓÔÓ‰˜ËÌ∏ÌÌÓ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌË Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌË the ...-er „·‚ÌÓ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌË n v the ...-er N V ÔË·„‡ÚÂθÌÓ ËÎË Ì‡Â˜Ë ‚ Ò‡‚ÌËÚÂθÌÓÈ ÒÚÂÔÂÌË ÔË·„‡ÚÂθÌÓ ËÎË Ì‡Â˜Ë ‚ Ò‡‚ÌËÚÂθÌÓÈ ÒÚÂÔÂÌË ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 51 ¿ ŒÔˇˇÒ¸ ̇ —ıÂÏÛ 9, ÔӇ̇ÎËÁËÛÈÚ ÒÚÛÍÚÛÛ ÒÎÓÊÌÓÔÓ‰˜ËÌÂÌÌ˚ı Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËÈ Ò Ú. Ì. Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ÏË ‰‚ÓÈÌÓ„Ó Ò‡‚ÌÂÌˡ Ë Ì‡È‰ËÚ ˇ‰Ó ‚ „·‚ÌÓÏ Ë Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓÏ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡı. Õ‰ÍÓ ‚ Ú‡ÍËı Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡı ‚ ÒÚÛÍÚÛ ÒÓÒÚ‡‚ÌÓ„Ó ËÏÂÌÌÓ„Ó Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ„Ó ÓÔÛÒ͇ÂÚÒˇ „·„ÓÎ-Ò‚ˇÁ͇ to be ‚ ΢ÌÓÈ ÙÓÏÂ. œËÏÂ: n v The longer sugar stays in touch with your teeth, the more damage it can do. N V œËÏÂ: n The higher the temperature, the greater the average molecular motion. N ¡ Õ‡ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í Ú‡ÍË Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ Ô‚ӉˇÚÒˇ Ò ÔÓÏÓ˘¸˛ Ò‡‚ÌËÚÂθÌÓÈ ÍÓÌÒÚÛ͈ËË ´˜ÂÏ..., ÚÂÏ...ª. Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: 1) The longer sugar stays in touch with your teeth, the more damage it can do. ◊ÂÏ ‰Óθ¯Â Ò‡ı‡ ÓÒÚ‡ÂÚÒˇ ̇ ÁÛ·‡ı, ÚÂÏ ·Óθ¯ËÈ ‚‰ ÓÌ ÏÓÊÂÚ Ô˘ËÌËÚ¸. 2) The higher the temperature, the greater the average molecular motion. ◊ÂÏ ‚˚¯Â ÚÂÏÔ‡ÚÛ‡, ÚÂÏ ‚˚¯Â ÒÂ‰Ìˇˇ ÒÍÓÓÒÚ¸ ‰‚ËÊÂÌˡ ÏÓÎÂÍÛÎ. 185 –¿«ƒ≈À 7 ¡ œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. Temperature is a measure of molecular motion ó the higher the temperature, the greater the average motion. 2. The greater the distance between an electron and the nucleus, the weaker the attraction. 3. The less oxygen a compound contains the more energy per gram it will release on combustion. ✔ 4. The more acidic a solution the greater the hydrogen ion concentration and the lower pH. 5. The softer the plastic the more phenol is produced. 6. The water vapor is held in the surrounding warm air. The warmer the air the more water vapor it can hold. 186 —ÀŒ∆ÕŒœŒƒ◊»Õ®ÕÕ¤≈ œ–≈ƒÀŒ∆≈Õ»fl 7. The more moisture there is in the air, the higher the humidity is. ✔ 8. Atoms, molecules, and ions are always moving. The higher the temperature, the faster they move. 9. The greater the concentration of dissolved molecules in the solution, the greater is its osmotic pressure 10. The farther away from the nucleus an electron is, the greater the amount of energy required to keep it there. 11. The wider the margin of safety, the more useful the drug. 12. When a gas is compressed, the higher the temperature the smaller the volume. 187 –¿«ƒ≈À 7 7.6 —ӄ·ÒÓ‚‡ÌË ‚ÂÏ∏Ì “‡·Îˈ‡ 6 ËÎβÒÚËÛÂÚ ÛÔÓÚ·ÎÂÌË ÙÓÏ „·„Ó·-Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ„Ó ‚ Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓÏ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËË ‚ Á‡‚ËÒËÏÓÒÚË ÓÚ ÚÓ„Ó, ÍÓ„‰‡ (‰Ó, Ó‰ÌÓ‚ÂÏÂÌÌÓ, ÔÓÒÎÂ) Òӂ¯ËÎÓÒ¸ ‚˚‡ÊÂÌÌÓ ‚ ÌÂÏ ‰ÂÈÒÚ‚Ë ÔÓ ÓÚÌÓ¯ÂÌ˲ Í ‰ÂÈÒڂ˲ „·‚ÌÓ„Ó Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ, ‚˚‡ÊÂÌÌÓ„Ó Ò͇ÁÛÂÏ˚Ï ‚ Ôӯ‰¯ÂÏ ‚ÂÏÂÌË. —Œ√À¿—Œ¬¿Õ»≈ ¬–≈Ã®Õ ¬ ¿Õ√À»…—üŒÃ fl«¤ü≈ (Ú‡·Îˈ‡ 6) They said that... (Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ ‚ Past Indefinite) ŒÌË Ò͇Á‡ÎË, ˜ÚÓ ... „·‚ÌÓ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌË Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌË („·„ÓÎ-Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ ‚˚‡Ê‡ÂÚ ‰ÂÈÒÚ‚ËÂ, ÒÓÓÚÌÂÒ∏ÌÌÓÂ Ò ‰ÂÈÒÚ‚ËÂÏ, ‚˚‡ÊÂÌÌ˚Ï „·„ÓÎÓÏÒ͇ÁÛÂÏ˚Ï „·‚ÌÓ„Ó Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ) they had worked in the laboratory the week before. they worked in the laboratory. they would work in the laboratory the next month. Past Perfect (had + V3) Ô‰¯ÂÒÚ‚Û˛˘Â ‰ÂÈÒÚ‚ËÂ: ...ÓÌË ‡·ÓÚ‡ÎË ‚ ··Ó‡ÚÓËË Ì‡ ÔÓ¯ÎÓÈ Ì‰ÂÎÂ. Past Indefinite (V2) Ó‰ÌÓ‚ÂÏÂÌÌÓ ‰ÂÈÒÚ‚ËÂ: ...ÓÌË ‡·ÓÚ‡˛Ú ‚ ··Ó‡ÚÓËË. Future in the Past (would + V) ·Û‰Û˘Â ‰ÂÈÒÚ‚ËÂ: ...ÓÌË ·Û‰ÛÚ ‡·ÓÚ‡Ú¸ ‚ ··Ó‡ÚÓËË ‚ ÒÎÂ‰Û˛˘ÂÏ ÏÂÒˇˆÂ. ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 52 ¿ œÓθÁÛˇÒ¸ Ú‡·ÎˈÂÈ, ÓÔ‰ÂÎËÚ ‚ÂÏˇ ‰ÂÈÒڂˡ, ÓÔËÒ‡ÌÌÓ„Ó ‚ Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓÏ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËË (‰Ó, Ó‰ÌÓ‚ÂÏÂÌÌÓ ËÎË ÔÓÒΠ‰ÂÈÒڂˡ, ÓÔËÒ‡ÌÌÓ„Ó ‚ „·‚ÌÓÏ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËË). ƒÎˇ ˝ÚÓ„Ó ÌÂÓ·ıÓ‰ËÏÓ ÔӇ̇ÎËÁËÓ‚‡Ú¸ ÙÓÏÛ „·„Ó·-Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ„Ó ‚ Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓÏ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËË: Ô‰¯ÂÒÚ‚Û˛˘Â ó had + V3, ËÎË Ó‰ÌÓ‚ÂÏÂÌÌÓ ó V2, ËÎË ·Û‰Û˘Â ‰ÂÈÒÚ‚Ë ó would + V. 188 —ÀŒ∆ÕŒœŒƒ◊»Õ®ÕÕ¤≈ œ–≈ƒÀŒ∆≈Õ»fl ¡ »ÒÔÓθÁÛˇ Ó·‡Áˆ˚ Ô‚Ӊ‡, Ô˂‰ÂÌÌ˚ ‚ Ú‡·ÎˈÂ, Ô‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. R. Boyle (1627ñ91) proposed that elements could be combined to make compounds and that compounds could be divided into their elements. 2. The noble gas elements were discovered after the Periodic Table had been devised. 3. The invention of barometer in 1643 proved that air had weight and took up space. ✔ 4. Lavoisier (1743ñ94) showed that water was a compound of hydrogen and oxygen. 5. Thales (625ñ550 BC) believed that the Earth and all things on it had once been water and had changed by some natural processes. 189 –¿«ƒ≈À 7 ✔ 6. Rutherford's studies revealed (1898) that radioactive emission consisted of at least two kinds of rays: alpha rays and beta rays. 7. Wohler's synthesis of urea in 1828 disproved the belief that only living organisms could produce organic molecules. 8. Aristotle (384ñ322 BC) became convinced that living organisms could be arranged in a continuous series from lowest to highest, on the basis of their degree of complexity. 9. Schwann (1810ñ1882) made the important discovery that animals were composed of living cells. He showed that the fundamental unit was not the tissue, but the cells that composed it. 190 —ÀŒ∆ÕŒœŒƒ◊»Õ®ÕÕ¤≈ œ–≈ƒÀŒ∆≈Õ»fl 10. Pasteur (1822ñ1895) proved that fermentation depended on living microbes. He showed that fermentation, putrefaction and infection were all due to contamination by microbes. 11. After scientists had noticed that introduction of zirconium improved many properties of steel it was acknowledged as a valuable alloying element. 7.7 ¬Ë‰˚ Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ı Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËÈ ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 53 (Ó·ÁÓÌÓÂ) ¿ œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ 1. Lithium cannot be kept under oil, as sodium can, because it is so light that it floats. 2. Some scientists believe that hydrogen will be an important fuel when fossil fuels run out. 191 –¿«ƒ≈À 7 ✔ 3. At ordinary temperatures hydrogen is a comparatively unreactive substance unless it has been activated in some manner, for example, by a suitable catalyst. 4. In the early 19th century Dalton developed his atomic theory, which postulated that matter consists of invisible atoms. 5. Boyle (1662) observed that at constant temperature the volume of a sample of gas varies inversely with pressure but Boyle did not explain why this was so. 6. The idea that matter is subdivided into atoms, which are not divisible any further, dates back to the Greek philosopher Democritus. 7. Before you begin treatment with this medicine, you and your doctor should talk about the good this medicine will do as well as the risk of using it. 192 —ÀŒ∆ÕŒœŒƒ◊»Õ®ÕÕ¤≈ œ–≈ƒÀŒ∆≈Õ»fl 8. The basic goals of botany are to explain how plants are structured, why they function the way they do, and what the evolutionary relationships are between them. ✔ 9. The earth's geological history is one factor that explains why certain plants are found where they are. 10. Metabolism includes the way the plants use air, water and minerals. 11. Among the objects Hooke (1635ñ1703) studied were pieces of cork, where he saw minute openings, which he called cells. 12. The water in rivers and lakes need to have a regular supply of oxygen, for when this gets depleted the water will no longer support fish and other aquatic species. 193 –¿«ƒ≈À 7 ✔ 13. Since man first began to purify metals from rocks thousands of years ago, he has been learning how different substances behave and trying to detect a pattern in that behaviour. 14. Although aluminium was predicted by Lavoisier as early as 1782 when he was investigating the properties of aluminum oxide (alumina), the metal was not isolated until 1825. 15. When rhodium is heated up to its melting point, it absorbs oxygen from the atmosphere, but it doesn't become transformed into one of its oxides, because as it solidifies it releases the oxygen again. 194 —ÀŒ∆ÕŒœŒƒ◊»Õ®ÕÕ¤≈ œ–≈ƒÀŒ∆≈Õ»fl 16. If the atmospheric concentration of nitrous oxide increased, it could result in an increase in the amount of ultraviolet radiation that reaches the earth's surface, a change which would be damaging in various ways to many forms of life. ✔ 17. The number of doses you take each day, the time allowed between doses, and the length of time you take the medicine depend on the medical problem for which you are taking the anabolic steroid. 18. To explain why the electron does not loose energy continuously N. Bohr (1885ñ1962) suggested that the electrons are confined to specific shells which have fixed energy levels. 195 –¿«ƒ≈À 7 ✔ 19. To what extent continuous treatment with anticoagulant prevents further attacks in people who have recovered from a thrombosis is still in doubt. 20. Analytical chemistry is that branch of chemistry which is concerned with the detection and identification of the atoms, ions, or radicals of which a substance is composed, the compounds which they form, and the proportions of these compounds which are present in a given substance. 21. Because each amino acid contains an amine group and an acid group, there are two ways the amino acids can join. 196 —ÀŒ∆ÕŒœŒƒ◊»Õ®ÕÕ¤≈ œ–≈ƒÀŒ∆≈Õ»fl 22. Since amino acids are essential to all organisms, all cells must be able to synthesize those they cannot obtain from their environment. 23. There would be no life without chlorophyll and there would be no chlorophyll without magnesium, for it makes up two per cent of it. “ÂÍÒÚ˚ ‰Îˇ ÚÂÌËÓ‚Ó˜ÌÓ„Ó Ô‚Ӊ‡ Í –‡Á‰ÂÎÛ 7 1. As water evaporates from the surface of the leaf under the warm sun, capillary action draws water upward from the roots. The hotter the day, the greater this transpiration, and the faster water is lifted. 2. Our Earth's atmosphere protects us from much of the radiant energy given out by the Sun. If it didn't the intensity of the ultraviolet and gamma rays would quickly burn the Earth's surface. 197 –¿«ƒ≈À 7 3. When a liquid is heated, its molecules move more and more quickly until the liquid turns into a gas or vapour. When a liquid is cooled, its molecules move less quickly until they take up fixed position and the liquid freezes into a solid. 4. Certain alloys resist corrosion because they are noble metals. Other alloys resist corrosion because a protective film develops on the metal surface. This passive film is an oxide which separates the metal from the corrosive environment. 5. Curium is dangerous because of its radioactivity, and tests on animals have shown that if it gets into the body it concentrates in the bone marrow where its intense radiation destroys red blood cells. It also collects in the liver, but from there it is rapidly excreted. 6. Bile's digestive properties result from bile salts, which are manufactured by the liver from a fatty substance called cholesterol. Bile salts break up globes of fat into tiny particles that digestive enzymes in the small intestine can attack. 198 —ÀŒ∆ÕŒœŒƒ◊»Õ®ÕÕ¤≈ œ–≈ƒÀŒ∆≈Õ»fl 7. If you will be taking this medicine in large doses for a long time, do not stop taking it without first checking with your doctor. Your doctor may want you to reduce gradually the amount you are taking before stopping completely. 8. Before a drug is given to the general public, it is carefully tested in the laboratory to see how it works. Then it is tested on laboratory animals to see if it is effective, what doses are needed and if there are side-effects. Finally, it is tested on volunteers. 9. The exact way that this medicine acts against cancer is not known. However, it seems to interfere with the growth of the cancer cells, which are eventually destroyed. Since the growth of normal body cells may also be affected by this medicine other effects will also occur. Some of these may be serious and must be reported to your doctor. 199 –¿«ƒ≈À 7 10. Placebos work because of the mind's ability to affect the body. Many studies have shown that when a doctor offers any treatment, people expect it to help, and that expectation itself can aid healing. Also, through a mind-body mechanism placebos trigger the release of endorphins, the body's mood-elevating, pain-relieving compounds. 11. Medicines may be injected to produce an effect on the entire body. Medicines are often injected when people are unable to take medicines by mouth or other routes when a very rapid effect is needed or for medicines that are not absorbed well when given orally. 200 —ÀŒ∆ÕŒœŒƒ◊»Õ®ÕÕ¤≈ œ–≈ƒÀŒ∆≈Õ»fl 12. The beginning of alkaloid chemistry is usually considered to be 1805 when F. Serturnar first isolated morphine. He prepared several salts of morphine and demonstrated that it was the principle responsible for the physiological effect of opium. The term ´alkaloidª, which was first proposed by the pharmacist Meissner, in 1819, and means ´alkali-freeª, is applied to basic nitrogen-containing compounds of plant origin. 13. All new medicines must undergo thorough testing before being approved for use. Before a new medicine can be tried in humans it must undergo extensive testing in the laboratory, to assess its safety and biological activity. This ´preclinicalª development stage may last as long as three or four years. Then clinical trials in human volunteers determine if a medicine is safe and effective, at what doses it works best and what side effects it causes. 201 –¿«ƒ≈À 7 14. Antibiotics may be given by injection, orally, or topically. When they are given orally, they must be absorbed into the body and transported by the blood and extracellular fluids to the site of the organisms which cause infection. When antibiotics are administered topically, such absorption is really possible, and they then exert their effect only against those organisms present at the site of application. 15. When a liquid is heated, the energy taken in causes its particles to move more rapidly. Some particles gain enough speed to break through the surface of the liquid and jump out of the liquid. Some particles escape altogether from the liquid. These particles are said to have evaporated. If you keep on heating a liquid, its particles move so fast, and are so far apart, that they form bubbles of gas within the liquid itself. At this point the liquid is said to be boiling. 202 ◊‡ÒÚ¸ IV. ÃÕŒ√Œ«Õ¿◊ÕŒ—“‹ ¿Õ√À»…—ü»’ ◊¿—“≈… –≈◊» (English Parts of Speech in Various Functions) –‡Á‰ÂÎ 8. ‘ÛÌ͈ËË ÏÂÒÚÓËÏÂÌˡ it ÃÂÒÚÓËÏÂÌË it ÏÓÊÂÚ: 1) ËÏÂÚ¸ Á̇˜ÂÌˠ΢ÌÓ„Ó ÏÂÒÚÓËÏÂÌˡ 3-„Ó Îˈ‡ ‰ËÌÒÚ‚ÂÌÌÓ„Ó ˜ËÒ· (Ó Ô‰ÏÂÚ‡ı Ë ÊË‚ÓÚÌ˚ı) Ë ÏÓÊÂÚ ËÏÂÚ¸ ÒÎÂ‰Û˛˘Ë ˝Í‚Ë‚‡ÎÂÌÚ˚ ‚ ÛÒÒÍÓÏ ˇÁ˚ÍÂ: ´Ó̪, ´Ó̇ª, ´ÓÌÓª, Ë ´Â„Óª, ´ÂÏÛª, ´ËϪ, ´Âª, ´ÂȪ, ´Â˛ª; 2) ËÏÂÚ¸ Á̇˜ÂÌË Û͇Á‡ÚÂθÌÓ„Ó ÏÂÒÚÓËÏÂÌˡ, ÒÓÓÚ‚ÂÚÒÚ‚Û˛˘Â ÛÒÒÍÓÏÛ ´˝ÚÓª; 3) ‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇÚ¸ ÙÛÌÍˆË˛ ÙÓχθÌÓ„Ó (ÒÎÛÊ·ÌÓ„Ó) ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â„Ó (ËÎË ˜‡ÒÚË ÒÎÓÊÌÓ„Ó ‰ÓÔÓÎÌÂÌˡ), ̇ÔËÏÂ, ‚ ·ÂÁ΢Ì˚ı Ó·ÓÓÚ‡ı Ë ÌÂÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌÌÓ΢Ì˚ı Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡı; 4) ÛÔÓÚÂ·ÎˇÚ¸Òˇ ‚ ˝ÏÓˆËÓ̇θÌÓ-ÛÒËÎËÚÂθÌÓÈ ÙÛÌ͈ËË. 8.1 ‘ÓχθÌÓ it ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â„Ó ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 54 ¿ ÃÂÒÚÓËÏÂÌË it ÏÓÊÂÚ œËÏÂ: ‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇÚ¸ ÙÛÌÍˆË˛ ÙÓ(N) V χθÌÓ„Ó ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â„Ó ÒÓ It is known that manganese is needed for the Ò͇ÁÛÂÏ˚Ï ‚ ÒÚ‡‰‡ÚÂθÌÓÏ n v Á‡ÎÓ„Â: working of various enzymes. it is + V3. œÓ‡Ì‡ÎËÁËÛÈÚ ÒÎÓÊÌÓÔÓ‰˜ËÌÂÌÌ˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ Ë Ì‡È‰ËÚ ˇ‰Ó ‚ „·‚ÌÓÏ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËË Ò ÙÓχθÌ˚Ï ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘ËÏ it Ë ˇ‰Ó Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓ„Ó Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. ¡ Õ‡ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í ÙÓχθÌÓ ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â it Ì Ô‚ӉËÚÒˇ, ‡ ‚Òˇ ÍÓÌÒÚÛÍˆËˇ Ô‰‡ÂÚÒˇ ·ÂÁ΢Ì˚Ï Ó·ÓÓÚÓÏ ËÎË ÌÂÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌÌÓ-΢Ì˚Ï Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËÂÏ. 203 Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: 1) It is known that... »Á‚ÂÒÚÌÓ, ˜ÚÓ... 2) It is believed that... œÓ·„‡˛Ú, ˜ÚÓ... —˜ËÚ‡ÂÚÒˇ, ˜ÚÓ... –¿«ƒ≈À 8 ¬ œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. It is believed that ascorbic acid requirements in stress are abnormally high. 2. It has been estimated that the entire oxygen content of the atmosphere passes through the biosphere every 3.000 years. 3. It is now recognized that practically every chemical reaction that occurs within the body requires its specific enzyme to catalyze it. 4. The name organic was given to most of the chemicals of living things when it was believed that only living organisms could produce molecules containing carbon. ✔ 5. Until Buchner's work in 1897, it had been believed that fermentation required intact living yeast cells. 6. Until 1994, there was no evidence for any rhenium material and it was assumed that it only occurred as trace amounts in other ores. 204 ‘”Õü÷»» Ã≈—“Œ»Ã≈Õ»fl IT 7. It is generally believed that the Earth formed about 1.5 billion years ago by accretion of small solid bodies. ✔ 8. It is well established that using large doses of anabolic steroids over time can cause a variety of undesirable side effects. 9. It is now known that atomic particles are themselves composed of sub-atomic particles, i.e. the quarks and leptons. 10. It can be concluded that alloys are far more common and useful than elemental metals in everyday life. 11. The majority of reactions are exothermic and it was once believed that only exothermic reactions could take place. 205 –¿«ƒ≈À 8 12. It is known that various synthetic materials are not biodegradable, that is, they cannot be broken down into harmless substances by the natural decaying process of microorganisms. ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 55 ¿ ÃÂÒÚÓËÏÂÌË it ÏÓÊÂÚ ‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇÚ¸ ÙÛÌÍˆË˛ ÙÓχθÌÓ„Ó ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â„Ó ‚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡı, „‰Â Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ ËÏÂÂÚ ÙÓÏÛ ÒÓÒÚ‡‚ÌÓ„Ó ËÏÂÌÌÓ„Ó („·„ÓÎ-Ò‚ˇÁ͇ to be ‚ 3-Ï Îˈ ‰ËÌÒÚ‚ÂÌÌÓ„Ó ˜ËÒ· + ÔË·„‡ÚÂθÌÓÂ), Á‡ ÍÓÚÓ˚Ï ÒΉÛÂÚ Â‡Î¸ÌÓ ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘ÂÂ, ‚˚‡ÊÂÌÌÓ ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚ÓÏ: œËÏÂ: It is important to keep the temperature constant throughout the experiment. it is + adj + to V ¡ Õ‡ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í ÙÓχθÌÓ ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â it Ì Ô‚ӉËÚÒˇ, ‡ ‚Òˇ ÍÓÌÒÚÛÍˆËˇ Ô‰‡ÂÚÒˇ ·ÂÁ΢Ì˚Ï Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËÂÏ. Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: It is important to keep the temperature constant throughout the experiment. ¬‡ÊÌÓ ÔÓ‰‰ÂÊË‚‡Ú¸ ÔÓÒÚÓˇÌÌÛ˛ ÚÂÏÔ‡ÚÛÛ ‚ Ú˜ÂÌË ‚ÒÂ„Ó ˝ÍÒÔÂËÏÂÌÚ‡. ¬ œÓ‡Ì‡ÎËÁËÛÈÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ, ̇ȉËÚ ÍÓÌÒÚÛÍˆË˛ Ò ÙÓχθÌ˚Ï it Ë Ô‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. It is necessary to have a healthy intake of calcium to maintain the body's calcium reserve; otherwise, the calcium levels in the body become dependent on the resorption of bone tissue. 206 ‘”Õü÷»» Ã≈—“Œ»Ã≈Õ»fl IT 2. It is necessary to receive an influenza vaccine injection each year, since influenza infections are usually caused by viruses with different antigens each year and because the immunity gained by the vaccine lasts less than a year. ✔ 3. To examine the cell and its biochemistry it is necessary to interfere in some way with its normal functioning. 4. Since smoking may increase some of the harmful effects of this medicine, it is best to avoid smoking while you are using it. 5. It is always dangerous to eat or chew the leaves, bark roots, seeds, or berries of unfamiliar plants. 207 –¿«ƒ≈À 8 ✔ 6. It is impossible to weigh a single atom. 7. It is possible to synthesize enzymes and other proteins in the laboratory. 8. It is possible to carry out reactions which change one element to another. 9. It is now possible to visualize atoms in some enzymes by X-ray crystallography. 10. It is often necessary to rely on specialized scientific equipment to measure the amounts of pollutants in the air. 11. It is important to recognize that it is impossible to be fully protected from exposure to radioactivity. 208 ‘”Õü÷»» Ã≈—“Œ»Ã≈Õ»fl IT 12. It is important to take only the recommended dose of your medicine, as too much can be harmful and too little might prevent the medicine from working properly. ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 56 ¿ ÃÂÒÚÓËÏÂÌË it ÏÓÊÂÚ ‚ıÓ‰ËÚ¸ ‚ ÒÓÒÚ‡‚ ÍÓÌÒÚÛ͈ËË: It is + adj+ that It is + V3+ that ƒ‡Ì̇ˇ ÍÓÌÒÚÛÍˆËˇ ˇ‚ΡÂÚÒˇ ÙÓχθÌ˚Ï ˇ‰ÓÏ ÒÎÓÊÌÓÔÓ‰˜ËÌÂÌÌÓ„Ó Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ, „‰Â ‡θÌÓ ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â ‚˚‡ÊÂÌÓ Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚Ï Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËÂÏ ÒÓ Ò͇ÁÛÂÏ˚Ï, Ëϲ˘ËÏ ÙÓÏÛ ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚‡ (‚ ‡ÍÚË‚ÌÓÈ ËÎË Ô‡ÒÒË‚ÌÓÈ ÙÓÏÂ) ·ÂÁ ˜‡ÒÚˈ˚ to ‚Ó ‚ÒÂı Îˈ‡ı Ë ˜ËÒ·ı. œËÏÂ: 1. It is very important that you take this medicine only as directed. 2. It is recommended that dosage be reduced if side effects occur. ¡ Õ‡ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í ÙÓχθÌÓ ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â it Ì Ô‚ӉËÚÒˇ, ‡ ‚Òˇ ÍÓÌÒÚÛÍˆËˇ Ô‰‡ÂÚÒˇ ·ÂÁ΢Ì˚Ï Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËÂÏ. Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: 1) It is very important that you take this medicine only as directed. Œ˜Â̸ ‚‡ÊÌÓ, ÔËÌËχڸ (·ÛÍ‚.: ˜ÚÓ·˚ ‚˚ ÔËÌËχÎË) ‰‡ÌÌ˚È ÔÂÔ‡‡Ú ËÒÍβ˜ËÚÂθÌÓ ‚ ÒÓÓÚ‚ÂÚÒÚ‚ËË Ò Ô‰ÔËÒ‡ÌËÂÏ. 2) It is recommended that dosage be reduced if side effects occur. ¬ ÒÎÛ˜‡Â ‚ÓÁÌËÍÌÓ‚ÂÌˡ ÔÓ·Ó˜Ì˚ı ˝ÙÙÂÍÚÓ‚, ÂÍÓÏẨÛÂÚÒˇ ÛÏÂ̸¯ËÚ¸ ‰ÓÁÛ (ÔÂÔ‡‡Ú‡). 209 –¿«ƒ≈À 8 ¬ œÓ‡Ì‡ÎËÁËÛÈÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ, ̇ȉËÚ ÍÓÌÒÚÛÍˆË˛ Ò ÙÓχθÌ˚Ï it Ë Ô‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. While you are taking this medicine it is important that your doctor check your progress at regular visits. 2. It is very important that you take your medicine exactly as directed and that you keep your appointment with your doctor even if you feel well. 3. It is recommended that the drug be withdrawn if mild to moderate skin rash persists for longer than 5 to 8 days. ✔ 4. While taking this medicine, it is important that you drink plenty of fluids. 5. It is important that you keep using this medicine for the full time of treatment. 210 ‘”Õü÷»» Ã≈—“Œ»Ã≈Õ»fl IT 6. It is recommended that alcohol and acetone combination not be used on children up to 8 years of age. ✔ 7. It is recommended that acetyl-cysteine administration be instituted as soon as possible after ingestion of an overdose has been reported. 8. It is important that you have your blood test done weekly. 9. To keep your kidney disease or your high blood pressure from getting worse, it is very important that you follow your special diet and take your medicines regularly, even if you are feeling better. 211 –¿«ƒ≈À 8 8.2 ÃÂÒÚÓËÏÂÌË it ‚ ˝ÏÓˆËÓ̇θÌÓ-ÛÒËÎËÚÂθÌÓÈ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 57 ¿ ÃÂÒÚÓËÏÂÌË it ÌÓÒËÚ ÙÓχθÌ˚È ı‡‡ÍÚ ‚ ÍÓÌÒÚÛ͈ËË it is + (Ô‰ÎÓ„) ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓ + that/which/who..., ÍÓÚÓ‡ˇ ËÏÂÂÚ ˝ÏÓˆËÓ̇θÌÓ-ÛÒËÎËÚÂθÌÓ Á̇˜ÂÌË œËÏÂ: Ë ÏÓÊÂÚ Ú‡ÍËÏ Ó·‡ÁÓÏ ‚˚1. It is the formed elements which give blood ‰ÂΡڸ β·ÓÈ ˜ÎÂÌ Ô‰ÎÓits viscosity. ÊÂÌˡ, ÍÓÏ Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ„Ó. (ÛÒËÎËÚÂθÌ˚È ÓÚÚÂÌÓÍ Ôˉ‡ÂÚÒˇ ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘ÂÏÛ) 2. It is in the capillaries that exchange of gases takes place. (ÛÒËÎËÚÂθÌ˚È ÓÚÚÂÌÓÍ Ôˉ‡ÂÚÒˇ Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚Û) ¡ Õ‡ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í ÛÒËÎËÚÂθÌ˚È ÓÚÚÂÌÓÍ ˜‡˘Â ‚ÒÂ„Ó Ô‰‡ÂÚÒˇ ÒÎÓ‚‡ÏË ´ËÏÂÌÌÓª, ´ÚÓθÍÓª, ÔÓ‰˜ÂÍË‚‡ˇ Á̇˜ÂÌË ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓ„Ó, Ô˘ÂÏ ÙÓχθÌÓ it Ë ÒÓ˛Á Ì Ô‚ӉˇÚÒˇ. Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: 1) It is the formed elements which give blood its viscosity. »ÏÂÌÌÓ ÙÓÏÂÌÌ˚ ˝ÎÂÏÂÌÚ˚ Ôˉ‡˛Ú ‚ˇÁÍÓÒÚ¸ ÍÓ‚Ë. 2) It is in the capillaries that exchange of gases takes place. »ÏÂÌÌÓ ‚ ͇ÔËÎΡ‡ı ÔÓËÒıÓ‰ËÚ Ó·ÏÂÌ „‡ÁÓ‚. ¬ œÓ‡Ì‡ÎËÁËÛÈÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ, ̇ȉËÚ ‚ ÌËı ÛÒËÎËÚÂθÌÛ˛ ÍÓÌÒÚÛÍˆË˛ Ò ÙÓχθÌ˚Ï it Ë ÓÔ‰ÂÎËÚÂ, ͇ÍÓÈ ˜ÎÂÌ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ ÔÓ‰˜ÂÍË‚‡ÂÚÒˇ ². œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. It was solar energy that warmed our early ancestors before they learned to use fire. 2. It was only after the foundation of the great medieval universities in Europe that botanical gardens for educational purposes began to be established. 212 ‘”Õü÷»» Ã≈—“Œ»Ã≈Õ»fl IT 3. It is the 21% of oxygen which is most immediately essential for sustaining life and without which we cannot survive more than a few minutes. ✔ 4. Of the seven prehistoric metals it is only gold, silver and copper that occur as native metals, that is, in the form of nuggets some of which are very big. 5. In the cells of plants and animals, it is primarily glucose that provides the initial source of energy for cellular metabolism. 6. It was with the appearance of multicellular organisms that organic evolution began to proceed at a rapid pace. 7. The presence of nitrates in the soil is of great importance, since it is from these compounds that plants obtain the nitrogen necessary for their growth. 213 –¿«ƒ≈À 8 ✔ 8. It is DNA in the nucleus that stores the vital information. 9. It is the extracellular fluid that supplies the cells with nutrients and other substances needed for cellular function. 10. It was Pasteur (1822ñ95) who, by a brilliant series of experiments proved that the fermentation of wine and the souring of milk are caused by living microorganisms. 11. It is not only animals but also plants that need iron. 214 ‘”Õü÷»» —À”∆≈¡ÕŒ√Œ —ÀŒ¬¿ AS –‡Á‰ÂÎ 9. ‘ÛÌ͈ËË ÒÎÛÊ·ÌÓ„Ó ÒÎÓ‚‡ as —ÎÛÊ·ÌÓ ÒÎÓ‚Ó as ÏÓÊÂÚ ËÏÂÚ¸ Á̇˜ÂÌˡ ‡ÁÌ˚ı ˜‡ÒÚÂÈ Â˜Ë: 1) ‚ Á̇˜ÂÌËË Ô‰ÎÓ„‡ ËÎË Ì‡Â˜Ëˇ as Ô‚ӉËÚÒˇ ̇ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í ´Í‡Íª, ´‚ ͇˜ÂÒڂª; 2) ‚˚ÒÚÛÔ‡ˇ ‚ ÓÎË ÒÓ˛Á‡, ÒÎÛÊ·ÌÓ ÒÎÓ‚Ó as ‚‚Ó‰ËÚ Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡ ‚ÂÏÂÌË Ë Ô˘ËÌ˚. ¬ Á‡‚ËÒËÏÓÒÚË ÓÚ ÚËÔ‡ Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓ„Ó as ÏÓÊÂÚ Ô‚ӉËÚ¸Òˇ ̇ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í: ‡) ‚ Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ı Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡ ‚ÂÏÂÌË ó ´ÍÓ„‰‡ª, ´‚Ó ‚ÂÏˇª, ´‚ ÔÓˆÂÒÒª, ´ÔÓ Ï ÚÓ„Ó, ͇ͪ; ·) ‚ Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ı Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡ Ô˘ËÌ˚ ó ´Ú‡Í ͇ͪ, ´ÔÓÒÍÓθÍÛª; 3) ÒÎÛÊ·ÌÓ ÒÎÓ‚Ó as ÏÓÊÂÚ ‚ıÓ‰ËÚ¸ ‚ ÒÓÒÚ‡‚ ÒÎÓÊÌ˚ı ÒÓ˛ÁÓ‚ Ë Ô‰ÎÓ„Ó‚: as long as ó ´ÔÓ͇ª, ´‚ ÚÓ ‚ÂÏˇ, ͇ͪ, ´ÔÓ Ïª; as soon as ó ´Í‡Í ÚÓθÍÓª; as well as ó ÔËÒÓ‰ËÌˇÂÚ Ó‰ÌÓÓ‰Ì˚ ˜ÎÂÌ˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ (‚ Á̇˜ÂÌËË ´Ú‡Í ʪ, ´Ú‡Í ÊÂ Í‡Í Ëª) Ë Á‡‚ËÒËÏ˚È Ô˘‡ÒÚÌ˚È Ó·ÓÓÚ (‚ Á̇˜ÂÌËË ´ÍÓϪ, ´ÔÓÏËÏÓª); as to ó ´˜ÚÓ Í‡Ò‡ÂÚÒˇª, ´ÓÚÌÓÒËÚÂθÌÓª; as regards ó ´˜ÚÓ Í‡Ò‡ÂÚÒˇª, ´‚ ÓÚÌÓ¯ÂÌË˪. ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 58 ¿ œÓ‡Ì‡ÎËÁËÛÈÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ, ‚ ÍÓÚÓ˚ı ÒÎÛÊ·ÌÓ ÒÎÓ‚Ó as ÏÓÊÂÚ ‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇÚ¸ ÎË·Ó ÙÛÌÍˆË˛ Ô‰ÎÓ„‡, ÎË·Ó ÒÓ˛Á‡ (‚ ˝ÚÓÏ ÒÎÛ˜‡Â ÓÌÓ ‚‚Ó‰ËÚ Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌË Ô˘ËÌ˚ ËÎË ‚ÂÏÂÌË, ÒΉӂ‡ÚÂθÌÓ, Á‡ ÒÓ˛ÁÓÏ ·Û‰ÂÚ ÒÚÓˇÚ¸ ˇ‰Ó Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓ„Ó Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ). œËÏÂ: N V As a metabolic organ, the kidney is responsible for the constancy of acid-base balance of the body. (as ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË Ô‰ÎÓ„‡) n v v As radioactive elements disintegrate and form new N chemical elements, a tremendous amount of energy V is released. (as ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÒÓ˛Á‡, ‚‚Ó‰ËÚ Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜ÌÓ ‚ÂÏÂÌË) ¡ œÓ‡Ì‡ÎËÁËÛÈÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ Ë ÓÔ‰ÂÎËÚÂ, ͇ÍÛ˛ ÙÛÌÍˆË˛ ‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇÂÚ ÒÎÛÊ·ÌÓ ÒÎÓ‚Ó as: Ô‰ÎÓ„‡ ËÎË ÒÓ˛Á‡. œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. Carbon dioxide is a constituent of medical gases as it promotes exhalation. 2. Bases are commonly used in the home as cleaning agents. 215 –¿«ƒ≈À 9 ✔ 3. As the water vaporizes, it leaves behind most of its dissolved impurities. 4. As bacteria grow and reproduce, using the body's waste for food, they manufacture considerable amounts of vitamins. 5. Albumin serves also as a transport protein carrying large organic anions, such as fatty acids, many drugs and hormones. 6. As science has marched on, antidepressant drugs have acquired more pharmaceutical sophistication. 7. As research in antineoplastic therapy continues it is expected that newer, less hazardous and more precisely targeted chemical agents will be developed. 216 ‘”Õü÷»» —À”∆≈¡ÕŒ√Œ —ÀŒ¬¿ AS 8. Most of the body's metabolic processes produce acids as the end products. ✔ 9. Enzymes are special proteins which act as biological catalysts in cells. 10. Calcium is essential for normal functioning of all body cells as it is mediator for many cell functions. 11. As the filtered blood passes through the nephron glucose, amino acids, mineral salts and most of the water are reabsorbed into the bloodstream. 12. The cell is regarded as the smallest unit of living matter that can live independently and reproduce itself. 217 –¿«ƒ≈À 9 13. Substances in the body are regarded as waste materials if they cannot be used by cells and if their accumulation will upset the fine balance which must be maintained between chemical substances in the internal environment. 14. As vitamins are concerned with metabolism, it follows that absence or deficiency of certain vitamins can result in malnutrition and specific deficiency diseases. ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 59 ¿ —ÎÛÊ·ÌÓ ÒÎÓ‚Ó as ÏÓÊÂÚ ‚ıÓ‰ËÚ¸ ‚ ÒÓÒÚ‡‚ ÒÎÓÊÌ˚ı ÒÓ˛ÁÓ‚ Ë ÒÎÓÊÌ˚ı Ô‰ÎÓ„Ó‚, Ëϲ˘Ëı ‚ ÛÒÒÍÓÏ ˇÁ˚Í ÒÎÂ‰Û˛˘Ë ÒÓÓÚ‚ÂÚÒڂˡ: as long as ó ´ÔÓ͇ª; ´‚ ÚÓ ‚ÂÏˇ, ͇ͪ; ´ÔÓ Ïª; as soon as ó ´Í‡Í ÚÓθÍÓª; as well as ó ÔËÒÓ‰ËÌˇÂÚ Ó‰ÌÓÓ‰Ì˚ ˜ÎÂÌ˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ (‚ Á̇˜ÂÌËË ´Ú‡Íʪ, ´Ú‡ÍÊÂ Í‡Í Ëª) Ë Á‡‚ËÒËÏ˚È Ô˘‡ÒÚÌ˚È Ó·ÓÓÚ (‚ Á̇˜ÂÌËË ´ÍÓϪ, ´ÔÓÏËÏÓª); as to ó ´˜ÚÓ Í‡Ò‡ÂÚÒˇª, ´ÓÚÌÓÒËÚÂθÌÓª; as regards ó ´˜ÚÓ Í‡Ò‡ÂÚÒˇª, ´‚ ÓÚÌÓ¯ÂÌË˪. ¡ œÓ‡Ì‡ÎËÁËÛÈÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ Ë Ì‡È‰ËÚ ÒÎÓÊÌ˚È ÒÓ˛Á ËÎË Ô‰ÎÓ„, ‚ ÒÓÒÚ‡‚ ÍÓÚÓÓ„Ó ‚ıÓ‰ËÚ ÒÎÛÊ·ÌÓ ÒÎÓ‚Ó as. œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. Drugs produce harmful as well as beneficial effects, and decisions about when and how to use them therapeutically always involve the balancing of benefits and risks. 218 ‘”Õü÷»» —À”∆≈¡ÕŒ√Œ —ÀŒ¬¿ AS 2. As soon as Pasteur in France and Koch in Germany had shown how microbes cause disease bacteriologists began to study immunity. ✔ 3. The adaptive mechanisms for maintaining normal volume and distribution of fluids inside and outside the cells function only as long as there is adequate and equal intake and output of water and electrolytes. 4. As new viruses are produced, they are released from the cell to infect other cells. The new viruses become lifeless as soon as they are released. 5. The body rids itself of mercury not only through urine and faeces, but also via the lungs and sweat, as well as locking some away in nails and hair. 219 –¿«ƒ≈À 9 ✔ 6. A number of studies have suggested that taking large amounts of vitamin — as soon as you get a cold may shorten the time you are sick by day or so. 7. Plasma transports nutrients, metabolic waste products and chemicals, as well as hormones and drugs. 8. Most salts and minerals, as well as water, are readily absorbed from all portions of the small intestine. 9. There is no general agreement as to the normal and therapeutic daily requirements of vitamin C. 10. As regards the different varieties of phagocytes, a number of cells possess ameboid properties. 220 —Œ—“¿¬Õ¤≈ œ–≈ƒÀŒ√» 11. At present two approaches of viral infections treatment are known: application of interferon and antiviral chemopreparations effective as to certain virus; serotherapy and seroprophylaxis that provide for use of specific human or immunized animals' immunoglobulins. 12. Adverse reactions are generally dose-related and may result from excessive dosage, or rapid absorption from the injection site as well as reduced patient tolerance, or hypersensitivity. –‡Á‰ÂÎ 10. —ÓÒÚ‡‚Ì˚ Ô‰ÎÓ„Ë ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 60 ¿ ŒÁ̇ÍÓϸÚÂÒ¸ ÒÓ ÒÔËÒÍÓÏ ˜‡ÒÚÓ ‚ÒÚ˜‡˛˘ËıÒˇ ‚ ̇ۘÌ˚ı ÚÂÍÒÚ‡ı ÒÓÒÚ‡‚Ì˚ı Ô‰ÎÓ„Ó‚ Ë ÛÒÚÓȘ˂˚ı ÒÓ˜ÂÚ‡ÌËÈ ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌ˚ı Ò Ô‰ÎÓ„ÓÏ/Ô‰ÎÓ„‡ÏË Ë Ó·˙‰ËÌËÚ Ëı ‚ ÒËÌÓÌËÏ˘Ì˚ „ÛÔÔ˚: according to because of by means of by virtue of depending on due to in regard to in spite of regardless of with regard to with respect to ´Òӄ·ÒÌÓª, ´‚ ÒÓÓÚ‚ÂÚÒÚ‚Ë˪ ´ËÁ-Á‡, ‚ÒΉÒڂ˪, ´·Î‡„Ó‰‡ˇª ´ÔË ÔÓÏÓ˘Ëª, ´ÔÓÒ‰ÒÚ‚ÓϪ ´·Î‡„Ó‰‡ˇª, ´‚ ÒËÎÛª, ´ÔÓÒ‰ÒÚ‚ÓϪ ´‚ Á‡‚ËÒËÏÓÒÚË ÓÚª ´ËÁ-Á‡ª, ´‚ÒΉÒڂ˪, ´·Î‡„Ó‰‡ˇª ´ÓÚÌÓÒËÚÂθÌÓª, ´˜ÚÓ Í‡Ò‡ÂÚÒˇª ´ÌÂÒÏÓÚˇ ̇ª ´Ì‚Áˇˇ ̇ª ´‚ ÓÚÌÓ¯ÂÌË˪, ´ÓÚÌÓÒËÚÂθÌÓª ´ÓÚÌÓÒËÚÂθÌÓª, ´˜ÚÓ Í‡Ò‡ÂÚÒˇª, ´‚ ÓÚÌÓ¯ÂÌË˪ 221 –¿«ƒ≈À 10 ¡ œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ, ÒÓ‰Âʇ˘Ë ÒÓÒÚ‡‚Ì˚ Ô‰ÎÓ„Ë. 1. By means of the glycolytic series of reactions pyruric acid is formed in the cells of plants. 2. The chemical properties of phenols differ from those of alcohols chiefly because of the acidic character of the phenols. 3. Regardless of their diverse molecular structures, all hydrocarbons have a number of properties in common. 4. Ethers are relatively inert with regard to chemical reaction, and in this regard they resemble the corresponding alkanes. ✔ 5. In the 19th century, phenol was used extensively as an antiseptic, but due to its irritating effect on humans, the use of phenol has been largely discontinued for general antisepsis. 222 —Œ—“¿¬Õ¤≈ œ–≈ƒÀŒ√» 6. Phagocytosis is the property possessed by many animal cells of engulfing particles by virtue of their power of ameboid movement. ✔ 7. Antibodies can be classified according to their mode of action. 8. There is a variety of medications that may be prescribed for patients with rheumatoid arthritis depending on the needs and tolerance of the individual patient. 9. Aluminium and its alloys generally rank below copper and its alloys with respect to strength. 10. The pH concentration is extremely important in evaluating a patient's status in regard to states of acidosis and alkalosis. 223 –¿«ƒ≈À 10 ✔ 11. Like the cells of other tissues, the white cells occasionally multiply regardless of the body's needs. 12. With regard to the wandering cells some are certainly non-phagocytic, for instance, the lymphocytes. 13. In spite of the importance of the contributions that had been made earlier, the greatest portion of credit for the development of the Periodic System must undoubtedly go to the Russian scientist, D.I. Mendeleyev. 14. According to the experts, there is nothing unhealthy about eating chocolate, as long as it is part of a balanced diet. 224 «Õ¿◊≈Õ»fl » ‘”Õü÷»» —ÀŒ¬¿ ONE 15. Many desert plants reduce the loss of water they do have by means of a special kind of metabolism that permits them to acquire carbon dioxide during the night to be used for photosynthesis the following day, thus keeping their pores closed during the heat of the day, when the potential for water loss is at its greatest. –‡Á‰ÂÎ 11. «Ì‡˜ÂÌˡ Ë ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÒÎÓ‚‡ one ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 61 ¿ —ÎÓ‚Ó one ÏÓÊÂÚ: œËÏÂ: 1) ·˚Ú¸ ˜ËÒÎËÚÂθÌ˚Ï ÒÓ Á̇˜ÂÌËÂÏ N V ´Ó‰Ë̪ 2) ·˚Ú¸ ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌ˚Ï (˜‡ÒÚÓ ‚ One should control the diet by limiting ÒÓ˜ÂÚ‡ÌËË Ò Ô‰ÎÓ„ÓÏ ´ofª) ÒÓ foods high in cholesterol. Á̇˜ÂÌËÂÏ ´Ó‰ËÌ ËÁª 3) ËÒÔÓθÁÓ‚‡Ú¸Òˇ ‚ ÓÎË ÒÎÓ‚‡-Á‡ÏÂÌËÚÂΡ ‚Ó ËÁ·ÂʇÌË ÔÓ‚ÚÓÂÌˡ ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓ„Ó (ÒÏ. ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 64). 4) ‚˚ÔÓÎÌˇÚ¸ ÙÛÌÍˆË˛ ÙÓχθÌÓ„Ó ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â„Ó (ËÌÓ„‰‡ ÙÓχθÌÓ„Ó ‰ÓÔÓÎÌÂÌˡ) ¡ Õ‡ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í one ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÙÓχθÌÓ„Ó ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â„Ó ÎË·Ó Ì Ô‚ӉËÚÒˇ, ÎË·Ó Ô‚ӉËÚÒˇ Ò ËÒÔÓθÁÓ‚‡ÌËÂÏ Ó·Ó·˘‡˛˘Ëı ÒÎÓ‚: ´˜ÂÎÓ‚Âͪ, ´Í‡Ê‰˚Ȫ, ´‚Òª. Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: One should control the diet by limiting foods high in cholesterol. ÕÂÓ·ıÓ‰ËÏÓ ÍÓÌÚÓÎËÓ‚‡Ú¸ ‡ˆËÓÌ ÔËÚ‡Ìˡ, Ó„‡Ì˘˂‡ˇ ÔÓÚ·ÎÂÌË ÔË˘Ë Ò ‚˚ÒÓÍËÏ ÒÓ‰ÂʇÌËÂÏ ıÓÎÂÒÚÂË̇. ¬ÒÂÏ ÒΉÛÂÚ ÍÓÌÚÓÎËÓ‚‡Ú¸... –ÂÍÓÏẨÛÂÚÒˇ ÍÓÌÚÓÎËÓ‚‡Ú¸... 225 –¿«ƒ≈À 11 ¬ œÓ‡Ì‡ÎËÁËÛÈÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ, ̇ȉËÚ ˇ‰Ó Ë ÓÔ‰ÂÎËÚÂ, ͇ÍÓ Á̇˜ÂÌË ËÏÂÂÚ ÒÎÓ‚Ó one. œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. All drugs affect the body in more than one way. 2. One should take care of one's health. 3. Poisons are one of the most effective plant defenses. 4. One molecule of carbon dioxide consists of one carbon atom bonded to two oxygen atoms. 5. The longer one stays near the source of radiation the greater will be the exposure. ✔ 6. One of the most important properties of gold is its amazing chemical resistance. 7. Through experimentation one attempts to determine the validity of the hypothesis. 226 «Õ¿◊≈Õ»fl » ‘”Õü÷»» —ÀŒ¬¿ ONE 8. Most drugs used to affect one part of the body also affect other parts. ✔ 9. Despite the existence of resistant bacteria, penicillin has revolutionized medicine and is still one of the most valuable drugs we have. 10. By one mechanism or another, most diuretic agents act directly on the kidneys to prevent the reabsorption of solutes and water. 11. Samarium is one of the 15, chemically similar elements referred to as rare-earth elements. 12. Water is not thought of as a food, but it makes up two thirds of the body's weight and is so important that one can live only a few days without it. 227 –¿«ƒ≈À 12 13. When one sniffs, air currents carrying molecules of odorous chemicals enter special compartments called olfactory chambers, where the chemicals are dissolved in mucus. 14. Once one has watched the Brownian movement one's apprehension of the nature of heat will never be the same again. –‡Á‰ÂÎ 12. «Ì‡˜ÂÌˡ Ë ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÒÎÓ‚‡ both ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 62 ¿ —ÎÓ‚Ó both ÏÓÊÂÚ: 1) ÛÔÓÚÂ·ÎˇÚ¸Òˇ Ò‡ÏÓÒÚÓˇÚÂθÌÓ ‚ Á̇˜ÂÌËË ´Ó·‡ª 2) ‚ıÓ‰ËÚ¸ ‚ ÒÓÒÚ‡‚ Ô‡ÌÓ„Ó ÒÓ˛Á‡ ´both... and...ª ÒÓ Á̇˜ÂÌËÂÏ ´Í‡Í, Ú‡Í Ë...ª. ¡ ՇȉËÚÂ, ‚ ͇ÍÓÏ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËË ÒÎÓ‚Ó both ËÏÂÂÚ Ò‡ÏÓÒÚÓˇÚÂθÌÓ Á̇˜ÂÌËÂ, ‡ ‚ ͇ÍÓÏ ÓÌÓ ÛÔÓÚ·ΡÂÚÒˇ ‚ ÒÓÒÚ‡‚ ԇÌÓ„Ó ÒÓ˛Á‡. ¬ œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. All drugs can cause both wanted and unwanted effects on the body. 2. Nucleus and cytoplasm are both essential to the life of the cell. 228 «Õ¿◊≈Õ»fl » ‘”Õü÷»» —ÀŒ¬ BOTH 3. Lithium undergoes a large number of reactions with both organic, and inorganic, reagents. ✔ 4. Both plants and animals are able to use the energy to drive their life processes. 5. Bacteria are both useful and harmful to humans. 6. The nucleus controls both the chemical reactions that occur in the cell and reproduction of the cell. 7. The ability of bromine to dissolve both in many common organic solvents and in inorganic bromide solutions permits early control of the reactions. 8. If both atoms have the same electronegativity, the elements are fairly distributed between the two atoms. 9. Although both are elementary particles, electron and quark differ in some respects. 229 –¿«ƒ≈À 12 ✔ 10. Sodium and potassium are both soft metals that react violently with water to produce alkaline solutions. 11. Many microscopic organisms exhibit properties of both plants and animals. 12. The oxygen and carbon cycles are closely linked, in part because both involve the process of photosynthesis and cellular metabolism. 13. Boyle's contributions to theoretical science were both profound and far-reaching. 14. Plants and animals have one thing in common ó both are alive. 15. All modern research recognizes that in both unicellular and multicellular organisms the cell is the fundamental unit, housing the genetic material and biochemical organization that account for the existence of life. 230 «Õ¿◊≈Õ»fl » ‘”Õü÷»» —ÀŒ¬ EITHER » NEITHER –‡Á‰ÂÎ 13. «Ì‡˜ÂÌˡ Ë ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÒÎÓ‚ either Ë neither ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 63 ¿ —ÎÓ‚‡ either Ë neither ˇ‚Ρ˛ÚÒˇ ÔÓÚË‚ÓÔÓÎÓÊÌ˚ÏË ÔÓ Á̇˜ÂÌ˲, ÌÓ ÛÔÓÚ·Ρ˛ÚÒˇ ‚ ÒıÓ‰Ì˚ı ÙÛÌÍˆËˇı: either neither 1) ÛÔÓÚ·Ρ˛ÚÒˇ Ò‡ÏÓÒÚÓˇÚÂθÌÓ ‚ Á̇˜ÂÌËË Î˛·ÓÈ ËÁ ‰‚Ûı; Ó‰ËÌ ËÁ ‰‚Ûı ÌË͇ÍÓÈ; ÌË ÚÓÚ, ÌË ‰Û„ÓÈ, ÌË Ó‰ËÌ ËÁ ‰‚Ûı (ËÁ ÏÌÓ„Ëı) 2) ÛÔÓÚ·Ρ˛ÚÒˇ ‚ Á̇˜ÂÌËË Ì‡Â˜Ëˇ ÚÓÊÂ; Ú‡ÍÊ (Ò „·„Ó·ÏË ‚ ÓÚˈ‡ÚÂθÌÓÈ ÙÓÏÂ) Ú‡ÍÊ ÌÂ; ÚÓÊ Ì (Ò „·„Ó·ÏË ‚ Ûڂ‰ËÚ. ÙÓÏÂ) 3) ‚ıÓ‰ˇÚ ‚ ÒÓÒÚ‡‚ Ô‡ÌÓ„Ó ÒÓ˛Á‡ either... or ËÎË... ËÎË ÎË·Ó... ÎË·Ó neitherÖnor ÌË... ÌË ¡ œÓ‡Ì‡ÎËÁËÛÈÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ, ̇ȉËÚÂ, ‚ ͇ÍÓÏ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËË ÒÎÓ‚‡ either Ë neither ËÏÂ˛Ú Ò‡ÏÓÒÚÓˇÚÂθÌÓ Á̇˜ÂÌËÂ, ‡ ‚ ͇ÍÓÏ ÓÌË ÛÔÓÚ·ΡÂÚÒˇ ‚ ÒÓÒÚ‡‚ ԇÌÓ„Ó ÒÓ˛Á‡. ¬ œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. Either of the shrubs grows well in this soil. 2. The total concentration of ozone increases the closer one gets to either pole. 3. In most chemical reactions, heat is either taken in or given out. 4. Many plants produce chemicals which can be either harmful or beneficial depending on dose and circumstance. 231 –¿«ƒ≈À 13 ✔ 5. Chemical reactions neither create nor destroy atoms ó they merely rearrange atoms into new combinations. 6. Most nitrogen enters the soil from the atmosphere, either dissolved in rainwater, or as a chemical compound produced during thunderstorms. 7. Elements can exist either as molecules or as single atoms. 8. Because of their molecular structures, vitamins either dissolve in water or they do not. 9. Helium, neon, and argon are called inert gases, because their atoms neither react with one another nor combine with of other elements. 232 «Õ¿◊≈Õ»fl » ‘”Õü÷»» —ÀŒ¬ EITHER » NEITHER 10. Each element is represented by a symbol ó either a capital letter alone or a capital letter and a small letter. ✔ 11. Neutral substances are neither acidic nor basic. 12. Either free or chemically bound oxygen is required by nearly all known forms of life. 13. Such studies have not been done in either humans or animals. 14. Organic compounds are either derived from natural products or prepared by synthesis. 15. The study of plants is vitally important because all of our food comes from plants, either directly or indirectly. 16. Water is a liquid which neither burns nor supports combustion. 233 –¿«ƒ≈À 13 ✔ 17. Almost nothing is firmly known of Democritus's life and his ideas have survived through the writings of others, either supporting or attacking him. 18. Olive oil and corn oil are both suitable, so you can use either. 19. Heat, light, electricity, magnetism are all correlatives; neither can be said to be the essential cause of the other. 20. The researchers tried another method, but it did not work either. –‡Á‰ÂÎ 14. —ÎÓ‚‡-Á‡ÏÂÌËÚÂÎË —ÎÓ‚‡-Á‡ÏÂÌËÚÂÎË ÛÔÓÚ·Ρ˛ÚÒˇ ‚ ‡Ì„ÎËÈÒÍÓÏ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËË, ˜ÚÓ·˚ ËÁ·Âʇڸ ÔÓ‚ÚÓÂÌˡ ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓ„Ó, ÛÔÓÏˇÌÛÚÓ„Ó ‰‚‡Ê‰˚. ¬ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÒÎÓ‚-Á‡ÏÂÌËÚÂÎÂÈ ÏÓ„ÛÚ ‚ÒÚ˜‡Ú¸Òˇ ÒÎÂ‰Û˛˘Ë ÏÂÒÚÓËÏÂÌˡ: one (ones ó ‰Îˇ ÏÌ.˜.), that (those ó ‰Îˇ ÏÌ.˜.), ‡ Ú‡ÍÊ ÔË·„‡ÚÂθÌ˚ the former, the latter. 234 —ÀŒ¬¿-«¿Ã≈Õ»“≈À» 14.1 One ñ ones ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 64 ¿ œÓ‡Ì‡ÎËÁËÛÈÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ Ë Ì‡È‰ËÚÂ, ͇ÍË ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌ˚ Á‡ÏÂÌÂÌ˚ ÒÎÓ‚‡ÏË one Ë ones. ¡ Õ‡ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í ÒÎÓ‚‡ one Ë ones ÎË·Ó Ì Ô‚ӉˇÚÒˇ, ÎË·Ó ËÒÔÓθÁÛÂÚÒˇ ÔÓ‚ÚÓ Á‡ÏÂÌˇÂÏÓ„Ó ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓ„Ó. ¬ Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: 1) Cardiovascular system is a dynamic one. —‰˜ÌÓ-ÒÓÒÛ‰ËÒÚ‡ˇ ÒËÒÚÂχ ó ˝ÚÓ ‰Ë̇Ï˘̇ˇ ÒËÒÚÂχ. 2) As the body changes from a state of rest to one of activity, its requirements alter. œÓ Ï ÚÓ„Ó, Í‡Í Ó„‡ÌËÁÏ ÔÂÂıÓ‰ËÚ ÓÚ Ô‡ÒÒË‚ÌÓ„Ó ÒÓÒÚÓˇÌˡ Í ‡ÍÚË‚ÌÓÏÛ, Â„Ó ÔÓÚ·ÌÓÒÚË ÏÂÌˇ˛ÚÒˇ. œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. Synthesis is the use of chemical reactions to build larger molecules from smaller ones. ✔ 2. Electricity involves a stream of electrons, flowing from a region of higher potential to one of lower potential. 3. Within the cell there are a variety of structures, each one of which carries out specific information. 235 –¿«ƒ≈À 14 ✔ 4. Within six months or so, 90 per cent of molecules that make up our bodies are replaced by new ones. 5. A stable chemical element is one that contains an optimal ratio between the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. 6. The bond between sulfur and hydrogen is easier to break than the one between oxygen and hydrogen. 7. Iron has many roles in the body but its best known one is to carry oxygen from the lungs to where it is needed. 8. Ytterbium salts are being introduced into the chemical industry as catalysts in place of ones that are regarded as toxic and polluting. 236 —ÀŒ¬¿-«¿Ã≈Õ»“≈À» 9. Of all agents now used, ether is the only one that by itself can provide the anesthetic state necessary for any operation. ✔ 10. The wide variety of antiseptics, their strength and speed at which they work are all factors that influence the choice of which one to use for a specific job. 11. A metallic element is one whose atoms form positive ions in solution, and a nonmetallic element is one whose atoms form negative ions in solution. 12. It is very hard to tell a poisonous mushroom from a nonpoisonous one without special botanical knowledge. 13. Since the role of minerals is a regulatory one, only relatively small amounts of them are needed by the body. 237 –¿«ƒ≈À 14 ✔ 14. Tooth decay can be reduced by limiting the intake of certain forms of sugar, especially highly concentrated ones such as candy or rich desserts. 15. As water forms about 60% of the body weight of man it is very obvious that the part it plays in metabolism must be an important one. 16. The remarkable fact that the blood is able to maintain a reaction which is alkaline and one which varies only within narrow limits is due to the buffers of the blood. 17. Simple microscopes ó ones with only one lens ó are really no more than the magnifying glasses. 18. Vegetarian diet is one in which no meat is eaten. 238 —ÀŒ¬¿-«¿Ã≈Õ»“≈À» 19. Any drug, even a relatively safe one, may cause harm if it used improperly. ✔ 20. Very high oxygen contents of the atmosphere result in increased rates of respiration in plants, very low ones result in decreased rates. 21. In ancient times men tried out different plants to see which ones helped cure certain diseases. 22. The role of chlorophyll seems to be a twofold one: it absorbs light which is used as a source of energy in photosynthesis and it acts as a catalyst in some step of the reaction. 23. The wrong drug, or the wrong amount of the right one can make an illness worse. 239 –¿«ƒ≈À 14 14.2 That ñ those ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 65 ¿ œÓ‡Ì‡ÎËÁËÛÈÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ Ë Ì‡È‰ËÚÂ, ͇ÍË ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌ˚ Á‡ÏÂÌÂÌ˚ ÒÎÓ‚‡ÏË that Ë those. ¡ Õ‡ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í ÒÎÓ‚‡ that Ë those ÎË·Ó Ì Ô‚ӉˇÚÒˇ, ÎË·Ó ËÒÔÓθÁÛÂÚÒˇ ÔÓ‚ÚÓ Á‡ÏÂÌˇÂÏÓ„Ó ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓ„Ó. ¬ Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: 1) A continuous supply of oxygen is required by living cells, in particular those of the brain. üÎÂÚÍË Ó„‡ÌËÁχ ÌÛʉ‡˛ÚÒˇ ‚ ÔÓÒÚÓˇÌÌÓÏ Ò̇·ÊÂÌËË ÍËÒÎÓÓ‰ÓÏ, ÓÒÓ·ÂÌÌÓ ÍÎÂÚÍË „ÓÎÓ‚ÌÓ„Ó ÏÓÁ„‡. 2) Plants are divided into two main groups, those that have flowers, and those that do not. –‡ÒÚÂÌˡ ÔÓ‰‡Á‰ÂΡ˛ÚÒˇ ̇ ‰‚ ÓÒÌÓ‚Ì˚ „ÛÔÔ˚: ˆ‚ÂÚÍÓ‚˚Â Ë Ìˆ‚ÂÚÍÓ‚˚Â. œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. Protein synthesis is different from that of lipids. ✔ 2. The mitotic apparatus of plant cells differs from that in animal cells. 3. A compound has properties that can be quite different from those of its component elements. 4. One of the most interesting periods in the history of chemistry was that of the alchemists, 500ñ1600 AD. 240 —ÀŒ¬¿-«¿Ã≈Õ»“≈À» 5. The simplest atom is that of hydrogen. ✔ 6. Bromine has properties which are intermediate between those of chlorine and iodine. 7. The strength of many alloys is often much greater than that of the pure metals making them. 8. The earliest known system of classification is that of Aristotle. 9. The xenon of the air, and that which is dissolved in the seas, has no threat to the environment. 10. The most obvious climate influence on plant distribution is that of temperature. 11. The study of the paleontology of plants came later than that of the animals. 241 –¿«ƒ≈À 14 ✔ 12. Iron is present in food of both animal and vegetable origin, but is absorbed better from those of animal origin. 13. When a cell multiplies by mitosis each daughter cell carries a set of genes that is the exact replica of that of the parent cell. 14. Titanium alloys have a corrosion resistance that is about equal to that of stainless steel. 15. The presence of oxygen and ozone in the Earth's atmosphere means that the radiation that reaches the surface of the planet is different from that emitted by the Sun in some important respects. 16. The early chemists were aware that fluorides contained an unknown element, fluorine, and that its compounds greatly resembled those of chlorine, but they could not isolate it. 242 —ÀŒ¬¿-«¿Ã≈Õ»“≈À» 14.3 The former ñ the latter ”Ô‡ÊÌÂÌË 66 ¿ œÓ‡Ì‡ÎËÁËÛÈÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ Ë Ì‡È‰ËÚÂ, ͇ÍË ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌ˚ Á‡ÏÂÌÂÌ˚ ÒÎÓ‚ÓÒÓ˜ÂÚ‡ÌËÂÏ (ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌÌ˚È ‡ÚËÍθ + ÔË·„‡ÚÂθÌÓÂ) the former ó ´Ô‚˚È ËÁ ÛÔÓÏˇÌÛÚ˚ı ‡Ìª ËÎË the latter ó ´ÔÓÒΉÌËÈ ËÁ ÛÔÓÏˇÌÛÚ˚ı ‡Ìª. ¡ Õ‡ ÛÒÒÍËÈ ˇÁ˚Í ÒÎÓ‚‡ the former Ë the latter ÎË·Ó Ô‚ӉˇÚÒˇ Í‡Í Û͇Á‡ÌÓ ‚ Ô. ¿, ÎË·Ó ËÒÔÓθÁÛÂÚÒˇ ÔÓ‚ÚÓ Á‡ÏÂÌˇÂÏÓ„Ó ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓ„Ó. ¬ Õ‡ÔËÏÂ: The ingredients with the most significant effects in typical cough mixtures are sugar and alcohol ó the former acting as a demulcent, and the latter acting as a mild depressant of the central nervous system. »Ì„‰ËÂÌÚ‡ÏË, ӷ·‰‡˛˘ËÏË Ì‡Ë·ÓΠ‚˚‡ÊÂÌÌ˚Ï ˝ÙÙÂÍÚÓÏ ‚ Òڇ̉‡ÚÌ˚ı ÔÓÚË‚Ó͇¯Î‚˚ı ÏËÍÒÚÛ‡ı, ˇ‚Ρ˛ÚÒˇ Ò‡ı‡ Ë ÒÔËÚ; Ô˘ÂÏ ÔÓÒΉÌËÈ ‰ÂÈÒÚ‚ÛÂÚ Í‡Í Ò··˚È ‡ÌÚˉÂÔÂÒÒ‡ÌÚ, ‡ Ò‡ı‡ ó Í‡Í ÛÒÔÓ͇˂‡˛˘ÂÂ, Ïˇ„˜ËÚÂθÌÓ Ò‰ÒÚ‚Ó. œÂ‚‰ËÚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ. 1. Selenium exists in two forms: a silvery metal or a red powder; the former is produced from the latter by heat. 2. The main difference between Mendeleyev's table and the modern table, apart from the extra elements, is that the latter arranges the elements in order of increasing atomic number rather than atomic mass. 243 –¿«ƒ≈À 14 ✔ 3. Atoms are held together by the electrical forces of attraction between each negative electron and the positive protons within the nucleus. The latter repel one another with enormous forces. 4. Propellants used in aerosols are of two main types: liquefied gases and compressed gases. The former consist of easily liquefiable gases such as halogenated hydrocarbons. 5. Water is lost through the skin by two processes differentiated as ´insensibleª andª sensibleª perspiration, the former referring to evaporation of invisible water and the latter to removal of an accumulated film of visible water. 244 —ÀŒ¬¿-«¿Ã≈Õ»“≈À» 6. There are two main types of cell division, mitosis and meiosis. The former gives rise to daughter cells that are identical to the parent cell. The latter gives rise to egg and sperm cells, which differ from their parent cells. 7. The mineral of teeth differs from the mineral of bones in that the former contains a small but significant quantity of fluoride ions in place of some of the hydroxyl ions. 245 ✔ –¿«ƒ≈À 14 “ÂÍÒÚ˚ ‰Îˇ ÚÂÌËÓ‚Ó˜ÌÓ„Ó Ô‚Ӊ‡ Í ◊‡ÒÚË IV 1. Acids are defined as substances which form salts with bases, give up cations, and add themselves to anions and to free electrons. Bases are similarly defined as substances which give up anions or electrons and add themselves to cations. 2. It is important that your doctor check your progress at regular visits. This will allow your doctor to make sure the medicine is working properly and to change the dosage if needed. 3. Sometimes there is confusion between alkaloids and narcotics. It should be stressed that all alkaloids are not narcotics; and all narcotics are not alkaloids. A narcotic has general definition of a drug which produces sleep or stupor, and also relieves pain. Many alkaloids do not meet these specifications. 246 —ÀŒ¬¿-«¿Ã≈Õ»“≈À» 4. On any inhabited planet it is likely that there will be microbes, because it is unlikely that living things would evolve without a microbial stage, and it is equally unlikely that microbes, once evolved, would be eliminated. 5. According to Aristotle, the basis of all material objects was to be found in four qualities: heat, cold, moisture, and dryness. These qualities could combine to form the four elements: earth (cold and dryness), water (cold and moisture), air (heat and moisture), and the fire (heat and dryness). By altering the proportions of their qualities, these elements could be changed into each other. 6. Both cytology and histology are branches of plant morphology. It is through the study of the cells of a plant that we learn how plants reproduce their own kinds, how they grow, how they transmit special characteristics to offspring and how they make and use food. 247 –¿«ƒ≈À 14 7. The chemicals that enter into metabolic reactions or are produced by them can be divided into two large groups. Those that contain both carbon and hydrogen atoms are called organic; the rest are called inorganic. 8. Global warming is sometimes blamed on the ´greenhouse effectª, but it is important to realize that the natural greenhouse effect is a vital contributor to life on Earth. Without the warming effect of the absorption of heat in the atmosphere, the Earth's surface temperature would be similar to that of the Moon (-18∞C). 9. According to the specific objectives of the investigators, botanical studies may range from microscopic observations of the smallest and obscurant plants, to the study of the trees of the forest. One botanist may be interested mainly in the relationships among plants and in their geographic distribution, whereas another may be primarily concerned with the structure or with the study of the life processes that take place in plants. 248 —ÀŒ¬¿-«¿Ã≈Õ»“≈À» 10. What made it difficult for early investigators to understand the nature of air was the belief that it was an element, so the idea of its being a mixture of gases was quite alien to the established way of thinking. Yet, in the Middle Ages, Leonardo da Vinci (1452ñ1519) had noted that air must contain something essential to life and that when this had been used up then neither a candle flame nor a living animal could survive. 11. Sometimes two elements are rather similar. For instance, nickel and iron are. Both nickel and iron are whitish metals that are attracted by magnets. Both are about equally hard, equally heavy, and equally hard to melt. But they are not the same in all ways. Iron rusts easily, while nickel does not. If fine pieces of iron are dropped into acid the iron will dissolve and the acid will turn yellow. If fine pieces of nickel are used instead, they will dissolve but the acid will turn green. 249 –¿«ƒ≈À 14 12. Alchemy, a combination of chemistry, magic and philosophy, tried to find or prepare substances which would turn cheaper metal into gold and silver and which would also cure any human ailment and prolong human life. In its fullest sense alchemy was a philosophical system containing a complex and rudimentary science, elaborated with astrology, religion, mysticism, magic, theosophy and many other constituents. Alchemy dealt not only with the mysteries of matter, but with those of creation and life. It sought to harmonize the human individual with the universe surrounding him. 250 ◊‡ÒÚ¸ V. ARE YOU A GOOD PHARMACIST? Task 1 Match the following commonly used directions for appropriate drug use to the pictograms* intended to reinforce printed instructions. 1) Read the label. 2) Shake well. 3) Store in refrigerator. 4) Take by mouth. 5) Take with glass of water. 6) Take with milk. 7) Take with meals. 8) Take in the morning. 9) Take at bedtime. 10) Take two hours before meals. 11) Dilute with water. 12) Drink additional water. 13) Dissolve under the tongue. 14) Place drops in nose. * –ËÒÛÌÍË ÔË‚Ó‰ˇÚÒˇ ÔÓ Advice for the Patient Drug Information in Lay Language (Appendix VI). Vol.II, VSP DI, 1996, 16th Edition 251 ¿Õ√À»…—ü»… fl«¤ü ƒÀfl ‘¿–ÿ÷≈¬“Œ¬ a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i) j) k) l) m) 1 n) 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 252 9 10 11 12 13 14 √–¿Ãÿ“»◊≈—ü»… œ–¿ü“»ü”à Task 2 Match the following pictograms to the ´do notª instructions. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11) 12) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 253 8 9 10 11 12 ¿Õ√À»…—ü»… fl«¤ü ƒÀfl ‘¿–ÿ÷≈¬“Œ¬ a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i) j) k) l) Do not swallow. Do not shake. Do not refrigerate. Do not take at bedtime. Do not give medicine to babies. Do not drink alcohol while taking this medicine. Do not take other medicines with this medicine. Do not take milk with or other dairy products. Do not store medicine where children can get it. Do not break or crush tablets or open capsules. Do not drive if this medicine makes you sleepy. If this medicine makes you dizzy, do not drive. Task 3 Put the words given below each pictogram in correct order to make a complete instruction. 1) a day/3 times/take 4) children/to/ medicine/give/ do not/this 2) salt/use/additional/ do not 5) make/this medicine/ dizzy/you/may 1) 4) 2) 5) 3) 6) 254 3) with others/ do not /your medicine/share 6) this/use/a gargle/ medicine/as/ √–¿Ãÿ“»◊≈—ü»… œ–¿ü“»ü”à Task 4 Complete the sentences choosing the appropriate pictograms to give your imaginary patient a good instruction on the use of a drug. The pictograms will serve as a reminder to your patient as to the proper way to take his/her medication. This drug is intended to use for..................................................................(1) Take this medication.................................................................................(2) Do not take this medicine.../While taking this medicine avoid........................(3) If you feel worse.../if you have questions.....................................................(4) 1) For headaches For lung/respiratory problems For hypertension (high blood pressure) 2) Take until gone Take I hour before meals 3) Do not take if pregnant Do not take with meals Call your doctor Check your pulse Avoid too much sun or use of sunlamp 4) 255 Get emergency help “ÂÍÒÚ˚ ‰Îˇ ÍÓÌÚÓθÌÓ„Ó Ô‚Ӊ‡ ‘.».Œ. _____________________________________________________________________________ üÛÒ _____________________ π „ÛÔÔ˚ _________________________ ƒ‡Ú‡ _________________ “ÂÍÒÚ˚ ‰Îˇ ÍÓÌÚÓθÌÓ„Ó Ô‚Ӊ‡ Í –‡Á‰ÂÎÛ 1 1. Atoms are the smallest stable units of matter. They consist of subatomic particles. There are dozens of different subatomic particles, but the most important for understanding chemical properties are: protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons and neutrons are similar in size and in mass, but protons bear a positive electrical charge, and neutrons are electrically neutral. Electrons are much lighter than protons and bear a negative electrical charge. Atoms normally contain equal numbers of protons and electrons. The number of neutrons does not affect the properties of an atom, other than its mass. 2. The idea of atoms, as the ultimate indivisible pieces of matter, goes back to the times of Ancient Greeks. In the fifth century BC Democritus gave atoms their name which means ´indivisibleª. But the real development of the atomic model dates from the end of the 18th century, when chemists began the modern investigation of the properties of the elements. But the final acceptance of the ´atomic hypothesisª came only in the first decade of the 20th century thanks to the work of A. Einstein. 3. Titanium, when pure, is a lustrous, white metal. It has a low density, good strength, and has excellent corrosion resistance. It is ductile only when it is free of oxygen. The metal, which burns in air, is the only element that burns in nitrogen. Titanium is resistant to dilute sulfuric and hydrochloric acid, most organic acids, chlorine gas, and most chloride solutions. Natural titanium is very radioactive after bombardment with deuterons. The radiations are mostly 258 ‘.».Œ. _____________________________________________________________________________ üÛÒ _____________________ π „ÛÔÔ˚ _________________________ ƒ‡Ú‡ _________________ positrons and hard gamma rays. Titanium is dimorphic. The hexagonal alpha form changes to the cubic beta form very slowly at about 880∞C. The metal combines with oxygen at red heat, and with chlorine at 550∞C. 4. Magnesium is a silvery-white, fairy tough metal. Magnesium is the eighth most abundant element in the earth's crust. Sea water also contains plenty of magnesium. Normally a layer of oxide, MgO, coats magnesium and protects it from air and water. Magnesium does not react with water to any significant extent. Magnesium metal dissolves readily in dilute sulphuric acid. This is in contrast with calcium, immediately below magnesium in the periodic table, which does react slowly with cold water. Magnesium metal does however react with steam and hydrogen gas (H2). Calcium is more reactive with air than magnesium. Magnesium tarnishes slightly in air. The metal burns in air with a very bright white flame. Magnesium is an important element for plants and animals. The adult daily requirement of magnesium is about 0.3 g. 259 ‘.».Œ. _____________________________________________________________________________ üÛÒ _____________________ π „ÛÔÔ˚ _________________________ ƒ‡Ú‡ _________________ 5. Ozone is a special form of oxygen. Ozone is oxygen that has undergone rearrangements from the normal diatomic molecule, O2, to a triatomic form, O3. Common diatomic oxygen and triatomic ozone obviously differ in molecular structure. This variance is responsible for slight differences in the physical and chemical properties of the two allotropes. Ozone is chemically more reactive than oxygen. Ozone has characteristic sharp odour. Unlike normal oxygen, ozone is very toxic. It affects the respiratory system. The concentration of ozone is not uniform over all parts of the globe. The production of ozone depends on ultraviolet radiation. 6. Sulfur is the tenth most abundant element in the universe. In 424 BC, the tribe of Bootier destroyed the walls of a city with a mixture of coal, sulfur, and tar. Sometime in the 12th century, the Chinese invented gun powder which is a mixture of potassium nitrate (KNO3), carbon, and sulfur. Early alchemists gave sulfur its own alchemical symbol which was a triangle at the top of a cross. Through experimentation, alchemists knew that the element mercury combined with sulfur. Sometime around 1777, Antoine Lavoisier convinced the rest of the scientific community that sulfur was an element and not a compound. This non-metal is pale yellow in appearance, soft, light. It burns with a blue flame that emits a peculiar odour (sulfur dioxide, SO2). Sulfur is insoluble in water but soluble in carbon disulfide. 260 ‘.».Œ. _____________________________________________________________________________ üÛÒ _____________________ π „ÛÔÔ˚ _________________________ ƒ‡Ú‡ _________________ “ÂÍÒÚ˚ ‰Îˇ ÍÓÌÚÓθÌÓ„Ó Ô‚Ӊ‡ Í –‡Á‰ÂÎÛ 2 1. *The brown algae are distinguished from other algae by the presence of brown pigment fucoxanthin, which masks the chlorophyll present and which imparts to them a brown colour. Nearly all are marine plants. In this group there are no very simple primitive forms. The brown algae are most numerous on rocky coast, where they are often exposed to the tides. Brown algae are found in many regions, but are especially abundant in the cold temperature and arctic waters. All brown algae are multicellular plants. Photosynthesis in them, as in other plants, results in the formation of sugar. 2. The existence of atoms was first established experimentally at start of the 19th century when J. Dalton carefully analyzed the masses of substances that combined with one another. The internal structure of atoms was determined by a succession of experiments in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. J. Thomson showed that matter was built from electrons and in due course, mass and negative charge of the electron were determined. 3. *The names ´cationª and ´anionª were coined by M. Faraday in the 19th century, when he was establishing the effect of electric currents on solutions of ions. He found that there were two types of ions that traveled in opposite directions in the presence of electrodes ó one toward the positive electrode and the other toward the negative electrode. Ion is the Greek word for ´travelingª, ´catª is derived from the Greek for ´downª and ´anª from the Greek for ´upª. 261 ‘.».Œ. _____________________________________________________________________________ üÛÒ _____________________ π „ÛÔÔ˚ _________________________ ƒ‡Ú‡ _________________ 4. *Chemical energy is a form of energy that is stored inside a chemical. The energy is released or absorbed during a chemical reaction. Common sources of chemical energy are wood, petroleum, natural gas and coal. When these substances are burned, the chemical energy that is stored inside is changed into heat and light. Fossil fuels are valuable sources of chemical energy. These fuels formed from the remains of animals and plants that died hundreds of thousands or millions of years ago. Over the years they were compressed with layers of mud and sand. 5. *Tellurium was discovered by Muller (1740ñ1825). Muller had amassed a collection of minerals during his trips around Europe and was particularly intrigued by one mineral which came from a mine near Zalatha. It had a metallic luster. For three years Muller researched the new material which he called metallum problematum or aurum paradoxum because of its mysterious nature. Finally he concluded that the mineral was a compound of gold with an element, which was unknown. Muller sent a sample of a mineral to the eminent German chemist Klaproth (1743ñ1817) in Berlin, who investigated it, confirmed that it was a ´newª element, obtained a pure sample and called it tellurium. 262 ‘.».Œ. _____________________________________________________________________________ üÛÒ _____________________ π „ÛÔÔ˚ _________________________ ƒ‡Ú‡ _________________ 6. *Radioactivity was accidentally discovered in 1896 by Becquerel (1852ñ1908). The French physicist found that when a mineral sample was placed on a photographic plate that had been wrapped in black paper, the light-sensitive emulsion became dark. Becquerel recognized that the mineral itself was emitting a powerful form of radiation that penetrated the black paper. Further investigations revealed that the rays were coming from the element uranium, a constituent of the mineral. Becquerel applied the term ´radioactivityª to this spontaneous emission of radiation by certain elements. Subsequent research led to the identification of two major forms of radiation: alpha and beta. 7. The 20 amino acids that are found within proteins convey a vast array of chemical versatility. The precise amino acid content, and the sequence of those amino acids of a specific protein, is determined by the sequence of the bases in the gene that encodes that protein. The chemical properties of the amino acids of proteins determine the biological activity of the protein. Proteins not only catalyze all (or most) of the reactions in living cells, they control virtually all cellular process. 8. Scientists from Siberian research institutes have created AIDS and hepatitis B vaccines. Tomatoes have been used. The edible vaccines have already been tested on animals and have given positive results. The immune system of mice that ate transgenic tomatoes became stronger. The entire world has been working on the creation of such an edible vaccine for more than ten years but no one has 263 ‘.».Œ. _____________________________________________________________________________ üÛÒ _____________________ π „ÛÔÔ˚ _________________________ ƒ‡Ú‡ _________________ yet achieved such results. The researchers will need several years of clinical trials and several hundred thousand dollars to continue their work and develop the vaccines' application into the production stage. ‘.».Œ. _____________________________________________________________________________ üÛÒ _____________________ π „ÛÔÔ˚ _________________________ ƒ‡Ú‡ _________________ “ÂÍÒÚ˚ ‰Îˇ ÍÓÌÚÓθÌÓ„Ó Ô‚Ӊ‡ Í –‡Á‰ÂÎÛ 3 1. Laser light is different from ordinary light, which travels in many different directions at the same time and contains many different colours. Laser light moves in one direction and contains only one or two colours. Lasers can do many things. They can ´readª compact disks. They can cut through metal. They can send messages through space. They can create three-dimensional images in the air. 2. Acetaminophen is available in tablets, and in liquid form or in the form of drops. It can be purchased without prescription. It must be dissolved in a glass of water. This reduces its time in the stomach and possible gastric irritation. However, it contains much bicarbonate and should not be taken daily over long periods. 3. There are 15 vitamins, and most of them must be supplied by food. Vitamins are needed in very small amounts by the body, but when they are not provided, a person can get a deficiency disease. Vitamins should not be used as ´tonicsª. There is a distinct possibility that the indiscriminate use of vitamin preparations may sometimes lead to overdosage, a problem that has arisen in resent years. For example, overdosage of vitamins A, D, or K may result in a serious disease. 265 ‘.».Œ. _____________________________________________________________________________ üÛÒ _____________________ π „ÛÔÔ˚ _________________________ ƒ‡Ú‡ _________________ 4. Eventually even the biggest and most vigorous trees must fall. Their bodies will contain several tons of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and other valuable elements that the trees over their lifetime have extracted from the atmosphere and the ground. But in this form these valuable substances are locked away and are beyond the reach of any other plant or animal. The cellulose and lignin, which make up most of the bulk of a tree, are extraordinary stable substances. Only two kinds of living things can reduce them to the basic elements ó bacteria and fungi. ‘.».Œ. _____________________________________________________________________________ üÛÒ _____________________ π „ÛÔÔ˚ _________________________ ƒ‡Ú‡ _________________ “ÂÍÒÚ˚ ‰Îˇ ÍÓÌÚÓθÌÓ„Ó Ô‚Ӊ‡ Í –‡Á‰ÂÎ‡Ï 4, 5 1. Before applying this medicine, thoroughly wash the affected area with warm water and soap, rinse well, and pat dry. After washing or shaving, wait 30 minutes before applying the pledget (swab), topical gel, or topical liquid form. The alcohol in them may irritate freshly washed or shaved skin. 2. Apply a thin layer of this cream to only the affected area(s) of skin and rub it gently. Do not cover with a bandage or otherwise wrap the area of skin being treated. This may increase the amount of medicine that gets into the blood stream, thereby increasing the chance of side effects. Do not keep outdated medicine or medicine no longer needed. 3. During the last few decades, not many branches of any science have undergone so much change in the equipment and procedures used as has the field of chemical analysis. The impact of vastly improved chemical analysis has been a notable significance in the area of pollutants and pharmaceuticals. 4. Antibiotics e.g. penicillin can destroy bacteria by killing them directly or by preventing them multiplying. Anti-fungals commonly used for infections of the skin and mouth (e.g. clotrimazole and miconasole) work by disrupting infected cells. Other medicines work by killing abnormal cells, for example some anticancer drugs directly target and kill harmful cancer cells. 267 ‘.».Œ. _____________________________________________________________________________ üÛÒ _____________________ π „ÛÔÔ˚ _________________________ ƒ‡Ú‡ _________________ 5. Classifying plants is not an easy task. No two individual plants are exactly alike but closely related plants may be very much alike. Long experience, good judgment and an eye for the form of plants are essential for good work in plant classification. The six areas of classification from smallest to largest are species, genus, family, order, class, and phylum. 6. The leaf blade is veined with sap-conducting tubes with thick-walled supporting cells. The blade consists of an upper and a lower layer of closely-fitted epidermal cells, including specialized paired guard cells that control the size of tiny pores for gaseous exchange and the release of water vapour. 7. Sulfur was known in ancient times. The Greek poet Homer mentioned ´pestaverting sulfurª nearly 2,800 years ago! Sulfur is pale yellow in appearance non-metal, soft, light, with a distinct odor of rotten egg. It burns with a blue flame emitting a peculiar suffocating odor (sulfur dioxide, SO2). Sulfur is insoluble in water but soluble in carbon disulfide. It displays three allotropic forms: orthorhombic, monoclinic and amorphous. The orthorhombic form is the most stable form of sulfur. Monoclinic sulfur exists between the temperatures of 96∞C and 119∞C and reverts back to the orthorhombic form when cooled. 268 ‘.».Œ. _____________________________________________________________________________ üÛÒ _____________________ π „ÛÔÔ˚ _________________________ ƒ‡Ú‡ _________________ 8. Water has a simple molecular structure. It is composed of one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms. Each hydrogen atom is covalently bonded to the oxygen via a shared pair of electrons. Oxygen also has two unshared pairs of electrons. Thus there are 4 pairs of electrons surrounding the oxygen atom, two pairs involved in covalent bonds with hydrogen, and two unshared pairs on the opposite side of the oxygen atom. Oxygen is an ´electronegativeª or electron ´lovingª atom compared with hydrogen. Water is a ´polarª molecule, meaning that there is an uneven distribution of electron density. Water has a partial negative charge (δ−) near the oxygen atom due to the unshared pairs of electrons, and partial positive charges (δ+) near the hydrogen atoms. ‘.».Œ. _____________________________________________________________________________ üÛÒ _____________________ π „ÛÔÔ˚ _________________________ ƒ‡Ú‡ _________________ ‘.».Œ. _____________________________________________________________________________ üÛÒ _____________________ π „ÛÔÔ˚ _________________________ ƒ‡Ú‡ _________________ “ÂÍÒÚ˚ ‰Îˇ ÍÓÌÚÓθÌÓ„Ó Ô‚Ӊ‡ Í –‡Á‰ÂÎÛ 6 1. Plants solve a whole series of' problems in acquiring the sunlight energy that they require. But they also need materials (carbon dioxide, water and nutrients) in order to carry out their life processes. Plants have evolved the intertwined ways to meet their needs for energy and materials. 2. The name ´magnetª comes from the district called Magnesia where people first discovered a rock that seemed to do strange things. This rock was found to attract anything made of iron. It also had other properties such as pointing a north-south direction when suspended freely. 3. Such different cells ‡s a bacterium, an ameba, a plant leaf cell, and a human liver cell appear to be so unrelated in structure and life-style that they might seem to have little in common. However, the studies of cells have shown similarities among these diverse cell types to be more profound than the differences. 4. In 1855, the German chemist ¬unsen, ‡nd independently of him, the British physicist Matheson, succeeded in isolating pure lithium by electrolysis of fused lithium chloride. It turned out to be a soft silvery white metal, barely half the weight of water. In lightness lithium has no rivals among metals: aluminium is five times heavier, iron ó 15 times. 271 ‘.».Œ. _____________________________________________________________________________ üÛÒ _____________________ π „ÛÔÔ˚ _________________________ ƒ‡Ú‡ _________________ 5. The first alloys were made in prehistoric times, soon after people first learned about metals. These alloys were made of metals that were plentiful ó copper, tin, lead and zinc. Bronze, the first alloy containing about 90 percent copper and 10 percent tin, was found to be much harder than either copper or tin. It is made by casting, which involves melting the metals, pouring them into a mold and letting them harden. 6. The ancient Greeks were the first to search for rational explanations for life; their ideas were based on a mixture of observation, guesswork and superstition, and focused on the question of what separated life from non-living matter. Greek philosophers were the first to propose that all matter consists of very small particles called atoms. No further progress was made with the development of this atomic theory of matter until the 18th and 19th centuries, when the experimental evidence needed to support the theory began to accumulate. 272 ‘.».Œ. _____________________________________________________________________________ üÛÒ _____________________ π „ÛÔÔ˚ _________________________ ƒ‡Ú‡ _________________ “ÂÍÒÚ˚ ‰Îˇ ÍÓÌÚÓθÌÓ„Ó Ô‚Ӊ‡ Í –‡Á‰ÂÎÛ 7 1. People used vinegar and wine as antiseptics as early as 2500 years ago, long before the discovery that germs cause disease. Several hundred years ago, surgeons noticed that untreated battle wounds and surgical incisions quickly began to smell like rotting flesh. To prevent this odor, they treated the tissues with a variety of substances that became known as antiseptics. 2. The kinetic theory of gases was first proposed by D. Bernoulli in 1738. He was inspired by the work of R. Boyle who had discovered in the middle of the 17th century that when gas is compressed the volume of the gas changes in inverse proportion to the pressure. Bernoulli realized that the relationship between the temperature of a gas and its pressure could be explained in terms of the kinetic energy (energy of motion) of the little particles in the gas. But he was ahead of his time. In those days most thought that it was related to the presence of a kind of fluid which moved from one substance to another. Bernoulli's version made no impact at all on science at that time. 273 ‘.».Œ. _____________________________________________________________________________ üÛÒ _____________________ π „ÛÔÔ˚ _________________________ ƒ‡Ú‡ _________________ 3. The similarity of beryllium and aluminium caused quite a bit of trouble to the author of the periodic law D. Mendeleev. The fact is that precisely of this similarity, in the middle of the 19th century beryllium was considered to be a trivalent metal with an atomic weight of 13.5. Mendeleev asserted that atomic weight of beryllium had been incorrectly determined, that the element was not trivalent but divalent and possessed the properties of magnesium. On the basis of this he placed beryllium in the second group, having corrected its atomic weight to 9. 4. Many medicines need to be stopped slowly, with regular checks from a doctor to ensure there are no health problems. Furthermore, you should not stop taking your medicine even if you feel better, as your doctor may have prescribed it to prevent recurrences of your condition, e.g. migraine and asthma medicines. If you experience any side-effects or the medicine doesn't seem to be working as it should, contact your doctor or pharmacist as soon as possible. He or she may be able to prescribe or recommend a different but equally effective medicine. 274 ‘.».Œ. _____________________________________________________________________________ üÛÒ _____________________ π „ÛÔÔ˚ _________________________ ƒ‡Ú‡ _________________ 5. All human beings and human activities are imbedded in and depend upon the ecosystems of our planet, which are the machinery of nature, the machinery that supports our lives. Without the services provided by natural ecosystem, civilization would collapse and human life would not be possible. One of the services that ecosystems provide is control of its quality. The oxygen that animals depend upon is produced by plants. In addition, a great variety of microorganisms control the concentration of the other major gaseous constituent of the atmosphere, nitrogen, that makes up almost 80 per cent of the air we breathe. 6. Leaves are the food factories of a plant. The raw materials they use are of the simplest carbon dioxide, water and a few mineral ingredients. The first, a gas, is all around them in the air and they absorb it through tiny pores in their surface. Water, and the minerals dissolved in it, is collected by the roots from the ground in which the plant grows. The agents within the tissues of the leaves that process these raw materials are small grains containing the green substance, chlorophyll. Powered by the energy of the sun, this is able to combine these elements and produce starches and sugars, the food from which the plant builds its various tissues. The process is called photosynthesis. 275 ‘.».Œ. _____________________________________________________________________________ üÛÒ _____________________ π „ÛÔÔ˚ _________________________ ƒ‡Ú‡ _________________ 7. Three gas laws apply directly to physiological problems at altitude. Boyle's law, which states that the volume of a mass of gas is inversely proportional to the pressure exerted, providing the temperature remains constant, explains expansion of intestinal gases, and the earaches that can be caused by trapped gases in the middle ear, sinuses and mastoid cells. Henry's law, that the weight of a given gas dissolved in a liquid varies greatly with the partial pressure of the gas, explains how exposure to the low pressure at altitudes may release nitrogen gas normally held in the blood in solution and thus produce bends symptoms. Dalton's law states that in a mixture of gases the part of the total pressure or partial pressure exerted by each gas is proportional to its volume percent as altitude increases, oxygen continues to constitute 21% of the atmosphere, but the decreased pressure of the upper atmosphere and consequently of the oxygen results in reduced oxygenation of the blood. Physical well-being and the ability to think and to reason are therefore inherently dependent upon the pressure of oxygen breathed. 276 ‘.».Œ. _____________________________________________________________________________ üÛÒ _____________________ π „ÛÔÔ˚ _________________________ ƒ‡Ú‡ _________________ “ÂÍÒÚ˚ ‰Îˇ ÍÓÌÚÓθÌÓ„Ó Ô‚Ӊ‡ Í ◊‡ÒÚË IV 1. It is difficult to produce the metals themselves because they have high melting points and are easily oxidized. Two methods are used: chemical reduction and electronic reduction. The former consists of heating the metal chloride with calcium under an atmosphere of argon gas. The latter involves passing an electric current through a mixture of the metal chloride and sodium chloride. 2. It is recommended that all children receive the chickenpox vaccine at 12 to 18 months of age. Because the chickenpox vaccine is relatively new, it is not known how long the vaccine protects a person against chickenpox. However, some people who have had the vaccine appear to be protected for as long as 20 years. 3. This medicine works best when there is a constant amount in the blood. To keep the amount constant, do not miss any doses. Also, it is best to take the doses at evenly spaced times day and night. If you miss a dose of this medicine, take it as soon as possible. This will help to keep a constant amount of medicine in the blood. However, if it is almost time for your next dose, skip the missed dose and go back to your regular dosing schedule. Do not double dose. 277 ‘.».Œ. _____________________________________________________________________________ üÛÒ _____________________ π „ÛÔÔ˚ _________________________ ƒ‡Ú‡ _________________ 4. It is recommended that a physician be consulted if pain is not relieved within 5 days. For geriatric patient, it may be advisable that these medications not be used for longer than 5 days at a time, because such patients may be more susceptible to adverse renal effects. 5. Plants have always been of interest to man. It has been shown that at an early period men distinguished and named the kinds of plants they encountered. As civilization developed, men began to arrange and record their knowledge of plants, and in this way botany began. Men's interests were manifold; as time went on, they concerned themselves not only with the kinds and names of plants but also with their structure, their mode of life, their chemical composition, the functions of their parts and their reproduction. 6. Leaves, one way or another, produce all the foods a plant needs for growth. The methods used by the vast majority of them to do this require that they should be flat in order to capture sunshine, and thin to allow gases and water vapour to diffuse freely throughout them. The arrangements of leaves on the stem may be one in which the leaves are in a spiral, or alternate pattern, or two leaves may be attached at the same node, providing an opposite arrangement. 278 ‘.».Œ. _____________________________________________________________________________ üÛÒ _____________________ π „ÛÔÔ˚ _________________________ ƒ‡Ú‡ _________________ 7. There is scarcely a plant on earth that man has not tried to use as a medicine, as well as a food. In ancient times men tried out different plants to see which ones helped cure certain diseases. At first they may have used plants with a strong odor or a bitter taste. Perhaps they thought that those plants with a bad taste or unpleasant smell would drive out the evil spirits believed to cause disease. Early men probably watched animals to see what plants the animals ate, especially when animals were sick. By trial and error, over the ages, men came to use thousands of plants as remedies for their ills. »Õƒ≈ü— (Ô˂‰ÂÌ˚ ÌÓχ ÛÔ‡ÊÌÂÌËÈ) √≈–”Õƒ»… ‰ÓÔÓÎÌÂÌË ó 27 Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚Ó ó 29 ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌË ó 28 ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â ó 26 √À¿√ŒÀ ‚ÂÏÂ̇ ‚ ÌÂÓÔ‰ÂÎ∏ÌÌÓÏ ‚ÂÏÂÌË ‰ÂÈÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓ„Ó Á‡ÎÓ„‡ („ÛÔÔ‡ Inderfinite) ó 5, 6, 7, 9, 10 ‚ÂÏÂ̇ ‚ ÔÓ‰ÓÎÊÂÌÌÓÏ ‚ÂÏÂÌË ‰ÂÈÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓ„Ó Á‡ÎÓ„‡ („ÛÔÔ‡ Continucus) ó 12 ‚ÂÏÂ̇ ‚ Òӂ¯ÂÌÌÓÏ ‚ÂÏÂÌË ‰ÂÈÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓ„Ó Á‡ÎÓ„‡ („ÛÔÔ‡ Perfect) ó 11 ‚ÂÏÂ̇ ‚ ÒÚ‡‰‡ÚÂθÌÓÏ Á‡ÎÓ„Â ó 14 ´to beª ̇ÒÚÓˇ˘Â ‚ÂÏˇ ‰ËÌÒÚ‚ÂÌÌÓÂ Ë ÏÌÓÊÂÒÚ‚ÂÌÌÓ ˜ËÒÎÓ ó 1, 2 Ôӯ‰¯Â ‚ÂÏˇ ‰ËÌÒÚ‚ÂÌÌÓÂ Ë ÏÌÓÊÂÒÚ‚ÂÌÌÓ ˜ËÒÎÓ ó 2, 2 üÓÌÒÚÛÍˆËˇ ´There beª ó 3 ÏÓ‰‡Î¸Ì˚ „·„ÓÎ˚ ó 16 ÔÓ‚ÂÎËÚÂθÌÓ ̇ÍÎÓÌÂÌË ó 4 ‡ÒÔÓÁ̇‚‡ÌË ÙÓÏ „·„Ó· ‚ ‰ÂÈÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓÏ Á‡ÎÓ„Â ó 13 ‡ÒÔÓÁ̇‚‡ÌË ÙÓÏ ‰ÂÈÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓ„Ó Ë ÒÚ‡‰‡ÚÂθÌÓ„Ó Á‡ÎÓ„‡ ó 15 ÒÓ‚Ô‡‰ÂÌË ÙÓÏ „·„Ó· Ë ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓ„Ó ó 7 Òӄ·ÒÓ‚‡ÌË ‚ÂÏ∏Ì ó 52 ÒÔˇÊÂÌË „·„Ó·: ‚ ̇ÒÚÓˇ˘ÂÏ ‚ÂÏÂÌË ó 5,6 ‚ Ôӯ‰¯ÂÏ ‚ÂÏÂÌË ó 9 ‚ ·Û‰Û˘ÂÏ ‚ÂÏÂÌË ó 10 ´willª ó Á̇˜ÂÌˡ Ë ÙÛÌ͈ËË ó 10 ƒŒœŒÀÕ≈Õ»≈ „ÂÛ̉ËÈ ó ‰ÓÔÓÎÌÂÌË ó 27 ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚ ó ‰ÓÔÓÎÌÂÌË ó 30 Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ ‰ÓÔÓÎÌËÚÂθÌ˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ ó 43 ´—ÎÓÊÌÓ ‰ÓÔÓÎÌÂÌ˪ ó 33 «Ì‡˜ÂÌˡ ÓÚ‰ÂθÌ˚ı ÒÎÓ‚ Ë ÒÎÓ‚ÓÒÓ˜ÂÚ‡ÌËÈ: ´asª ó 58, 59 ´bothª ó 62 ´eitherª ó 63 it ó ÙÓχθÌÓ ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â ó 54, 55, 56 it ó ÛÒËÎÂÌÌÓ ó 57 ´neitherª ó 63 ´oneª ó 61, 64 ´thatª ó 65 281 ¿Õ√À»…—ü»… fl«¤ü ƒÀfl ‘¿–ÿ÷≈¬“Œ¬ »Õ‘»Õ»“»¬ ‡ÍÚ˂̇ˇ Ë Ô‡ÒÒ˂̇ˇ ÙÓχ ÔÓÒΠÏÓ‰‡Î¸Ì˚ı „·„ÓÎÓ‚ ó 16 ‰ÂÙËÌËˆËˇ ó ÒÚ. 83 ‰ÓÔÓÎÌÂÌË ó 30 ËÏÂÌ̇ˇ ˜‡ÒÚ¸ Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ„Ó ó 30 Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚Ó ó 34, 35 ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌË ó 36, 37, 38, 39 ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â ó 30 ´—ÎÓÊÌÓ ‰ÓÔÓÎÌÂÌ˪ ó 33 ´—ÎÓÊÌÓ ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Âª ó 31, 32 ÙÛÌ͈ËË (Ó·ÁÓÌÓ ÛÔ‡ÊÌÂÌËÂ) ó 40 ÃŒƒ¿À‹Õ¤≈ √À¿√ŒÀ¤ ó 16 Õ≈À»◊Õ¤≈ ‘Œ–ä √À¿√ŒÀ¿ ‰ÂÙËÌˈËË Ë Ú‡·Îˈ‡ ÙÛÌ͈ËÈ ó ÒÚ. 56 ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚ ó 30ñ40 Ó·ÁÓÌ˚ ÛÔ‡ÊÌÂÌˡ ó 25, 40 Ô˘‡ÒÚË 1 ó 17ñ21 Ô˘‡ÒÚË 11 ó 22ñ24 Õ≈«¿¬»—»Ã¤… œ–»◊¿—“Õ¤… Œ¡Œ–Œ“ ó 21 Œ¡—“Œfl“≈À‹—“¬Œ „ÂÛ̉ËÈ ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡ ó 29 ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚ ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡ ó 34, 35 Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ ӷÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚ÂÌÌ˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ ó 47, 48, 49, 50 Ô˘‡ÒÚË 1 ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡ ó 19, 20, 21 Ô˘‡ÒÚË 11 ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚‡ ó 23, 24 Œœ–≈ƒ≈À≈Õ»≈ ·ÂÒÒÓ˛ÁÌ˚ ÓÔ‰ÂÎËÚÂθÌ˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ ó 46 „ÂÛ̉ËË ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌˡ ó 28 ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚ ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌˡ ó 36, 37, 38, 39 Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ ÓÔ‰ÂÎËÚÂθÌ˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ ó 6, 44, 45, 46 Ô˘‡ÒÚË 1 ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌˡ ó 17, 18 Ô˘‡ÒÚË 11 ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌˡ ó 22 œŒƒÀ≈∆¿Ÿ≈≈ „ÂÛ̉ËÈ ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â„Ó ó 26 ËÌÙËÌËÚË‚ ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â„Ó ó 30 Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Ë ó 41 ´—ÎÓÊÌÓ ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Âª ó 31, 32 ÙÓχθÌÓ ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Â ó 54, 55, 56, 61 œ–≈ƒÀŒ√» (ÒÓÒÚ‡‚Ì˚Â) ó 60 œ–»ƒ¿“Œ◊Õ¤≈ œ–≈ƒÀŒ∆≈Õ»fl ·ÂÒÒÓ˛ÁÌ˚ ó 46 282 √–¿Ãÿ“»◊≈—ü»… œ–¿ü“»ü”à ‚ˉ˚: Ú‡·Îˈ‡ ó ÒÚ.108 ‰ÂÙËÌˈËË ó ÒÚ.108 ‰ÓÔÓÎÌËÚÂθÌ˚ ó 43 ÓÔ‰ÂÎËÚÂθÌ˚ ó 6, 44, 45, 46 Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚ÂÌÌ˚ ó 47, 48, 49, 50, 51 Ó·ÁÓÌÓ ÛÔ‡ÊÌÂÌË ó 53 ÔÓ‰ÎÂʇ˘Ë ó 41 Ò͇ÁÛÂÏ˚ ó 42 œ–»À¿√¿“≈À‹ÕŒ≈ ÒÚÂÔÂÌË Ò‡‚ÌÂÌˡ ó 2 ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ËÏÂÌÌÓÈ ˜‡ÒÚË Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ„Ó ó 1 œ–»◊¿—“»≈ 1 ‰ÂÙËÌËˆËˇ Ë ÙÛÌ͈ËË ó ÒÚ. 56ñ57 Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚Ó, ÙÛÌÍˆËˇ ó 19, 20, 21 ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌËÂ, ÙÛÌÍˆËˇ ó 17, 18 Ô‡ÒÒ˂̇ˇ ÙÓχ Ô˘‡ÒÚˡ ó 18 ÔÂÙÂÍÚ̇ˇ ÙÓχ Ô˘‡ÒÚˡ ó 20 œ–»◊¿—“»≈ 11 ‰ÂÙËÌËˆËˇ Ë ÙÛÌ͈ËË ó ÒÚ. 56ñ57 Ó·ÒÚÓˇÚÂθÒÚ‚Ó, ÙÛÌÍˆËˇ ó 23, 24 ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌËÂ, ÙÛÌÍˆËˇ ó 22 —»Õ“¿ü—»— ÔÓÒÚ˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ ó ÒÚ.107 ÒÎÓÊÌÓ-ÔÓ‰˜ËÌ∏ÌÌ˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ ó 41ñ53 ÒÎÓÊÌ˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ, Ú‡·Îˈ‡ ó ÒÚ.108 ÒÎÓÊÌÓ-ÒÓ˜ËÌ∏ÌÌ˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ ó ÒÚ.107 —ü¿«”≈ÃŒ≈ „·„ÓÎ˚ ‚ ‰ÂÈÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓÏ Á‡ÎÓ„Â ó 1ñ13 „·„ÓÎ˚ ‚ ÒÚ‡‰‡ÚÂθÌÓÏ Á‡ÎÓ„Â ó 14, 15 ÏÓ‰‡Î¸Ì˚ „·„ÓÎ˚ ‚ ÒÚÛÍÚÛ Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ„Ó ó 16 Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ Ò͇ÁÛÂÏ˚ ó 42 Òӄ·ÒÓ‚‡ÌË ‚ÂÏ∏Ì ó 52 ÒÓÓÚÌÓÒËÚÂθÌ˚ Ôˉ‡ÚÓ˜Ì˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ ó 51 ÛÒÎÓ‚Ì˚ Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌˡ ó 49, 50 —ÀŒ¬¿-«¿Ã≈Õ»“≈À» ó 64, 65, 66 —ÀŒ∆ÕŒ≈ ƒŒœŒÀÕ≈Õ»≈ ó 33 —ÀŒ∆ÕŒ≈ œŒƒÀ≈∆¿Ÿ≈≈ ó 31, 32 —Œ√À¿—Œ¬¿Õ»≈ ¬–≈Ã®Õ ó 52 —Œfi«¤, Ú‡·Îˈ‡ ó ÒÚ.108 283 ¿Õ√À»…—ü»… fl«¤ü ƒÀfl ‘¿–ÿ÷≈¬“Œ¬ —”Ÿ≈—“¬»“≈À‹ÕŒ≈ ÒÓ‚Ô‡‰ÂÌË ÙÓÏ ÒÛ˘ÂÒÚ‚ËÚÂθÌÓ„Ó Ë „·„Ó· ó 7 ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ËÏÂÌÌÓ„Ó Ò͇ÁÛÂÏÓ„Ó ó 1 ‚ ÙÛÌ͈ËË ÓÔ‰ÂÎÂÌˡ ó 8 ”—ÀŒ¬Õ¤≈ œ–≈ƒÀŒ∆≈Õ»fl ó 49, 50 ÚËÔ˚ ÛÒÎÓ‚Ì˚ı Ô‰ÎÓÊÂÌËÈ: Ú‡·Îˈ‡ ó ÒÚ. 128
