Reading Difficulties,
Disabilities, and Dyslexia
Terminology
• Reading difficulties: students who struggle with reading, but who do
not have an educational or medical diagnosis of a reading disorder or
dyslexia,
• Dyslexia: dyslexia; however, dyslexia refers to a subtype of reading
disorder characterized by difficulties with word decoding, reading
fluency, and spelling.
Various Subtypes of Reading Disabilities
Neurobiological Basis of Reading
• Here is a deconstructed version of the example above, offered as an aid to a deepened understanding of
dyslexia.
• It is neurobiological in origin: This means that the learning disability is a result of the way that the brain is
‘wired’ and affects the way the person learns. These difficulties can be attributed to genetics and/or a family
history. In most cases, the individual was born with this disability and it is a lifelong issue.
• It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by decoding abilities
and poor spelling abilities:Individuals with dyslexia have trouble with reading individual words accurately
and quickly. They also have difficulty spelling words accurately and applying knowledge of phonics to sound
out words. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language . . .:
Students with dyslexia have trouble processing the sounds of language. This means they have difficulty
pronouncing, remembering, or thinking about the speech sounds that make up words.
• ... that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom
instruction: They have adequate intelligence, other strengths in learning, and opportunities to learn, so the
reading difficulties are unexpected. These students struggle with reading more than other students at the
same age, grade, or ability level.
• Secondary consequences may include problems in reading comprehension and reduced reading experience
that can impede growth of vocabulary and background knowledge: Many individuals with dyslexia do not
enjoy reading because it is difficult. Since they are not practicing, reading comprehension, including
vocabulary and background knowledge, will not develop as quickly as necessary.
Research
Typical Readers
Reader with Dyslexia
Reasearch
Before intervention
After Intervention
MTSS
• In order to determine what intervention should be provided to students with
various types of reading difficulties (see Unit 1), a data-based problem-solving
process should be used. A critical component of the MTSS framework and the
problem-solving process is the use of progress monitoring assessments to
determine if students are responding adequately to the interventions that have
been implemented. The analysis of progress monitoring data will determine next
steps in the MTSS framework to ensure that students are mastering grade-level
standards and/or making progress in interventions.
• When using progress monitoring assessment data to make instructional
decisions, it is important to remember that:
• tiers do not represent a specific curriculum
• content/intensity are dependent on needs
• instruction is differentiated
• personnel are highly effective and qualified
MTSS
• A multi-tiered system of
increasingly intensive
intervention supports is used to
provide the most appropriate
instruction to meet the needs of
students.
Four Types of Reading Assessments
• The four types of assessments are:
• Universal screening assessments
• The purpose of a screening assessment is to identify students who are at-risk for reading
difficulties.
• Diagnostic assessments
• Diagnostic assessments provide the teacher with more in-depth information about the
student’s skills.
• Progress monitoring assessments
• The purpose of progress monitoring is to track student performance during an
instructional period.
• Outcome measures or summative assessments
• Measures the desireevaluate students’ progress toward meeting the defined state gradelevel goals.
Problem solving approach
• The Problem Solving Process consists
of 4 steps:
• Step I: Problem Identification―What
exactly is the problem or discrepancy
between the current situation and the
goal?
• Step II: Problem Analysis―Why is the
problem occurring?
• Step III: Intervention Design and
Implementation―What exactly are
we going to do about it?
• Step IV: Response to
Instruction/Intervention―Is the plan
working?
Unit 3- Evidence Based Instruction
• Evidence-based interventions are practices or
programs that show evidence of effectiveness at
producing results and improving outcomes when
implemented with fidelity. Evidence-based
interventions are treatments that have been
proven effective (to some degree) through
outcome evaluations. Evidence-based
interventions, programs, and practices are proven
to produce results and improve outcomes when
implemented with fidelity.
• Matchiing
• As was described in Unit 2, the process uses a
cyclical and consistent problem solving approach
that is focused on each individual
student―collecting progress monitoring data even
more frequently, analyzing those data according to
strict decision rules to determine what changes are
needed in terms of the student’s goals and
intervention plans, monitoring progress in order to
improve the student’s rate of learning, and
continuing to apply the ongoing process as
needed.
• xplicit systematic instruction is a process, not a
program, and it is domain-specific. Students may
require explicit systematic instruction in a specific
domain (reading) or a component of that domain
(word recognition) while they receive core
instruction in other domains.
Unit 3_ Consider alternative options for
instruction
• The following recommended best practices are discussed in the
guide:
• Intensifying instructional delivery
• Increasing learning time
• Reducing instructional group size
• Integrating meta-cognitive strategies (e.g., self-regulation and
corrective feedback) that support learning
Unit 4
• The six elements of structured literacy instruction:
• Phonology
• Sound-Symbol Association
• Syllable Instruction
• Morphology
• Syntax
• Semantics
Unit 4 –principles of instruction
•
While some or all of the six elements will be selected as the content focus during structured literacy instruction, the following five principles of
instruction will be incorporated into the approach or program that is selected to match a student’s individual needs.
•
Explicit Instruction: Refers to the deliberate teaching and explanation of all concepts with continuous student-teacher interaction, including frequent
opportunities for student practice and comprehensible, specific feedback. Explicit instruction consists of essential delivery components and design
components: (a) the visible delivery features are group instruction with a high level of teacher and student interactions, and (b) the less observable,
instructional design principles that make up the content and strategies to be taught. Visible delivery means the teacher's language is concise, specific,
and related to the objective; the actions of the teacher are clear, unambiguous, direct, and visible; and there is a high level of teacher/student
interaction. Design principles include applying techniques for teacher-directed instruction during the acquisition of new skills, as students apply their
new knowledge or skills to new settings, and when teaching strategies to support students' cognitive processing abilities. The steps or processes that
are needed to understand a concept or to apply a strategy and complete a task are overtly taught, and it is made clear what the students are to do
and learn. In explicit instruction, concepts are clearly explained and skills are clearly modeled, without vagueness or ambiguity (Carnine, 2006).
•
Systematic Instruction: Refers to a carefully planned sequence for instruction, carefully thought out and designed prior to instruction to maximize
learning, and built on the students’ prior knowledge and understandings. Instruction proceeds in a logical order from simple to complex, and from
easier to more difficult.
•
Cumulative: Each step is based on previously learned concepts and each new piece of information is added successively and reinforced by practice
and review.
•
Diagnostic: Instruction is individualized based on formal and informal data including observation of reading behaviors. As the student responds to the
instruction in real time, the teacher can adjust what occurs next in the sequence.
•
Prescriptive: Scaffolds are used to manage the level of difficulty of specific tasks, and corrective feedback is given so students know how to monitor
their reading errors. "The term describes a refinement of something effective teachers have been doing instinctively for centuries: figuring out exactly
what is interfering with a student's learning process and employing teaching methods that target those specific issues," states Anne Pyburn Craig in
the Stages of Prescriptive Teaching.
Unit 4 Mulitsensory
• The power of multisensory instruction is that it goes beyond visual
recognition and auditory connections. It employs the use of all senses
such as sight, hearing, taste, and smell; touch (i.e., tactile); and
movement (i.e., kinesthetic). Not all senses must be used in every
lesson; however, educators should make a conscious effort to include
multiple pathways of engagement for students in order to convey
information in ways beyond sight and hearing. Using more of the
senses means information allows students to more effectively move
information into long term memory.
Unit 5-UDL
• According to the National Center on Universal Design for Learning,
UDL "is a set of principles for curriculum development that give all
individuals equal opportunities to learn." UDL provides a blueprint for
creating instructional goals, methods, materials, and assessments
that work for everyone―not a single solution applied to all, but
rather flexible approaches that can be customized and adjusted for
individual needs. Within a program utilizing UDL, students can learn
and show mastery of standards in a way that best meets their needs
and doesn't single out students who struggle. Technology supports
are an important part of the UDL framework in a digital curriculum.
Unit 5- Assistive TEch
• Assistive technology (AT) is defined as “any device, piece of
equipment, or system that helps bypass, work around or compensate
for an individual's specific learning deficits” (Raskind & Stanberry,
2006). The challenge is to find technology supports that are most
beneficial for the individual needs and preferences of your students.
Just as data-based individualization is key to selecting appropriate
interventions, the same is true when selecting AT for students. This is
especially true for those who don't respond well to intervention. An
AT evaluation is the first step to determine what works best for these
students.
Unit 5-supports
•
Electronic text allows for text flexibility―that is, it can be reformatted or transformed into alternative formats that increase readability. Text can be enlarged, spacing can be
added, and colors can be used to highlight or for contrast. Several tools and websites provide access to electronic books.
•
A variety of computer software apps can be used to remove visual clutter that decrease readability.
•
Alternative Format refers to the transcription of books or other content into a format other than standard print (i.e., large print, Braille, audio, talking books). Once text is in a
digital or alternative format, it can be read on a computer or mobile device through text-to-speech features. Bookshare and Learning Ally are two digital text online libraries that
can be accessed for free by students in Florida with print and reading disabilities.
•
Text-to-speech generates speech from digital text on a computer or mobile device as users read or type. Voice synthesis can be provided at the letter, word, sentence, or
paragraph level, supporting the comprehension of the text. The uPAR is a screening tool that can be used to help identify students in a school who will benefit from text-to-speech
accommodations and assistive technologies. It is available as an online/digital tool or as a print-based tool.
•
Rewordify is a software tool that is available for free online. This site simplifies difficult English while teaching the meaning of academic vocabulary.
•
Electronic concept mapping helps students organize and link ideas to each other using graphic organizers. There are a number of no cost tools and apps
including Canva, MindMup 2, Education Oasis, and ReadWriteThink.
•
There are useful organizational programs, software, and tools for information management (Dropbox, Google Drive, OneNote, and Evernote) and note-taking (Livescribe Pens,
Audio Note, and voice recorders).
•
Writing can also be supported through AT. Process writing software including StoryBoard That, Quill ELA, ReadWriteThink, and Grammarly is useful for students who need help
developing writing skills.
•
Voice/speech recognition software is also helpful for students who have difficulty with written expression. Dragon Naturally Speaking, SIRI, and Voice Typing are very easy to use.
•
Word Prediction programs and Talking Word processors allow users to select a desired word from an on-screen computer-generated list and provide audio feedback as the
student writes. Visit the resource from Florida's Technology and Learning Connections—Reading & Study Digital Tools v.1 or Learning Connections—Reading & Study Digital Tools
v.2 for more information.