BAMBOO- BUSINESS- NEW
https://www.huffingtonpost.in/village-square/bamboo-farming-is-changing-the-rural-economy-inkonkan_a_23312555/
https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/opinion/greening-india-by-planting-bambooep/article25009098.ece
https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/nagpur/bamboo-plantation-a-smartbusiness/articleshow/63860841.cms
https://www.profitableplants.com/blueprint-for-a-successful-bamboo-growing-business/
https://www.downtoearth.org.in/blog/the-big-idea-for-change-bamboo-as-grass-33299
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https://www.firstpost.com/business/budget-2018-and-bjp-govts-bamboo-mission-outlay-of-rs1290-cr-is-admirable-but-industry-skeptical-of-results-4339619.html
Thursday, October 18, 2018 Switch to हिन्दी
1.
Business News
Budget 2018 and BJP govt's Bamboo
Mission: Outlay of Rs 1,290 cr is
admirable, but industry skeptical of
results
Business Sulekha Nair Feb 07, 2018 20:51:52 IST
Lack of clarity about the manner of disbursal of the Rs 1,290
crore outlay announced in Budget 2018 is making bamboo
farmers and other players skeptical about the revival of the
sector that has been long ignored. The rural economy has been
given a boost with Finance Minister Arun Jaitley’s allocation for
a Restructured National Bamboo Mission. The National
Bamboo Mission is a wholly-sponsored central scheme.
There is a tinge of skepticism in the people for whom the
allocation has been announced. Though the Budget has
allocated a total outlay of Rs 1,290 crore under the revised
bamboo mission, the money is to be paid over a three-year
period. “On an average, Rs 430 crore will be spent annually.
The big challenge this poses is to know how the money will be
disbursed, who will qualify for it, and how can people apply for
it,” says Kedar Krushna Panda, assistant vice president, ILFS,
in-charge of Tripura Bamboo Mission. Panda says the
government has to give more clarity on how farmers can apply
for the funds.
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Manna Roy, who has been in bamboo cultivation for three
generation in the family says that the forest officials themselves
are not clear about the status of bamboo as a grass or a tree. In
November, President Ram Nath Kovind had through an
ordinance amended the Indian Forest Act omitting bamboo
grown on non-forest areas from the definition of a ‘tree’. This
exempted it from requiring permits for felling or
transportation. Until then, the definition of 'tree' under the Act
included palm, bamboo, brushwood and cane.
Three months after the ordinance was passed, Roy says he still
has to pay money to get his truck filled with bamboo to be sold
to be cleared by forest officials who continue to term it as a tree.
“I am treated like a thief who has grown a tree without a licence
and cut it for which I have to pay a fine every time I want to
transport it. Given that this is what I am facing even after the
ordinance was passed, I am keenly awaiting to see how the
government’s allocation to bamboo cultivators will help us and
the sector,” he says.
In Tripura, says Roy, there is no clarity about the word ‘export’
which also means anything that is sold or transported outside
of the state. “The government needs to give clarity on the term
export so that forest officials are in the know of what is a grass
and a tree,” he says.
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File image of Finance Minister Arun Jaitley. PTI
Around 80 percent of bamboo forests lie in Asia with India,
China and Myanmar having 19.8 million hectares of bamboo.
Though India is the world’s second largest grower of bamboo
with 136 species, 23 genera spreading over 13.96 million
hectares, the country’s share in the global bamboo trade and
commerce is only 4 percent in spite of having 45 percent
of global bamboo growth .
Eight North Eastern states account for 65 percent of the total
bamboo plantation in the country, as per the National Bamboo
Mission statistics. During 2006-2017, the North East cultivated
bamboo in 2,36,425 hectares of land out of 3,61,791 hectares in
the country.
China scores over India in bamboo cultivation and is the
world’s leading manufacturer of bamboo on account of its
research and development which has led to Moso bamboo that
grows in China and the Far East. Moso bamboo's physical
properties boast an average breaking tenacity more than three
times that of cotton, wool, rayon, or polyester and is used in a
variety of products from floor and wall paneling to furniture to
its fibre being used in clothing.
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Though the government gave recognition for bamboo and set
up the National Bamboo Mission in 2006-07, there hasn’t been
much research done on the grass per se, say industry observers.
However, a few entrepreneurs have taken the lead to work on
the grass and use it for a wide range of goods. Anil Mutha, an
entrepreneur who has set up a unit in Tripura buys bamboo
from the cultivators and says has done R&D on it so as to
increase its usage to a wide variety of goods from wood
paneling to furniture.
Roy who has a bamboo plantation and also a furniture outlet in
Tripura says that he had approached the Bamboo Mission for
funds which he alleges was not given to him. “I then
approached Prof M P Ranjan, who helped us with programs
particularly for people in the North East and taught us new
techniques on other products to be made with bamboo,” says
Roy. Ranjan was the head for bamboo initiatives at National
Institute of Design (NID) till 2010.
The Tripura government is the only state government mission
that is proactive towards the sector from plantation to value
addition including marketing and setting up of bamboo-based
industries in the state, says Kedar Panda of Tripura Bamboo
Mission. The state follows the public-private-partnership (PPP)
model with ILFS (Infrastructure Leasing & Financial Services
Limited, an Indian infrastructure development and finance
company) as its implementing agency at the ground-level for
the past 11 years. “We work with various government, nongovernment bodies including CSR (corporate social
responsibility) arm of companies. In the past 11 years, we were
able to raise Rs 90 crore for different projects.”
Bamboo sticks are predominantly used in India for
making agarbattis for which the sticks are imported from
Vietnam and China. The Tripura Bamboo Mission has drawn
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up a Rs 120 crore project to make round-stick making unit
for agarbattis with 63 MT production per month. However, the
project is strapped for funds. “We have been able to raise Rs 10
crores so far. We are encouraging farmers to plant bamboo,
inviting entrepreneurs to the state and encouraging them to
invest in bamboo farming and set up factories. With the 2018
Budget outlay for the National Bamboo Mission, we hope we
will be able to get some help from the government towards the
setting up of the unit,” says Panda.
Entrepreneur Anil Mutha, one of the earliest to invest in
bamboo cultivation and who has units in Tripura says like Roy
that the allocation to bamboo is a provisional one. He is
diffident about what will transpire on the ground. “The
National Bamboo Mission was dormant earlier and did not
fulfill the expectations for which it was set up,” he says.
The National Bamboo Mission was set up to harness the
potential of the bamboo crop by adopting area-based, regionally
differentiated strategy and to increase the area under bamboo
cultivation and marketing. Though new nurseries were set up
and steps taken to strengthen the marketing of bamboo
products, especially handicraft items, bamboo cultivators feel it
has not met with it stated target. “It is only after Prime Minister
Narendra Modi spoke at length about bamboo and its
importance as a livelihood for people in the North East ahead of
the Assembly elections in Mizoram and Meghalaya that we can
see some action in the form of an allocation specifically for it in
the Budget,” said Neeraj Mutha, an entrepreneur.
Sector specialists say that the government will have to look at
the bamboo industry as a source of employment generation for
the rural economy in the North East, help out with schemes
that encourage the growth of bamboo and understand and
enhance the potential of the bamboo sector for exports.
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Bamboo takes four years to mature after it is planted before it
can provide a steady stream of revenue for farmers. It is during
this period that the government needs to hand-hold farmers so
that they do not cut down the grass from the second year
onwards before it reaches its full potential from the fourth year.
“The problem is that there are no buyers for bamboo until now
as it is treated as a forest product in a majority of states,” says
Anil Mutha.
All that is set to change with the allocation in Budget 2018 to
harness what Jaitley calls, ‘Green Gold’. The outlay will help
buoy up the value chain in the bamboo sector, says Dr Rajpal
Deswal, additional commissioner in the Ministry of Agriculture.
He admits that though the Planning Commission had
recommended about Rs 2,300 crore for the National Bamboo
Mission, only Rs 880 crore was released.
With the increased funds at their disposal, the National
Bamboo Commission will cover an area of one lakh hectares
and provide 50 percent subsidy for farmers for cultivation.
Plans are afoot to encourage making of bamboo products for
export and also promote the use of bamboo fibre in clothes as a
fashion product.
Not all are diffident about the Budget allocation. It is only a
matter of time before bamboo receives wide acceptance, says
Ravishankar Mantha, CEO, Agrisk Data Analytics. As of now,
bamboo is a premium and niche product, but once it grows
widely like wheat did in the Punjab, bamboo will be a win-win
product for farmers, industry and the common man, says
Mantha. He is confident that the ‘massive stroke’ given to the
bamboo sector will lead to it getting a mass appeal.
Updated Date: Feb 07, 2018 20:51 PM
7
Bamboo can be more profitable than
sugarcane and rice! Check out how
https://www.financialexpress.com/opinion/the-bamboo-boon/974764/
How about planting bamboo extensively along the banks of the Yamuna to sequester
the carbon from Delhi’s vehicle emissions?
By: Vivian Fernandes | Updated: December 15, 2017 6:49 AM
How about planting bamboo extensively along the banks of the Yamuna to
sequester the carbon from Delhi’s vehicle emissions?
How about planting bamboo extensively along the banks of the Yamuna to
sequester the carbon from Delhi’s vehicle emissions? According to the World
Bank, India’s per person emission of carbon dioxide was 1,730 kg a year in 2014.
Another website says this has risen to 1,900 kg in 2016. Bharathi Namby, a
scientist, says it will take just five bamboo plants a year to make an Indian carbonneutral, because each of them absorbs about 400 kg of CO2 a year. Namby is an
agricultural scientist who had been doing research tissue culture for about 35 years.
About 15 years ago he developed a high density bamboo variety called Beema
(Bambusa balcooa). At that time, India’s average yield was about half a tonne per
acre. Though tissue culture and fertilisation, this has risen to 40 tonnes per acre.
Namby is the founder of Growmore Bio-tech, and has a tissue culture lab and farm
at Hosur on the Karnataka-Tamil Nadu border. He sells 10 million bamboo
saplings year, each priced at Rs 30.
Dense planting of bamboo on the banks of the Yamuna, he says will not only
absorb CO2 but also bring down particulate matter. The plant is an “excellent
scavenger,” he says; its roots do not go below two feet, so it can absorb rich
nutrients in raw sewage that flow untreated into the Yamuna and raise its
biological oxygen demand. During the monsoon, the clumps will slow the flow and
reduce the chances of flooding downstream. Submergence does not affect the
plants. There will be economic benefits in the form of employment and income.
Namby says Infosys has planted 30 acres of bamboo in Bangalore, to reduce its
carbon footprint. I have not studied the pro and cons, but Namby’s idea needs
serious study.
Bamboo can grow in dryland areas, but it yields best when well-irrigated. Bamboo
requires the same amount of water as sugarcane, about 10-20 litres per day per
plant. Conventionally, about 200 of them are planted per acre. In medium density
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planting, the number rises to 500 and, in high-density planting, the number is
doubled to 1,000 plants per acre.
To reduce water and fertiliser consumption, Namby advises a drip system for both
irrigation and supply of soluble fertiliser. According to him, the initial cost is Rs
14.39 lakh per10 acres for land preparation, soil improvement, sinking a well,
weeding, fencing, laying a drip system, ploughing, digging pits and installing an
electrical pump. Fencing is important because wild boars find the juicy rhizomes a
delicacy till they harden in couple of months. The cost per 10 acres rises from Rs
3.26 lakh in the second year to Rs 4.40 lakh in the fifth year and stabilises at that
rate. The harvesting begins in the third year with 297 tonnes per 10 acre. Yields
remain steady at 400 tonnes per 10 acres from the fifth year onwards. At Rs 4,000
a tonne (for sun-dried 15% moisture bamboo), Namby says the net income from
such a plantation will be about Rs 70 lakh over 10 years. He says bamboo is more
profitable than rice and sugarcane.
Namby manages a 5,000 acre bamboo plantation in Tamil-dominated Vavuniya in
Sri Lanka to feed a power plant. He says it is a better alternative to coal. A kg of
bamboo produces 4,000 kilocalories compared to 3,000-5,000 kcal for coal. The
cost is comparable, he says, but bamboo has 1% ash content, compared to coal’s
10-30% which poses a problem of disposal. It also emits no sulphur. The
government is keen to promote bamboo cultivation. On November 23, it issued an
ordinance to dispense categorise cultivated bamboo as non-forest produce that can
be transported without transit permits. Maharashtra has already stolen the march, in
April. It is quite keen on promoting bamboo as a source of income for farmers. In
August last year, it created the Maharashtra Bamboo Development Board (MBDB)
for this purpose. India has the largest area under bamboo—11.4 million hectares,
says TSK Reddy, the board’s managing director. But, as often is the case, China
makes the most of it even though it has a smaller area15.4 million ha—under the
“grass.”
Its last annual exports were worth $19.5 billion against India’s $4.5 billion, says
Reddy in a conversation at minister Nitin Gadkari’s agricultural fair, called
Agrovision, in Nagpur. Much of India’s bamboo is in forests. Reddy wants it to be
cultivated. He says 23 value-added products can be made for it. At the fair, vicepresident Venkaiah Naidu, who did the inauguration, was presented with a white
shirt made of bamboo fibre. There is a big market in the agarbatti industry. Reddy
says India imports 35,000 tonnes of round sticks from Vietnam and China. Earlier,
square ones were hand made from bamboo, in the North East. But when the
technology changed and machines took over, round sticks were preferred. India
produces 3,000 tonnes of them, according to Reddy. He sees ‘engineered bamboo’
becoming a substitute, but perhaps not replacing, timber. There are about 1,200
bamboo species of which 136 are in India. The National Bamboo Mission has
identified 16 for commercial purposes. The board has chosen five of them:
balcooa, brandisii, asper, nutans and tulda. It has joined hands with Bengaluru’s
9
Indian Wood Science and Technology, a government institute. The institute has
developed protocols for eight bamboo species.
The board wants to encourage large block plantations. Farmers will be supplied
tissue cultured saplings. It will source them from three laboratories, including
Growmore Bio-tech. Reddy says about 700 farmers in Maharashtra have given
their consent. Each of them owns about 4-5 acres and will grow bamboo on plots
that are currently uncultivated. They will need to invest about Rs 2 lakh per acre
for fencing and drip irrigation. The board is working with Nabard and State Bank
of India to provide loans to them, with a three-year moratorium on payment of
interest, and repayment over five years thereafter. Bamboo can tolerate both heavy
and low rainfall. Every year it gives out 8-10 shoots. Reddy says a plantation of
balcooa bamboo in Maharashtra’s Gadchiroli district yielded 18 tonnes an acre at
the end of the third year, 25 tonnes by the fourth and 60 tonnes in the fifth.
The board has an understanding with Ballapur Industries, a paper company, to buy
bamboo at Rs 3,500 per tonne or the market price, if higher, from the farm gate. At
that rate, the Gadchiroli plantation would have earned Rs 63,000 an acre in the
third year going up to Rs 210,000 an acre in the fifth. A plantation of flowering
bamboo species has an economic life of about 30 years but if the bamboo is sterile,
like Beema, it lasts forever.
**********
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Greening India by planting bamboo
PANDURANG HEGDET+ T-
https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/opinion/greening-india-by-planting-bambooep/article25009098.ece
Eco-friendly bamboo
Bamboo’s multiple uses as well as rapid regeneration make it the
ideal agro-forestry choice, vis-a-vis monoculture plantations
The World Bamboo Day is celebrated to create awareness about the importance of bamboo as a
versatile material for sustainable lifestyle. The theme of World Bamboo Day 2018 is: bamboo as
a tool for achieving economic and social sustainability.
Bamboo is part of rural livelihood in many countries, especially in developing counties like India.
Due to its versatile nature and multiple uses, it is also called ‘poor man’s timber’. Though it
grows tall like a tree, it belongs to the grass family. It can withstand drought as well as flood.
India is second only to China in terms of bamboo diversity. The North-Eastern States are a
storehouse of bamboo diversity, home to 58 bamboo varieties.
Bamboo is grown on 10 million hectares in India and covers almost 13 per cent of the total forest
area. The total production of bamboo is five million tonnes per year. About 8.6 million people
depend on bamboo for their livelihood. The value of bamboo in India is estimated at $4.4 billion.
Bamboo lifestyle
Though Madhya Pradesh has the largest area under bamboo forests, bamboo culture thrives in the
North Eastern region. From the tender shoots as a delicacy food item to the rice cooked in the
hollow of raw bamboo, it is part of everyday life.
From house construction to flooring, agricultural implements, bamboo pervades all aspects of life
and culture. We find artistic skills in bamboo weaving in these regions.
The advantage of bamboo is manifold compared to monoculture tree plantations. After planting,
bamboo clumps start yielding after 4-7 years. It can become part of agro forestry practice in small
land holdings. New bamboo plantations may curb the pressure from deforestation by serving as
wood substitutes.
It can be planted to reclaim severely degraded sites and wastelands. It is good soil binder owing
to its peculiar clump formation and fibrous root system and hence also plays an important role in
soil and water conservation. Though India launched the National Bamboo Mission in 2007, it has
failed to address the enormity of the issues related to bamboo.
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Realising this lacuna, the Finance Minister has allocated $200 million in the 2018 Budget to
provide new impetus to the bamboo sector, with huge support to the North-Eastern States. A
proper understanding of bamboo culture and technical support could unleash a bamboo revolution
that has the capacity to uplift the people in this region and provide economic, social and
ecological sustainability.
In November 2017 the Centre relaxed the restrictions on harvesting, transit and trade of bamboo
to boost the bamboo economy across the country. In contrast to India, China has achieved great
success in growing and showcasing bamboo forests and products.
China’s example
The headquarters of International Bamboo and Rattan Organisation (INBAR) is located in China.
It is a multilateral development organisation which promotes environmentally sustainable
development using bamboo and rattan. It has been making a real difference to the lives of
millions of people and environments around the world with achievements in areas such as: raising
standards; promoting safe, resilient bamboo construction; restoring degraded land; capacitybuilding; and informing green policy and sustainable development objectives.
Following the footsteps of China, India needs to support farmers to establish bamboo plantations
in barren slopes. It is the fastest growing canopy, releasing 35 per cent more oxygen than trees.
There are studies reporting that bamboo stands sequester 12 tonnes of carbon dioxide from per
hectare. During the wet season a bamboo plant grows up to one foot everyday!
Bamboo is an integral part of our life and culture, as it is used in religious ceremonies, art and
music. Thus it is a mystical plant that engulfs our daily lives.
However, we have failed to tap this renewable resource to rebuild green economy to achieve the
goals of sustainable social and economic development, especially of the weaker sections of
society who are engaged in bamboo resources.
The writer has been an activist with the Chipko/Appiko Movement over three decades
Published on September 21, 2018
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THE BLOG
20/12/2017 1:00 PM IST | Updated 20/12/2017 1:01 PM IST
Bamboo Farming Is Changing The
Rural Economy In Konkan
It is helping farmers cope with changing climatic conditions.


Village Square One-Stop Rural India
https://www.huffingtonpost.in/village-square/bamboo-farming-is-changing-the-rural-economy-inkonkan_a_23312555/
The newfound interest in the cultivation of bamboo, known as the wise man's timber,
is helping transform the rural economy in the Konkan region of Maharashtra by
boosting farm incomes
By Hiren Kumar Bose*, Sindhudurg, Maharashtra
Nestled among fields of mango, cashew, coconut and areca palms, and dotted with
houses roofed with Mangalore tiles in between, bamboo vies for attention at the
Pinguli village in Kudal taluk. Grown in homesteads till now, it has started making its
presence felt in farm plots as well. The scene is similar in Kolgaon, Hirlok,
Ranbumbuli and Konal villages, all in different administrative divisions of the
Sindhudurg district.
In these villages, bamboo supplements the farm income of those who have decided
to stay back and continue farming rather than migrate to cities in search of livelihood.
The farm landscape is slowly changing. Known for coastal fisheries and Alphonso
mangoes, villages in Kankavli, Kudal, Sawantwadi, Vengurla and Dodamarg taluks
of Sindhudurg district are increasingly falling under the charm of bamboo, the green
gold.
Abundant resource
According to the Status Paper on Rice in Maharashtra, Sindhudurg district receives
2,000 mm to 4,000 mm of rainfall and rice remains the mainstay crop. Endowed with
laterite as well as alluvial soil, vegetables, millets and pulses are grown in winter. In
addition to these, bamboo is being increasingly cultivated.
According to the Bamboo Resources of the Country prepared by the Forest Survey
of India, the bamboo-bearing area under Maharashtra is 11,465 sq. km, distributed
across 10 districts. Vidarbha produces over 90% of the total yield. The varieties
grown here since long are Manvel (Dendrocalamus strictus), Katang (Bambusa
bambos) or thorny bamboo, Manga (Dendrocalamus stocksii) and Chivari
(Munrochloa ritchiei).
The Konkan region, which includes Sindhudurg, is home to Manga bamboo. Manga
has been the preferred choice among farmers for its multipurpose uses. It is solid
without thorns and grows straight, achieving a height of 15 m. It is used as stakes in
horticulture, for making implements, for scaffolding and for making furniture and
handicrafts. It starts yielding after five years, yielding eight to 12 sticks every year.
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The varieties introduced in recent years include Bhima (Bambusa balcooa), Burma
(Dendrocalamus brandisii), Giant Burma (Dendrocalamus giganteus) and Yellow or
common (Bambusa vulgaris) bamboo.
Bamboo benefit
Sunil Sawant, a 57-year-old railway points man at Kudal, has refused several
promotions as they entailed transfers because he doesn't want to leave the bamboos
in his 20-acre plot. He informed VillageSquare.in that last year he sold Rs 15 lakh
worth of bamboo to traders from Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Delhi. He plans to
make Rs 20 lakh next year.
A FAMER IN HIS BAMBOO GROVE IN DANOLI VILLAGE OF SINDHUDURG DISTRICT. (PHOTO BY HIREN
KUMAR BOSE)A famer in his bamboo grove in Danoli village of Sindhudurg district. (Photo by Hiren
Kumar Bose)
Bamboo can do without much irrigation and is not susceptible to pests. Attack from
vertebrates like langur, gaur and wild boar can be controlled through three months of
active guarding during the shoot-growing season. It requires minimum labor and is
unaffected by extreme climatic conditions. It has readily available and wellestablished market linkages.
Farmers cultivate Manga bamboo as a tree-based intercrop. They do not clear fell
the existing natural vegetation, but plant the bamboos around existing large trees. As
the clumps compete with existing trees for sunlight, they grow taller and more erect
than the clumps planted in the open. Additionally, the tree branches provide physical
support and stability to the clumps. As the existing trees derive nutrients from deeper
soil layers, the leaf litter makes nutrient readily available for the bamboo clumps.
Bamboo boosts economy
According to experts, Sindhudurg presently produces around 5,000 truckloads of
bamboo every year. Each truckload bears 1,200 to 1,400 poles, with each pole
fetching between Rs 50 and Rs 80, meaning the bamboo farmers have a minimum
annual turnover of Rs 40 crore. The total bamboo economy of the district could be
around Rs 50 crore.
On the benefit-cost ratio (BCR) of bamboo cultivation, Milind Patil, a postgraduate
from College of Forestry, Dr. Balasaheb Sawant Konkan Krishi
Vidyapeeth (DBSKKV), said he found the bamboo farmers of Sindhudurg a satisfied
lot. His conclusion was based on his study of each crop from physiographic, climatic,
environmental and economic perspectives. "The BCR of bamboo was 3.7, meaning
a net benefit of Rs 3.7 on an investment of Rs 1.0, which was greater than the BCR
of mango and cashew, which were 2.3 and 2.8 respectively," he
told VillageSquare.in.
MILIND PATIL IN HIS NURSERY IN PINGULI VILLAGE OF SINDHUDURG DISTRICT. (PHOTO BY HIREN
KUMAR BOSE)Milind Patil in his nursery in Pinguli village of Sindhudurg district. (Photo by Hiren
Kumar Bose)
According to horticulturist Hemant Bedekar, a veteran campaigner who has
organized scores awareness workshops in Maharashtra, bamboo grown in
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Sindhudurg is either transported to Kolhapur, Sankeshwar or Goa and then sent to
the silk-rearing centers in the country's southern parts or to Mumbai to be used as
scaffolding in the construction industry. The trade has helped bamboo flourish and
holds potential in Konkan to develop industries like ply or lumber with international
market demand.
Additional farm income
Like other villages in the district, Rambumbuli has witnessed large-scale migration of
its inhabitants to cities in the recent years. But those who come home during
festivals praise 37-year-old Santosh Dattaram Khot. Early in life, Khot realized the
potential of bamboo. Over the years he has planted 2,500 bamboo saplings that now
cover six acres of his farm. He continues to cultivate rice as well.
Francis Thomas D'Souza of Kolgaon village, who has increased his bamboo
plantation from one acre in 1994 to 15 acres in about 13 years, expressed a similar
sentiment. "In the next couple of years, I expect to make Rs 20 lakh a year just from
bamboo," the 58-year-old traditional farmer and orchard owner told VillageSquare.in.
According to Ajay Dattaram Rane, associate professor of forestry, DBSKKV, who
has helped set up several Manga nurseries, bamboo is helping farmers cope with
changing climatic conditions. "A farmer in Hirlok in Kudal taluk did not get desired
yield from his cashew crop, but the Manga bamboo yield helped him," Rane
told VillageSquare.in. "I believe cashew plus Manga bamboo is a win-win situation
for farmers of Sindhudurg district."
Under the state government-funded Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY), 14
private nurseries have been established in 11 villages, each nursery having the
capacity of producing 5,000 plants. Each nursery owner is likely to earn around Rs
1.5 lakh per year by the sale of bamboo saplings, with a potential to scale up.
Among the beneficiaries of RKVY scheme is Patil of Pinguli village. He began with
100 mother plants of the Manga variety in 2016 on 7,000 sq. ft and sold 2,000
saplings for Rs 90 each. His nursery now spreads over 25,000 sq. ft. "I expect to
make around Rs 5 lakh each year from my nursery and also from timber," he
told VillageSquare.in.
Challenges and way forward
Though bamboo is a type of grass, the Indian Forest Act, 1927 defines bamboo as a
tree — a contradiction in the law that has impacted the livelihood of millions and
stunted the growth of bamboo industry. Despite India being the second largest
grower of bamboo, the incense sticks industry is forced to import bamboo, thanks to
the draconian law.
However, the Maharashtra government's decision three years ago to free the transit
pass (TP) condition for bamboo grown on private land is a shot in the arm for
bamboo farmers. Earlier, bamboo was transported within the districts of western
Maharashtra without TP, as it was from private lands.
According to architect Sunil Joshi, chairman of the Maharashtra chapter of Bamboo
Society of India, the TP regime affected the entire Maharashtra, more so Vidarbha,
which is abundant in bamboo. "The TP-free regime has liberated bamboo and a bit
of awareness about the cause and effects of future industrial development would
help bamboo find its right place in farmlands," he told VillageSquare.in.
15
According to Bedekar, National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development
(NABARD) and other nationalized banks should consider bamboo as a plantation
crop and start financing the farmers. "It takes four to five years to get yields, and
hence, repayment cycles should be planned accordingly," he said.
Hiren Kumar Bose is a journalist based in Thane, Maharashtra. He doubles up as a
weekend farmer.
This article was first published on VillageSquare.in, a public-interest communications
platform focused on rural India.
(The opinions expressed in this post are the personal views of the author.
They do not necessarily reflect the views of HuffPost India. Any omissions or
errors are the author's and HuffPost India does not assume any liability or
responsibility for them.)
16
Not for the income but the outcome: why
Yogesh Shinde quit his European life to
start Bamboo India
https://yourstory.com/2017/08/yogesh-shinde-quit-european-life-to-start-bamboo-india/
Rakhi Chakraborty
shares
posted on 7th August 2017 867
Bamboo India wants to change bamboo’s common perception from ‘the poor man’s timber’ to
‘the wise man’s timber.’
Over the centuries, human beings have been cleaning their teeth in a variety of ways, ranging
from chewing sticks to using porcupine quills to resorting to rudimentary toothbrushes fashioned
out of hog bristles and horsetail hair.
But the non-biodegradable plastic ones we use today were introduced in 1938. Every single one
ever produced since then sits rotting in a landfill somewhere while we continue to buy a new one
every three months to make our dentists happy. The toothbrush is second only to plastic bags in
the plastic pollution generated. In India, more than 150 million toothbrushes are thrown away
each month.
Expat to entrepreneur
For entrepreneur Yogesh Shinde, environmental concerns were not a priority when he was
starting up. The former Associate Vice President of Barclays, Pune, was posted in Germany and
living out every middle-class Indian’s dream of world travel and prosperity. He was jolted out of
his bubble when, during the family’s annual vacation back to India, he
He was jolted out of his bubble when, during the family’s annual vacation back to India, he learnt
a close family friend, a farmer by profession, had committed suicide. He says, “It was not like I
was hearing about farmer suicides for the first time in my life. But this was the first time I felt the
impact at a personal level.”
Ashwini and Yogesh Shinde
During his travels across Europe Yogesh had been stunned by the economic disparity between
western farmers and their Indian counterparts. Now he decided to act on addressing it. He says,
“Everyone wants to do something for their society, people, and country. I am not an exception.
We cannot keep blaming the government and society all the time. But what about what I am
doing for them? I must act and use my education the best way I can.”
One of the main reasons behind the prosperity of European farmers, Yogesh found, was the
seamless integration of farming and culture. “For example, barley is a major crop in Germany.
That’s why they promote their beer culture. Now Germany is a world famous destination for its
beer fests. In France, I found the same to be true with their wine culture,” he explains.
Being a Pune boy, Yogesh found the bamboo cultivations in huge numbers in Maharashtra to be
apt for his intentions. Upon further study, he discovered using bamboo would be serving the dual
purpose of helping the farming community and targeting the plastic epidemic that has consumed
our lives.
17
Rebranding the poor man’s timber
Yogesh and his wife, Ashwini Shinde, founded Bamboo India in the village of Velhe near Pune in
2016. They wanted to change bamboo’s common perception from ‘the poor man’s timber’ to ‘the
wise man’s timber.’ Their idea is to move away from the dominant handicrafts and furniture
industry and use bamboo to manufacture viable alternatives to household plastic products.
Bamboo India’s product catalogue contains an array of examples ranging from speakers,
notebooks, clothes pegs, pens, desk organisers to, of course, the much-vaunted toothbrush.
These are sold via an e-commerce platform. They also have several offline tie-ups and avenues
where they sell their merchandise.
Plastic epidemic
Bamboo India's biodegradable packaging
Plastic, a by-product of the destructive fossil fuel industry, takes a thousand years or more to biodegrade. It is a toxic material composed of harmful chemicals that have invaded our ecosystem
and our bodies. Studies suggest that by 2050 there will be more plastic in the oceans than fish.
The everyday use of plastic releases endocrine-disrupting chemicals into our bloodstream, which
causes a multitude of health problems. For example, it leads to lower sperm count in men and
the BPA contamination accounts for fertility disorders like PCOS in women. A recent study shows
that humans have produced 8.3 billion tonnes of plastic since the 1950s and most of it has ended
up in landfills or polluted our oceans and rivers, threatening a near permanent contamination of
our environment.
Wonder grass
Bamboo crafting in progress
Bamboo is just one type of grass, but it has over a thousand species. It is a material so versatile
that you can make houses, furniture and delicious nutrient-rich food out of it. While bamboo is
pliable enough to be moulded into anything—be it weapons or musical instruments—it is stronger
than steel, earthquake-proof and is the only plant to have survived the nuclear bombing at
Hiroshima.
India is the second largest bamboo-growing country in the world, with about 125 species of the
plant being found in our country. But it contributes to only four percent of the global bamboo
product market share. It is the world’s fastest growing grass, requires scant attention and no
pesticides while growing and absorbs greenhouse gases and releases 35 percent more oxygen
into the atmosphere than hardwood trees.
Rough start
For Yogesh, the biggest challenge of starting up was raising funds. After several banks declined
his requests for a loan, he mortgaged his home to secure the seed fund. His gamble paid off
when, he says, “We crossed more than Rs 50 lakh of business in the first seven months without
any external financial support.” In the past nine months, they have exported to seven countries,
reached more than 5,000 customers in India, saved 20,000kg of plastic waste from landfills and
generated valuable employment for 12 farmers. “Now we are targeting to prevent 1,00,000kg
plastic waste by the end of 2017,” he says.
Bamboo India farmers at work
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Though the startup has crossed into profitability, it needs considerable investment to bring to
fruition Yogesh and Ashwini’s vision for growth. “One major obstacle is not having our own
manufacturing setup. Currently, we are dependent on external workshops. We need to buy our
own machines so we can have everything under one roof. When this happens we will setup a
Common Facility Centre in Velhe. Here we want to train farmers and artisans to enable them to
set up their own micro bamboo businesses,” he shares.
Bamboo India’s long-term success hinges on a variety of factors, not the least being the
customer’s willingness to shell out Rs 120 for a toothbrush when they can get a plastic one for as
low as Rs 20 and their level of embrace of the bamboo culture that Yogesh and Ashwini are
propagating. Yogesh is convinced that consumers are waking up to the alarming degradation of
the planet’s resources and are willing to make sustainable choices in their lifestyles. Failure is not
an option for Bamboo India because, he says, “The farmers are looking to us with great
expectations.”
Highs and lows
“I like travelling and had been to around 20 countries with my family before starting up. Since
starting work in Bamboo India we haven’t taken a single day’s leave to even attend family
functions. Transitioning from a financially prosperous life in Germany to one with a strained
budget in India has been quite hard. This effort is not for the income but the outcome. So that’s
alright,” says Yogesh.
For Yogesh, the best part about starting up has been the feedback from his customers. “They
feel that they are doing something positive for society just by making a conscious purchase and it
is a thrill to connect with them on this issue,” he says. “There is also nothing like the realisation
that we are a bridge between the farmers and society. This elevates our sense of purpose.”
His advice to aspiring changemakers: “Believe in your dream and focus on what you are doing.
The rest will fall in place.”
Website
Author
Rakhi Chakraborty
Related Topics
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social entrepreneurship
entrepreneur
plastic
bamboo
Plastic pollution
Bamboo India
bamboo toothbrush
Yogesh Shinde
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The big idea for change: bamboo as grass
https://www.downtoearth.org.in/blog/the-big-idea-for-change-bamboo-as-grass-33299
By Sunita Narain
Last Updated: Thursday 11 June 2015
“Stroke of the pen” reform is critical as in many cases policy is dastardly and
change is laggardly. The essential element is to find that big-ticket item that can
have impact on a scale and at a pace that is needed. I believe Union environment
and forests minister Jairam Ramesh’s letter addressed to all chief ministers
clarifying that bamboo is indeed a grass and not timber, is such an item.
I have already written about why bamboo should be treated as a grass (see ‘Is
bamboo a tree or a grass?’, Down To Earth, December 1-15, 2010). It grows like a
weed and because of its high productivity and versatility of uses it has the potential
of creating huge economic wealth. So if you can put bamboo in the hands of the
people, to grow, to harvest and to add value, you put wealth in their hands.
But policy was reluctant to make this change. The Indian Forest Act had over time
categorised bamboo as timber, which meant the forest department had the
monopoly over it. Those who grew bamboo in their backyard could not harvest or
sell this productive grass without a number of permissions from the forest
department.
Today as Anna Hazare’s movement against corruption takes the country by storm,
we must make the connection. It is cumbersome policy that creates opportunities
for corruption and harassment. It is policy that must be reformed. In this case,
ordinary people in villages and in forests got permission to cut their bamboo only
20
after they had greased many palms and fought many battles. In most states a tree
owner needs a “transit pass” to cut bamboo. To get the transit pass a tree owner
would have to obtain revenue records and then apply to the collector or the forest
department for permission to cut. It would take up to 10 different departmental
permissions and many visits to “headquarters”. So the way out is to find a wellheeled and connected contractor who can pay his way through the system and
facilitate the transaction. In all this, the person who grows the tree gets
shortchanged. There is no incentive to use trees or grass as an income-generating
activity. Nobody grows trees. The environment loses.
This could change now. Ramesh’s letter makes it clear that the Forest Rights Act
has changed the legal regime governing bamboo. This Act, passed in 2006, has
“vested the right of ownership, access to collect, use and dispose of minor forest
product” (MFP) with tribals and other traditional forest dwellers. It has also
defined bamboo as an MFP. The letter asks the chief ministers to direct their forest
administration to treat bamboo as MFP and to “respect the rights accrued to
communities”.
A lot more will have to be done to ensure bamboo is indeed treated as a grass.
Ultimately, it is the change in governance systems that will alter the way we do
business with our people and our environment. Anil Agarwal, the founder editor of
Down To Earth, had said that unless we promote governance systems based on
public participation and transparency we would not get rid of corruption.
It is this governance system that will now have to be worked on so that it facilitates
empowerment of people, but checks graft and over-extraction. The minister’s letter
takes a bold step in this direction by saying that the gram sabha (village assembly)
will have the right to issue transit passes for bamboo grown in forests where
community rights have been declared or on private land. We need administrative
21
systems to ensure this permission does not fall into hands that will destroy forests.
But all said this is the beginning of a big-ticket reform.
Just consider the potential. The Indian paper industry needs massive quantities of
raw material and bamboo is the best pulping material. Over the years, with bamboo
defined as timber, industry and forest departments have worked on contractual
arrangements to make bamboo and other wood available to industry at throwaway
prices. Large parts of forests have been leased to the industry. This has led to
deforestation and, in turn, a crippling shortage of raw material for the industry.
More importantly, this policy has ended up discounting the value of trees grown by
farmers. Our analysis shows India needs 1.5 million hectares of tree-bamboo land
to supply raw material to the paper and pulp industry.
Now industry can source this from small landholders or villagers with community
forest rights. It will have to pay the market value, which will increase its cost of
raw material marginally. But at the same time, this buyer-seller relationship will
put money directly in the hands of people, reducing need for development
assistance, which also comes at a high transactional cost. Growing trees can be a
business for growth.
I call this big-ticket because this single move can rid economies of the growthwithout-jobs syndrome. This is the new green growth model the world is
desperately seeking—creating opportunities to build economic wealth from
regeneration of forests, and more importantly, creating inclusive and equitable
wealth and wellbeing.
Bamboo in the forest and in the hands of people is about that big reform for a green
tomorrow. Let’s hope we grab the potential.
22
23
https://www.wwfindia.org/about_wwf/making_businesses_sustainable/timber_pulp_paper/
TIMBER, PULP & PAPER
Wherever we may live, forests impact our lives daily, from the air we breathe to
the food we eat. However, they are being destroyed to meet the world’s
growing demand for wood, paper and agricultural products.
Responsible forestry is essential to not only reduce the adverse environmental,
social and economic impacts associated with forest loss, but also to ensure the
continuity of the values that forests bring.
India’s pivotal position in the global forest products market makes it a critical player
in influencing better forest management domestically and internationally.
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It ranked 13th in total import values for wood and articles of wood trade in 2015.
It is the second largest importer of tropical timber and is also the third largest
consumer, after Indonesia and Brazil.
About 17% of log imports to India are estimated to be of illegal origin and the
country’s consumption of such logs is rising more rapidly than any other.
WWF-India works towards building sustainable, ‘deforestation-free’ markets for forest-based
products like timber, pulp and paper, and natural rubber through engagements at multiple
levels.
At the manufacturer level, we engage with companies to promote sustainable production and
sourcing along their supply chains, through the progressive uptake of global best practices
like credible certifications (Forest Stewardship Council (FSC)), as well as through the
promotion of the use of sustainable alternatives like agri-residue and recycled fibres.
The Global Forest and Trade Network (GFTN) is one of the key programmes that WWF uses
globally to engage with forest-based companies in this way.
At the consumer level, we work to raise awareness and demand for FSC products through
campaigns and communications in industry channels. At the wider sector level, we work to
influence the development of forest certification in the Indian context, in line with global best
practice.
24
Gateway to international TIMBERTRADE
FOREST RESOURCES
http://www.timbertradeportal.com/countries/india/
According to the FAO (2015) India has around 70.7 million hectares of forested land,
which constitutes to 23.8% of the total land area. Around 15.7 million hectares are
primary forest, 43 million hectares of otherwise naturally regenerated forest, and
around 12 million hectares are planted forest. India’s annual change rate is positive
and varies between 0.2 and 0.7% per year, indicating a constant expansion in
forested area by about 1 million ha per year through afforestation projects. About
86% of the forest area is publicly owned, for the biggest part administered by the
government, for the other part those public lands are reserved for communities and
indigenous groups, the other 14% is privately owned. Public lands can be classified
as protected, production or village forests.
India is one of the twelve mega-biodiverse countries, hosting 7% of the world’s
biodiversity. Many flora or fauna species are endemic to India. Indian forest types
include tropical evergreens, tropical deciduous, swamps, mangroves, sub-tropical,
montane, scrub, sub-alpine and alpine forests. The most widely distributed genera in
tropical wet evergreen forests are Dipterocarpus, Hopea, Callophyllum and Syzgium,
and the families Lauraceaeand Myrthaceae are also well represented. Tropical moist
deciduous forests are characterized by Tectona grandis (teak) and others by Shorea
robusta (sal). (Forest legality Alliance)
A major threat to forests of India is the slash-and-burn shifting cultivation to grow
food, especially in its northeastern states. According to Forest Legality Alliance, 41%
of forest in India is classed as “degraded,” due to heavy use pressure on the forest
from fuel wood collection and cattle grazing. The 275 million people living in forest
areas, including 88 million “tribals,” rely heavily on forests for fuel, fodder, grazing,
wood, and non-timber forest products (NTFP’s).
PRODUCTION AND EXPORT
According to ITTO (2017) the industry of India produced in 2015 almost 50 million
m3 of logs, of which only a minor portion was exported. In this year the export value
of primary timber products exceeded 72.6 million US dollars.
India has a thriving range of industries for semi-processed and value-added timber
products, including wooden handicrafts, pulp and paper, plywood and veneer and
wooden furniture. Exports of wooden handicrafts in particular are on the rise.
Commonly harvested species from natural forests in India include, among others:
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Teak (Tectona grandis), both from natural and planted forests.
Sal (Shorea robusta)
Acacia catechu
Pyinkado (Xylia xylocarpa)
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Common planted species include, among others, fast-growing (and short rotation)
species of:
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Teak (Tectona grandis) is the most widely planted timber species in India, and most
of the teak is harvested from planted forests.
Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus spp.)
Acacia (Acacia spp.)
Although India is one of the world’s top producers of tropical logs, it is also one of the
world’s largest consumers of wood products. India cannot meet its own demand for
wood products with domestic supply, and as a result is currently the world’s
2nd largest importer of tropical logs. India is a major producer of wood-based
products, including pulp, paper, plywood, furniture, wooden handicrafts, and
veneers. Its major exporting hubs are the EU, US and the Middle East (Forest
legality Alliance).
SOURCES OF INFORMATION
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FAO (2015) Global Forest Resources Assessment 2015.
Fordaq - timber trade network
Forest Legality Alliance country profile – India
ITC (International Trade Centre) calculations based on UN Comtrade statistics
ITTO (2011) Status of tropical forest management 2011 – India
ITTO (2015) ITTO Biennial review and assessment of the world timber situation
2013-2014.
World Port Source - Map of ports in India with container liner service.
26
https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bengaluru/Now-grass-is-greener-for-fodderentrepreneurs/articleshow/54339244.cms
India Timber Risk Profile
Toolbox
Timber Risk Assessment
List of applicable legislation
Risk Mitigation Guide
27
Document Guide
Risk Score: 210102030405060708090100
Timber Risk Score: 21 / 100 in 2017. The Timber Legality Risk Assessment contains an
evaluation of the risk of illegality in India for five categories and 21 sub-categories of law. We
found:
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Specified risk for 15 sub-categories.
Low risk for 4 sub-categories.
No legal requirements for 3 sub-categories.
This page provides an overview of the legality risks related to timber produced in India.
India has around 70 million hectares of forests, which covers 24% of the country. Around 15.7
million hectares are primary forest, 43 million hectares of otherwise naturally regenerated forest,
and around 12 million hectares are planted forest. The total forest area is increasing by around 1
million hectares a year.
About 85% of the forest area is publicly owned, and 15% privately owned (FAO, 2015). Most of
the public forests are administered by the government, and some of them by communities and
indigenous groups.
India produced almost 50 million m3 of logs in 2014, of which only a small proportion was
exported. The export value of primary timber products exceeded USD 80 million (ITTO, 2015).
Illegal logging and trade of high-value timber is a major problem in many parts of the country. In
2009. the Ministry of Environment and Forests estimated that 2 million m3 of logs were illegally
felled per year. Several legality risks are present in India, relating to legal rights to harvest, taxes
and fees, timber harvesting activities, third parties' rights, and trade and transport.
As India is one of the world’s largest importers of wood-based products, it is also a major
consumer of illegal timber. The volume of illegal imports has increased, and in 2012 almost 20%
of timber imports were estimated to be illegal. There has been limited acknowledgement of the
problem within the country, and little response from the government (Chatham House, 2014).
Companies sourcing timber from India should take care to ensure the risks identified are not
present in their supply chains, or have been sufficiently mitigated.
Corruption Perceptions Index
Score: 40 / 100 in 2016
Rank: 79 out of 176 countries in 2016
28
India Timber Risk Profile
Certificationhttps://www.nepcon.org/sourcinghub/timber/timber-indiaa: 507,012 hectares
Risk Score: 210102030405060708090100● Score: 21
Timber Risk Score: 21 / 100 in 2017. The Timber Legality Risk Assessment contains an
evaluation of the risk of illegality in India for five categories and 21 sub-categories of law. We
found:
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
Specified risk for 15 sub-categories.
Low risk for 4 sub-categories.
No legal requirements for 3 sub-categories.
This page provides an overview of the legality risks related to timber produced in India.
(ndia has around 70 million hectares of forests, which covers 24% of the country. Around 15.7
million hectares are primary forest, 43 million hectares of otherwise naturally regenerated forest,
and around 12 million hectares are planted forest. The total forest area is increasing by around 1
million hectares a year.
About 85% of the forest area is publicly owned, and 15% privately owned (FAO, 2015). Most of
the public forests are administered by the government, and some of them by communities and
indigenous groups.
India produced almost 50 million m3 of logs in 2014, of which only a small proportion was
exported. The export value of primary timber products exceeded USD 80 million (ITTO, 2015).
Illegal logging and trade of high-value timber is a major problem in many parts of the country. In
2009. the Ministry of Environment and Forests estimated that 2 million m3 of logs were illegally
felled per year. Several legality risks are present in India, relating to legal rights to harvest, taxes
and fees, timber harvesting activities, third parties' rights, and trade and transport.
As India is one of the world’s largest importers of wood-based products, it is also a major
consumer of illegal timber. The volume of illegal imports has increased, and in 2012 almost 20%
of timber imports were estimated to be illegal. There has been limited acknowledgement of the
problem within the country, and little response from the government (Chatham House, 2014).
Companies sourcing timber from India should take care to ensure the risks identified are not
present in their supply chains, or have been sufficiently mitigated.
October 2017)
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INFORMATION GATHERING(active tab)
 RISK ASSESSMENT
 RISK MITIGATION
Timber sources
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Find out the different sources of legal timber
Determine which source type your timber comes from
29
Timber source
type
Description of source type
Government
Reserved Forests
/ Unclassed
Forests
Timber from Government Reserved Forests / Unclassed Forests
(can be natural forests, plantations, degraded areas or barren
land. They are managed either solely by the State Forest Department
or jointly by the State Forest Department and local communities
through Joint Forest Management Committees (JFMCs). They may
only be harvested by the Forest Department.
The following documents are required:
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Private
plantations
Forest Working Plans (Forest Management Prescriptions as per
the National Working Plan Code for a period of ten years)
Transit passes which details the origin and destination of all
consignments.
Timber from private plantations, including block plantations,
agroforestry plantations or farm forestry plantations, industrial
plantations etc.
The following documents are required:
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Permits from the Forest Department or local panchayats (local
elected representative bodies) as per harvesting rules for specific
species
Harvest permission letter from the Forest Department / local
government (panchayat) head
Transit pass is optional as per transit rules. In cases where the
transit pass requirement is waived, substitute documents such as
Agricultural Produce Market Committee (APMC) tax receipts are
considered legal documents
News and Resources
August 2018
Times of India reports: Six states sitting on edge as draft green norms hang fire
Over four years and three draft notifications since March 2014 when the Centre
recognised the need to prevent further degradation of the fragile ecology of Western
Ghats, it has failed to bring six states on board for urgent action. As a result, 56,825 sq
km of ‘ecologically sensitive’ area could not be earmarked as ‘no go’ zone for polluting
activities and deforestation — a prerequisite to save the region from constant
environmental degradation.
30
Down To Earth reports: Northeast losing canopy cover at alarming rate: study
A new study has warned that parts of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh are losing canopy
cover at an alarming rate. Researchers from the Indian Institute of Remote Sensing,
Dehradun, examined the pace of deforestation in the elephant landscape of the Northeast,
covering 42,000 square kilometers in Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. The analysis
revealed that about 7,590 square kilometers of forests have been lost between 1924 and
2009 with a mean deforestation rate of 0.64 per cent (for 85 years). Researchers also
found that the degree of deforestation was greater in Assam compared to Arunachal
Pradesh, possibly due to its hilly terrain which is difficult to tread upon. In Assam,
districts like Dhemaji, Sonitpur, Lohit and Tinuskia suffered the highest area-wise loss in
forest cover.
June 2018
The Indian Express reports: NHRC notice to Rajasthan, Haryana on deforestation
in Aravallis
Open forest cover in the Aravallis has decreased in the last three decades, while scrub has
increased by 5.7 per cent, making it almost barren without any moisture in the air. This
could be behind the increasing incidence of dust storms and air pollution in DelhiNCR.
April 2018
Morung Express reports Empowering community reserves for conservation in
Zunheboto
The Wildlife Division, Dimapur conducted survey and awareness programmes in the
recently declared Community Reserved Forests under Zunheboto district. It was
conducted separately at Chishilimi, Lizutomi and Tsuruhu village under Zunheboto
district during the first week of June 2018 with the participation of GBs, Village
Councils, Community Reserved Forests Committees, teachers and students of the village
primary schools and invitees from neighbouring villages.
ANI News reports Manipur Minister launches drive against illegal timber business
The thickly forested area of the northeast state of Manipur has been on the verge of
deforestation due to illegal felling of trees and practices of shifting cultivation in the
region. Recently, a team led by the state forest & environment Minister Th.Shyamkumar
Singh conducted a drive against the illegal timber business at Kamjong district and seized
truckloads of logs worth of rupees 1 crore
The Hindustan reports Times Timber mafia strikes near Mumbai; Rs2-cr teak
seized in 11 months
The latest seizure was reported from a private plot near Borivli-Padgha village in
Bhiwandi taluka of Thane district on Saturday. The forest department has registered over
20 cases of teak smuggling in and around the city since May, 2017, where around 500
tonnes of illegally cut teak, worth around Rs2 crore were seized in 11 months.
31
First Post reports Forest officials, smugglers in Uttarakhand's Champawat illegally
sold precious trees in last 6 years, reveals report
Forest officials, in connivance with smugglers operating across the sensitive Champawat
range in Uttarakhand (bordering Nepal), logged and sold the precious forest produce in
the last six years. The voluminous inquiry report submitted to the state’s Environment
Minister Harak Singh Rawat on 5 March shows that forest officers, including the top
brass, were involved in the racket that targeted pine and sal (Shorea robusta) trees, known
for their immense commercial values and sold at a much higher price in the international
market.
March 2018
EU FLEGT report Cross-border timber trade in the SAARC area
The European Union (EU), the United States (US) and tropical countries (Côte d’Ivoire,
Ghana, Malaysia, Myanmar/Burma and Nigeria) are expected to continue as leading
timber trade partners for countries in the South Asian Association for Regional
Cooperation (SAARC). Any timber trade between Myanmar/Burma and the SAARC
region is likely to be minimal over the next 15 years as a result of Myanmar’s log export
ban. The SAARC region will remain a net importer for at least the next 15 years because
domestic demand is estimated to grow faster than domestic production. The gap between
recorded supply and consumption is expected to widen further in the future, increasing
reliance on imports. SAARC countries import large quantities of illegally sourced timber
that go undetected due to a lack of effective policy measures. The illegal cross-border
timber trade takes place within communities and by organised groups. Forest law
enforcement remains challenging in SAARC countries because of weak regulatory
frameworks to control timber transport and verify the supply chain, a lack of resources
and corruption in forest departments.
January 2018
Press Trust India reports Forest Management Certification Standard launched
The Forest Management Certification Standard (FMCS) was launched today with an aim
to bring a shift towards responsible utilisation of natural resources and trade of forest
products. The Network for Certification and Conservation of Forests (NCCF) in
association with the ministries of environment, agriculture, commerce and industry,
textiles and leading industry bodies and companies launched the standard.
32
November 2017
UK Company fined for failure to check product was made from legally-harvested
timber
Designer furniture retailer Lombok has become the first UK business to be fined for
breaching regulations introduced in 2013 to prohibit the importing and sale of illegally
harvested timber. Designer furniture retailer Lombok has become the first business to be
fined for breaching regulations introduced in 2013 to prohibit the importing and sale of
illegally harvested timber.
Risk assessment summary
Legal rights
to harvest
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Taxes and fees
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Timber
harvesting
activities
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Third
parties'
rights
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Risk of non-recognition or violation of forest dwellers' rights
Risk of forest encroachment and illegal logging on land not under the
legal tenure of loggers in part due to corruption among government
officials
Risk of non-compliance with harvesting regulations (e.g. the risk of timber
harvesting without a permit or more than the permitted amount) because
of corruption, poor enforcement and the large quantities of illegal wood
from natural forests and plantations in circulation
Risk that private businesses do not pay the correct royalties and
harvesting fees given the quantity of illegal wood in circulation,
corruption and poor enforcement of harvesting regulations
Risk of widespread VAT evasion and corruption in the implementation of
VAT laws
Risk of non-declaration / under-reporting of incomes and profits, and
corruption among tax authorities
Risk of illegal harvesting within protected areas
Risk of illegal harvesting of protected species due to the prevalence of
illicit logging and corruption among government officials
Risk that labour laws are violated by private forest companies (e.g. nonpayment of minimum wages, use of child labour and incidences of
bonded labour)
Risk that customary, traditional and indigenous rights are violated
Risk that local communities are not appropriately involved in forest
management decision-making processes
33

Trade and
transport



Risk of incorrect specification of forest products (e.g. species, quantity
and quality) to evade taxes and transit fees in part because of collusion
with forest officials
Risk of illegal issuance of trade and transport documents due
to corruption
Risk of inadequate screening of illegal timber at customs
Risk that CITES-listed species are illegally imported or exported
Specified risk species
Common/trade name
Scientific name
Risk information
Agarwood
Aquilaria malaccensis
CITES-listed
Agarwood
Aquilaria khasiana
CITES-listed
Ebony
Diospyros ferrea
CITES-listed
Ramin
Gonystylus macrophyllus
CITES-listed
Red sandalwood
Pterocarpus santalinus
CITES-listed
Chinese yew
Taxus chinensis
CITES-listed
Yew
Taxus fuana
CITES-listed
Himalayan yew
Taxus wallichiana
CITES-listed
Bans and restrictionsl CITES-listed species (appendices I, II and III) from natural forests are
banned from being expod for commercial purposes. Cultivated species in Appendices I and II are
permitted to be exported
Armed conflict
There are currently no armed conflicts in India according to the Council on Foreign
Relations´ Global Conflict Tracker
CITES species
CITES appendix II: Aquilaria malaccensis, Aquilaria khasiana, Dalberiga spp., Gonystylus
macrophyllus, Pterocarpus santalinus, Yaxus spp.
34
Mitigate the risks in your supply chain
Learn which actions we recommended to mitigate the risks associated with the timber sources
from India
Source Certified Materials
NEPCon believes that third party certification (for example FSC and PEFC certification)
can provide strong assurances of the legality of the products they cover. Companies seeking to
mitigate the risks of sourcing illegal timber should seek to purchase third party certified materials
wherever possible.
While the European Timber Regulation does not include an automatic “green lane” for certified
products, it does recognise the value of certification as a tool for risk assessment and
mitigation. The European Commission says that companies “may rate credibly certified products
as having negligible risk of being illegal, i.e. suitable for placing on the market with no further risk
mitigation measures, provided that the rest of the information gathered and the replies to the risk
assessment questions do not contradict such a conclusion.”
For more information on using certified materials in your due diligence, including how to assess
whether a certification system meets EUTR requirements, see the page on Certification and Due
Diligence.
Mitigation recommendations
There are five recommended actions to mitigate the risks associated with the timber sources
from India.
1. Fully map your supply chain

Our supply chain mapping tool can help you do this.
2. Obtain and verify documents



Land tenure documents
o Land records and ownership documents
o Records of rights to government forests as provided to private persons
o Public notifications showing government ownership of forests
Harvesting permission
o Harvesting permits, auction documents, allotment letters and payment records
o Forest Division Working Plans (for Government forests)
o Harvest permits issued by the Forest Department (for specific agroforestry
species)
o Government orders showing species that have been exempted from harvest
permits (for agroforestry sources)
Tax related documents
o Receipts for payments of harvesting-related royalties, taxes, harvesting fees and
other charges. Check that volumes, species and qualities given in sales and
transport documents match the fees paid
o APMC receipts from Mandi Samities. Check they correspond to the harvested
material where applicable (agroforestry products)
o Sales documents, including applicable sales taxes. Check that sales prices are in
line with market prices
o Receipts for payment sales taxes. Check that taxes paid are in line with the
relevant VAT schedule of classification of goods and applicable VAT rates
35
o
o
o
o


Records of VAT paid and filed with the sales tax authorities
Permanent Account Number (PAN). Check that it is valid
Tax Deduction and Collection Account Number (TAN). Check that it is valid
Income tax records as submitted to the tax authorities
Harvesting regulations
o Purchase documents. These can provide evidence that wood was not sourced
from protected areas
o Permission letters as required by State harvesting rules (for protected species)
o Records for compliance with provisions as per the Plantation Labor Act, 1951
Trade and transport documents
o Required trade permits. Check they exist and are documented
o Required transport documents. Check they exist and are documented
o Check that volume, species and qualities are classified according to legal
requirements
o Check that documents related to transportation, trade or export are clearly linked
to the specific material in question
o Vehicle commercial license. Check that it is in place
o Excise forms and other such legal documentation. Check that it is in place
o Export, import and re-export certificates issued by the Director General Foreign
Trade (for all cross-border trade of CITES-listed species)
o Legal receipts. Check that the species and quantity transported are documented
3. Consult stakeholders




Authorities confirm the validity of harvesting permit
Financial authorities confirm that all required income and profit taxes have been paid
Authorities confirm that operations are up-to-date regarding payment of applicable sales
taxes
Customary land owners confirm that:
o Customary rights are observed during harvesting activities
o Prior and informed consent has been given, where applicable
o Indigenous peoples’ rights are not being violated
4. Carry out on-site verification



Confirm that harvesting takes place within the limits specified in the harvesting permit
Confirm that the information regarding area, species, volumes and other details given in
the harvesting permit are correct and within the limits prescribed in the legislation
Confirm that Working Plan recommendations have been implemented (in the case of
government forests)
5. Conduct targeted timber testing

Conduct timber testing on samples of purchasd material to verify the species or origin of
timber, where appropriate
Profile Publication Date
2017-11-01
36
Increased development of non-timber forest products in
India: Some issues and concerns
http://www.fao.org/docrep/w2149e/w2149e06.htm
D.D. Tewari and J.Y. Campbell
Devi D. Tewari is Associate Professor, Centre for Management in Agriculture, Indian
Institute of Management. Ahmedabad, India.
Jeffrey Y. Campbell is Program Officer, Ford Foundation, New Delhi, India.
Note: This article has appeared as Tewari, D.D. and Campbell, J.Y. 1995. Developing and
sustaining non-timber forest products: some policy issues and concerns with special
reference to India. J. Sust. For., 3(1): 53-79.
Some considerations of the needs and risks associated with increased development and use
of non-timber, forest products.
FIGURE 1 - Non-timber forest products (including fuelwood) make a significant
contribution to the forestry sector in most countries
The contribution of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) to the forestry sector in most
countries is significant, and studies are showing that they have been undervalued in the
past. A recent valuation undertaken by the Ministry of Environment and Forests in India
estimates that 220 million tonnes of fuelwood, 250 million tonnes of grass and green fodder
and 12 million m³ of timber are removed from India's forests annually. These products are
estimated to be worth US$ 10 billion (Mukherjee, 1994).
In India, NTFPs provide about 40 percent of total official forest revenues and 55 percent of
forest-based employment. Nearly 500 million people living in and around forests in India rely
on NTFPs as a critical component for their sustenance (World Resources Institute, 1990). In
Madhya Pradesh, the NTFPs which are primarily collected by tribal (i.e. members of local
indigenous groups) women are worth more than Rs 21 billion (US$ 700 million) annually
(Worldwatch Institute, 1991). Based on a study of ten forest protection committees under the
Joint Forest Management programme, it was found that the income from NTFPs ranges from
Rs 234 to Rs 5569 (US $8-$186) per hectare per year with a mean of Rs 2299 (US $79)
(Malhotra et al., 1991).
Furthermore, revenues from NTFPs have been growing faster than revenues from timber in
the past. For example, compound growth rates in revenue from NTFPs in India during the
1968/69 to 1976/77 period were 40 percent higher than those for timber. Export earnings
from NTFPs on average account for about 60 to 70 percent of total export earnings from
forest products, and this proportion has been rising. Moreover, there is considerable scope
for increasing exports further by exploiting untapped resources as the current production of
most NTFPs is estimated to be about 60 percent of the potential production. In the case of
non-edible fibres and flowers, production is only 7 and 12 percent, respectively, of the
potential production (Gupta, Banerji and Guleria, 1982).
It is now felt increasingly that management and development of NTFP resources is essential
for various reasons. First, forest management focused on the production of NTFPs may be
ecologically and economically sustainable provided that extraction rates do not exceed the
maximum sustainable yield. Tribal communities have been involved in NTFP utilization for
37
centuries without destroying the resource base. Managing forests for production of NTFPs
also implies maintaining biological diversity of both plant and animal species.
Second, non-timber forest products are a vital source of livelihood for a large proportion of
the poor living in or close to the forest in most tropical countries. In West Midnapore district
in West Bengal, many village communities derive as much as 17 percent of their annual
household incomes from NTFPs (Malhotra et al., 1991). Other estimates suggest that up to
35 percent of the income of tribal households in India comes from the collection of
unprocessed NTFPs. Also, since NTFPs involve a large variety of seasonal products, returns
are frequent and relatively continuous. Moreover, local processing of NTFPs can increase
off-farm rural employment opportunities. Small-scale forest-based enterprises, many of them
based on NTFPs, provide up to 50 percent of income for 20 to 30 percent of the rural labour
force in India (Campbell, 1988).
Third, in addition to subsistence and income-generating potential, NTFPs also provide food
security to large low-income populations, their cattle and other domestic animals, particularly
during droughts or famines (FAO, 1989).
A major challenge related to the further development of NTFPs is the limited availability of
documentation related to sustainable harvesting levels. In the past, studies on timber have
dominated the scientific forestry literature. There are ethnobatanical studies which list a wide
variety of forest products, descriptions of economically useful plants and scattered regional
profiles of NTFP trade. The difficulty stems from a singular lack of hard scientific data on the
economics of NTFP management, trade and marketing in different forest types; on biological
production functions for most NTFP species; traditional harvesting and utilization patterns;
and the impacts of commercialization and changing use patterns on the state of NTFPs and
related activities.
Fortunately, in the past few years there has been a spurt of interest, and several NTFPrelated studies have been undertaken. For example, some studies have looked at valuation
issues (Peters, Gentry and Mendelssohn, 1989; de Beer and McDermott, 1989;
Schwartzman, 1989; Padoch and de Jong, 1989; Campbell, 1988; Malhotra et al., 1991).
Wickens (1991) has reviewed the issues related to the development of NTFPs. Richards
(1992) has raised serious concerns about the viability of commercializing NTFPs as "ecoprotection enterprises". May (1991) has studied the role of institutions in the NTFP markets
in Brazilian Amazon. Case-studies by FAO (FAO, 1991a; 1991b) have analysed problems of
value addition and organizational management in Southeast and East Asia. The
International Tropical Timber Organization has developed guidelines for the sustainable use
of all natural resources; these guidelines specifically stress the need for estimation of the
present and potential values of NTFPs (Arnetz, 1993). In India, pioneering work has been
done by Gupta, Banerji and Guleria (1982). This article discusses some of the challenges
related to increasing NTFP exploitation and highlights needs for sustainable management.
Challenges associated with increased exploitation
As development of NTFPs increases, there is a danger of unsustainable exploitation.
Unsustainable extraction practices may occur for many reasons. Increasing demand can
lead people to disregard traditional harvesting techniques. For example, prices
of chironji seeds (Buchanania lanzan, B. latifolia) or Cuddapah almond, used as a substitute
for almond in various delicacies, have increased more than 150 times or so within a span of
five years in India. Many tribal people prematurely harvest chironji fruits and overexploit
them to the extent that natural regeneration is now being hampered, especially in Madhya
Pradesh.
38
In West Bengal, faulty techniques of collecting mahua flowers (the collectors break the apical
twigs which affects flowering in the following year) were found to do considerable damage to
the natural stock (Rama Krishna Mission Lokashiksha Parishad, 1992). In Central India,
mahua forests are burnt repeatedly to simplify collection of the yellow flowers from the forest
floor, damaging regeneration. As a result, young mahua trees are becoming scarce and
some experts suggest that the species will be extinct by AD 2200.
Similarly, the indiscriminate collection of raw materials from forests for the incense stick
(agarbatti) industry in Karnataka State in southern India has created large environmental
losses in some areas. Two examples out of many in the state are the extensive loss
of gulmavu (Machilus macarantha) trees in Coorg and Malanad districts resulting from
debarking of the trees, and of species such as Ailanthus malabarica
(halmaddi) and Borewellia serrota owing to unsustainable exploitation (Parameswarappa,
1992). Similarly, the indiscriminate felling and collection of NTFPs from uppage (Garcinia
cambogia) trees in Karnataka has resulted in widespread losses.
Policy and institutional challenges
Institutional and organizational processes need to be better understood in order to help
communities manage NTFPs as part of a larger livelihood strategy, while maintaining an
equitable distribution of responsibilities and benefits. It is possible for inappropriate, although
well-meaning, policies to have an effect contrary to that desired.
A very good example of a policy and institutional response that proved inappropriate is
governmental intervention in the NTFP industry in India. In an attempt to tap the potential
more fully in terms of production and employment generation of the forestry sector in India,
the Government of India set up the Forest Development Corporations (FDCs) in 1976, on
the recommendation of the National Commission on Agriculture. One of the major objectives
of the FDCs was to help tribal NTFP collectors by eliminating the large profit margins
pocketed by local entrepreneurs and passing these benefits to tribal people in terms of better
wages and working conditions.
An FDC was set up in each state; in addition, several government-supported cooperatives
were also established. But the functioning of these cooperatives has often been detrimental
to the interest of tribal people, and such organizations have not been cost-effective. As a
result, tribal people sometimes receive as little as 10 to 40 percent of the sale price in the
nearest NTFP market (Chambers, Saxena and Tushaar, 1990).
Tenure and ownership issues
Another challenge relates to tenure and ownership. Unless access and usufruct rights are
given to users, there is little incentive to manage NTFPs sustainably. In an attempt to
develop these resources, some Indian states nationalized many NTFPs. For example,
Madhya Pradesh nationalized bamboo, khair, sal seeds, harra, gums and tendu leaves,
among others. The tribal people were required to sell their produce exclusively to the Forest
Department to the agent contractors appointed by them.
Production levels of some NTFPs declined sharply following nationalization (Chambers,
Saxena and Tushaar, 1990). For example, production of tendu leaves in Madhya Pradesh
declined from 5.1 million bags in 1981/82 to 3.9 million bags in 1985/86 - a decrease of 23.5
percent. In Orissa, the production of tendu leaves stagnated over a longer period. Similarly,
after nationalization, the collection of sal seeds fell from 200000 tonnes in 1979 to only
60000 tonnes in 1987 -a decline of 70 percent. The average annual production of lac also
39
declined from 32000 tonnes during 1961-70 to 16000 tonnes during 1981-86 - a decline of
about 50 percent.
FIGURE 2 Unsustainable collection of Ailanthus malabarica for the match Industry
has resulted in widespread losses, particularly In Karnataka State, India
FIGURE 3 - Improper collection of the fruits of uppage (Garcinia cambogia) trees used
in making ghee, a buffer substitute, can result In severe damage to the resource base
Nationalization can significantly reduce the remuneration to collectors of NTFPs. For
example, the government of Madhya Pradesh, a central Indian state, paid only Rs 0.55 per
kilogram of sal seeds collected as opposed to Rs 1.31 per kilogram, which a study
(Chambers, Saxena and Tushaar, 1990) estimated could have been passed on to collectors
after meeting all the expenses and margins of the Forest Department.
It can also result in delays in payment to gatherers, as government agencies often find it
difficult to make prompt payments. This can stimulate the development of black market
activities, with associated higher margins required to cover the costs of illegal activities. All
these factors reduce tribal people's collection and incomes (Chambers, Saxena and
Tushaar, 1990).
A number of experiments are under way to empower local communities in the protection and
management of forest resources. India's Joint Forest Management programme in which
local communities become partners with the State Forest Department, sharing
responsibilities and benefits from forests, is an exciting step in this direction.
The size of enterprise development
Another challenge associated with the increased exploitation of NTFPs is a shift from smallscale to large-scale activities. If not carefully planned and managed, this shift can produce
undesirable results, particularly in terms of benefits to local people.
Case-studies from India, Indonesia and Latin American and African countries on NTFPbased activities reveal that NTFP-based small-scale enterprises have some common
characteristics. Obviously, these are small in size, are based in the household and are
frequently seasonal in labour and employment generation. They are labour-intensive, are
based on simple technologies, have low capital requirements and provide direct benefits to
the local economy. Most important, they are accessible to low-income and socially
disadvantaged groups and are most often managed by women (FAO, 1987; 1991a).
Large-scale enterprises typically incur higher collection and processing costs compared with
small-scale enterprises because NTFP resources are scattered and hard to reach, making
mass extraction and transfer costs high. Furthermore, for large-scale enterprises the
minimum output required to break even may demand unsustainable exploitation and rapid
moves in and out of the market. A very good example of the latter is the depletion of natural
stands of edible palm species in southern Brazil during the 1960s by the palm-heart canning
industry which has now moved to the states of Pará and Amapa. Further unsustainable
harvesting practices of palm hearts are stressing the resource base in these states too
(Richards, 1993).
However, small-scale enterprises also face some common constraints, including limited
access to institutional finance and a lack of tax incentives, highly risky market environments
and income-sharing problems. Moreover, as NTFP markets expand and efforts are made to
increase local processing capacity in order to capture the value-added benefits, traditional
40
patterns of management, income distribution and the division of labour can become
disrupted (FAO, 1991a; 1991b). In Karnataka, studies by the Indian Social Studies Trust
showed how increased commercialization of one product and improved technologies applied
to another negatively affected the predominant user group in each case women. As men
saw greater value attached and felt attracted by new, more mechanized technology, women
were marginalized (FAO, 1991b). A similar story can be heard from Raigarh village of West
Bengal, India (Rama Krishna Mission Lokashiksha Parishad, 1992). About six or seven
years ago, NTFP collection was a low-key activity, mainly done by women in Raigarh village.
But, after the introduction of a Joint Forest Management programme under the Forest
Department, as NTFP collection became a major activity for some families, men have taken
over women's employment.
Requirements for sustainable management
Given the considerable potential of NTFPs to contribute to local livelihoods, there is a real
need for: field-level research; synthesis and collection of information on NTFPs from as
many published sources as possible, and their dissemination in the form of practical
guidelines for NTFP identification, regeneration, extraction management, collection,
processing, storage and marketing; and training on technical issues, including silviculture,
extraction management, processing and marketing issues.
The sustainable extraction levels of NTFPs are not easy to calculate, and yet they are a
prerequisite for NTFP-based development. In order to ensure this, much more information is
needed on current rates of extraction and on productivity rates for different products.
Indiscriminate extraction practices have already resulted in the depletion of natural
regeneration and local extermination of species in some cases.
Without good yield data and matching data on extraction rates (the flow) per unit of area, it is
almost impossible to decide whether a given practice is sustainable in the long term or not.
What is needed are systematic methodologies for rapidly assessing the distribution and
yields of NTFPs and current and potential extraction levels.
More precise research is needed on the ecological requirements and functions of NTFP
species, their regeneration rates and yields in different forest types and ecological zones and
on innovative silvicultural techniques for managing multiple products.
Research is needed to clarify tenurial arrangements and understand the often conflicting
layers of traditional rights, use pattern settlements, concessions and privileges and gender
relationships.
Institutional processes and organizational arrangements need to be better understood in
order to help communities manage NTFPs as part of a broader livelihood strategy, while
maintaining an equitable distribution of responsibilities and benefits.
Research is needed on the values of selected commodities in village, district, national and
international markets, on the marketing chain and the profits of collector/producers,
processors and entrepreneurs.
The impact of product substitution and the possibility of creating new markets need to be
examined, together with the impacts of changes in collection, processing and marketing
patterns. Price supply and demand trends will need to be assessed to determine the
medium- and long-term economic viability and market absorptive capacity of each NTFP.
41
FIGURE 4 In many cases, small scale Industries based on NTFPs - for example,
furniture making from rattan - can be more sustainable and provide more local
benefits than large scale exploitation
The role of marketing cooperatives, forest corporations and voluntary agencies should be
examined to maximize benefits to collectors and producers. Special emphasis should be
placed on developing appropriate small-scale processing technology and enterprises which
maximize value added at the local level but do not strain the resource base.
All this should be carried out simultaneously. Information from field-level research and
existing sources should be used as inputs for training and extension, technical and credit
support.
Conclusion
As local people's resource and livelihood needs come to the forefront, particularly their
dependency on forests and their myriad products, forest management strategies are
increasingly devoting attention to the current use and future potential of non-timber forest
products. NTFPs represent significant opportunities in terms of products, employment and
income generation but, as with other renewable resources, attempts to utilize this potential
further carry with them the risk of resource depletion. Moreover, the current character of
NTFP exploitation, i.e. primarily small-scale and of direct benefit to rural people, risks being
changed or even lost. Development of NTFPs merits immediate and long-term attention but
should be undertaken with clarity and caution.
Bibliography
Arnetz, F. 1993. Non-timber products: their sustainable development of tropical
forests. Trop. For. Manage. Update, 3(2).
Campbell, J.Y. 1988. Putting people's products first: multiple-use management for nonwood forest products in India. (unpublished draft)
Chambers, R., Saxena, N.C. & Tushaar, S. 1990. To the hands of the poor: water and
trees. New Delhi, Oxford & IBH Publishing. 273 pp.
de Beer, J.H. & McDermott, M.J. 1989. Economic value of non-timber forest products in
Southeast Asia. The Netherlands, Council of the International Union of the Conservation of
Nature and Natural Resources-World Conservation Union (IUCN).
FAO. 1987. Review of forest-based small-scale processing enterprises. In Small-scale
forest-based processing enterprises, p. 5-30. FAO Forestry Paper No. 79. Rome.
FAO. 1989. Household food security and forestry: an analysis of socio-economic
issues. FAO Community Forestry Note No. 1. Rome.
FAO. 1991a. Case-studies in forest -based small-scale enterprises in Asia: rattan
matchmaking and handicrafts, edited by Jay. Campbell. FAO Community Forestry Case
Study No. 4. Bangkok.
FAO. 1991b. Women's role in dynamic forest based small-scale enterprises: case-studies on
uppage and lacquerware from India. FAO Community Forestry Case Study No. 3. Rome.
42
Gupta, R., Banerji, P. & Guleria, A. 1982. Tribal unrest and forestry management in
Bihar. CMA Monograph No. 98. Ahmedabad, India, Indian Institute of Management. 88 pp.
Malhotra, K.C., Deb, D., Dutta, M., Vasula, T.S., Yadav, G. & Adhikari, M. 1991. Role of
non-timber forest products in village economy: A household survey in Jamboni Range,
Midnapore, West Bengal. India, Indian Institute of Bio-social Research and Development.
May, P.M. 1991. Building institutions and markets for non-wood forest products from the
Brazilian Amazon. Unasylva, 42(165): 9-16.
Mukherjee, A.K. 1994. India's forests: a status report: concepts, definitions, trends,
controversies. Paper presented at the International Workshop on India's Forests
Management and Ecological Revival. New Delhi, 10-12 February.
Padoch, C. & de Jong, W. 1989. Production and profit in agroforestry: an example from the
Peruvian Amazon. In J.G. Browder, ed, Fragile lands of Latin America: strategies for
sustainable development, p. 102-113. Boulder, Colorado, USA, Westview Press.
Parameswarappa, S. 1992. Agarbathi industry in Karnataka: some thoughts on raw
materials. My Forest, 28(2): 143-146.
Peters, Call., Gentry, AM & Mendelssohn, R.O. 1989. Valuation of an Amazonian
rainforest. Nature, 339: 655-656.
Rama Krishna Mission Lokashiksha Perished. 1992. Role of NTFP in forest fringe
dwellers' economy and current status of forest flora: a case-study at Raigarh Forest
Protection Committee under Bankura South Division, Ford Foundation Project Report. Delhi.
Richards, D.C. 1992. Ecoprotection enterprise, hope hyperbole or hoax. Draft paper
prepared for the Bio Diversity Support Programme.
Richards, M. 1993. The potential of non-timber forest products in sustainable natural forest
management in Amazonia. Commonw. For. Rev., 72(1): 21-27.
Schwartzman, S. 1989. Extractive reserves in the Amazon. In J.G. Browder, ed. Fragile
lands of Latin America: strategies for sustainable development, p. 150-163. Boulder,
Colorado, USA, Westview Press.
Wickens, G.E. 1991. Management issues for development of non-timber forest
products. Unasylva, 42(165): 3-8.
World Resources Institute. 1990. The World Bank in the forest sector: a global policy
paper. Wasteland News, 8(2): 6-12.
Worldwatch Institute. 1991. Quoted in Wasteland News, (July-August): 22.
43
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5334e/x5334e04.htm
India
B.N. Gupta
Director
Institute of Deciduous Forests (ICFRE)
Jabalpur
Introduction
Status of various categories of non-wood forest products
Export of non-wood forest products
Organization for collection and processing
Employment generation and social benefits
Future directions to promote NWFPs
References
Introduction
India is a country of vast diversity lying at the juncture of the big-geographic provinces of
Afro-Eurasia and the Orient. Because of the country's diversified climatic and physiographic
factors, India is blessed with all types of vegetation: tropical, subtropical, temperate, and
alpine. Due to its wide-ranging environmental regimes and diverse biological communities,
the country is one of the world's top 12 "megadiversity" nations.
Of the nearly 425 families of flowering plants in the world, 328 families with 21,000 species
occur in India. From this varied emporium, non-wood forest products (NWFPs) are derived
from over 3,000 species. For convenience, these products are classified as: (i) leaves; (ii)
bamboos; (iii) gums, resins and oleoresins; (iv) oil seeds; (v) essential oils, including oilyielding grasses; (vi) fibers and flosses; (vii) grasses other than oil-yielding grasses; (viii)
tans and dyes; (ix) drugs and spices; (x) animal products; and (xi) edible products.
The royalties realized through the sale of NWFPs exceeded Rs1,000 million in 198586 and
have gone up since. The value of NWFPs is seriously under estimated in official records. It is
estimated that 60 percent of all NWFPs are consumed locally and are not accounted for in
the calculation of revenues. There also are many products which are not extracted fully or
which go to waste because of insufficient knowledge of their use or because they occur in
inaccessible locations.
The basic objectives of the National Forest Policy of 1988 include conserving the national
flora and fauna, meeting the needs of rural and tribal populations, and encouraging efficient
utilization of all forest produce. The policy states that NWFPs which provide sustenance to
local communities should be protected and improved. It provides for research into the
conservation and management of forest resources and for increasing productivity through
the application of modern scientific and technological methods. The survey of forest
resources is to be given high priority.
44
Status of various categories of non-wood forest products
Leaves
Diospyros melanoxylon
Local names: Commonly known as "tendu," but also called "abnus" in Andhra Pradesh,
"kendu" in Orissa and West Bengal, "tembru" in Gujarat, "kari" in Kerala, "tembhurni" in
Maharahstra, and "bali tupra" in Tamil Nadu.
Uses: Leaves are used as wrappers of tobacco to produce bidi. Off-cuts of leaves are
burned and the ash is used in tooth powder.
Distribution: The species is abundant in Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Maharashtra, Andhra
Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal. It
generally grows in dry mixed deciduous forests, occurring alongside Shorea
robusta and Tectona grandis.
Regeneration: Under natural conditions, seed germinates in the rainy season and seedling
production is plentiful. Seedlings tolerate considerable shade, but for optional development
more light is required. Seedlings resist frost and drought, but are vulnerable to excessive
dampness. The profusion and tenacity of root suckers ensure the survival and spread of the
species without planting.
There is wide variation in the quality of leaves from different locations. Superior-quality
leaves of large size, papery texture, and inconspicuous veins fetch up to 5 times the price of
inferior-quality leaves. There is, however, vast opportunity for propagating better strains
artificially. About 40 percent of fresh seed germinates. Germination starts after 36 days and
is complete in 80 days. It is best to raise seedlings in long narrow baskets and transplant the
seedlings with the second rains. Seed can also be directly sown in lines.
For coppicing, the ideal girth of plants is 15 centimeters. Coppicing yields the best quality
leaves and also facilitates easy collection. A light burning just before sprouting stimulates the
dominant leaf buds and favors a better flush of numerous tender leaves. The best coppicing
results are attained when stems are cut 15 centimeters above the ground, but cutting at such
height is difficult. Therefore, the common practie is to cut flush with the ground Cutting
occurs between January and March There is a bumper production of leaves once in four
years.
Collection of leaves: Leaves are plucked just after they have turned from crimson to bright
green and have a leathery texture Generally, collection starts from the second fortnight of
April and continues until the onset of the monsoon. Bundles of 50, 70, or 100 leaves
(depending on drying conditions) are assembled and tied with strings or fibers from bark.
These bundles are brought by laborers to collection centers where they art sold.
Drying and curing of leaves: Proper drying of leaves is important. Too much moisture
makes the leaves black and mouldy with foul odor. Too much drying makes the leaves
brittle, resulting in loss during handling. To dry, leaf bundles are spread or the ground,
keeping the dorsal sides up for three to four days. The bundles are then turned upside down.
Drying is complete in about 8 to 10 days. In solar leaf driers, the drying is complete in about
18 hours and the greenish color of the leaves is retained These leaves fetch a higher price
and damage from termites is avoided. Solar drying, however, can only be done where
electricity is available for the air blower.
45
Packing and storage: Dried leaves are packed in gunny sacks for storage in godowns until
sold or used for making bidisThe number of leaves in one standard bag varies from state to
state. Before filling the bags, water is sprinkled on bundles to softer the leaves for easier
packing.
Annual production and value: Around 300,000 tons of bidi leaves are produced annually in
India, of which over 85 percent is collected from Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Maharashtra and
Andhra Pradesh (Table 1).
Table 1. Annual production of tendu leaves
State
Production (1000 tons) Value (Million Rs)
Madhya Pradesh
123.0
1,845.0
Orissa
50.0
750.0
Maharahstra
46.0
690.0
Andhra Pradesh
39.0
585.0
Bihar
24.0
360.0
Rajastan
6.5
97.5
Uttar Pradesh
5.0
75.0
Gujarat
5.0
75.0
Tamil Nadu
2.0
30.0
West Bengal
0.5
7.5
Total
301.0
4,515.0
The value of these leaves is based on an average price of Rs15,000 per ton, but rates vary
from state to state, according to demand, availability of leaves, and location of bidi-making
industries.
Bauhinia vahlii
Local names: "mahul" in Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh, "siali" in West Bengal and
Orissa.
Uses: Leaves are used for making cups and plates and for wrapping food.
Distribution: Bauhinia vahlii is a giant climber and one of the most abundant
Indian Bauhinia species. The species is distributed in the Sub-Himalayan region up to 3,000
meters above sea level and in Assam, Central India, Bihar, Eastern and Western Ghats.
Commercial collection of leaves is done in Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, and Andhra Pradesh.
Regeneration: The species grows naturally in the forests. No efforts to regenerate it
artificially are made. It is usually considered a weed because of the damage it does to
healthy trees by climbing and spreading over them.
Collection of leaves: Leaves vary in size from 20 to 40 centimeters in diameter, and are
bilobed at the apex. Collection takes place two to three months after the rains. Leaves are
collected by tribals and other forest dwellers and packed and tied with fibers obtained from
the same species. No standard practice exists as to the number of leaves in each pack.
Average collection per person per day is 5 to 6 kilograms. Green leaf packets are sold in the
market without additional processing.
46
Annual production and value: Countrywide data on the collection and value of leaves are
not available. In Madhya Pradesh, about 780 tons of leaves are collected, valued at
approximately Rs 2 million. In Orissa, over 160 tons of dried leaves and 86 million leaf plates
are marketed annually. Collectors receive only about Rs1.50 per kilogram and earn only
Rs8.00 to 10.00 per day. Therefore, collection of Bauhinia leaves is done only as a last
resort during the low-income season.
Bamboos
General: Over 100 species of bamboo occur naturally in India. Bambusa arundinacea, B.
tulda, B. polymorpha, Dendrocalamus strictus, D. hamil-tonii, Melocanna
baccifera and Ochlandra travancorica are the most important species because of their
wide availability. Dendrocalamus strictus and Bambusa arundinacea are the two principal
economic species.
Uses: Because of its fast growth, easy propagation, soil-binding properties, and early
maturity, bamboo is an ideal species for afforestation, soil conservation, and social forestry
programs.
Bamboo is strong, straight, and light. It is hard and hollow, and easy to work. It comes in
many sizes and has long fibers. Such characteristics make bamboo highly versatile. Table 2
indicates the consumption pattern of bamboos for various uses (Purshotham, 1962).
Table 2. Consumption of bamboo in India
Uses
Percentage of total Consumption
Pulp
35.00
Housing
20.00
Non-residential construction
5.00
Rural uses
20.00
Fuel
8.50
Packing, including baskets
5.00
Transport
1.50
Furniture
1.00
Other wood-working industries
1.00
Others, including ladders, staff mats etc.
3.00
Total
100.00
New uses of bamboo include parquet (block) flooring, laminated bamboos, strips for aircraft,
bamboo reinforced concrete, and artificially shaped bamboo for decorative items. Among
bamboo's medicinal properties is banslochan, a secretion found in the culms used as a
cooling tonic, aphrodisiac, and as a treatment for asthma, and coughing (Raizada and
Chatterjee, 1956).
Distribution: Bamboo is found almost everywhere. Its distribution is governed largely by
rainfall, temperature, altitude, and soil conditions. Most bamboo requires a temperature of 8°
to 36°C, a minimum of 1,000 millimeters of rainfall annually, and high humidity for good
growth. Bamboo is an important constituent of many deciduous and evergreen forests and
extends from tropical to mild temperate regions. It grows on flat alluvial plains up to altitudes
of 3,050 meters above mean sea level.
47
Regeneration: Between seeding periods, reproduction of bamboo is by asexual means. In
bamboo clumps, rhizomes grow underground and produce new culms as annual shoots.
This process continues until the plant produces flowers and seeds, then dies.
The most common method of vegetative reproduction is by rhizomes, or offset planting.
Layering, propagation through nodal cuttings, marcotting, and culm cutting are also practiced
in some species.
Bamboo flowers gregariously after long periods, although sporadic flowering occurs almost
every year. During the years of gregarious flowering, the forest floor is carpeted with
seedlings and the areas are naturally regenerated.
Management: New culms are produced every year and one-year-old culms are already able
to support the growth of new culms. Culms mature after three years and are commonly
harvested at that time. After five years, culms begin to die. On a three-year cycle, a good
plantation may yield 3 to 4 tons of bamboo per hectare at the first cut, 5 to 6 tons at the
second cut, and 8 tons from the third cut on. The total expected yield per hectare is
estimated at 70 to 74 tons over the entire life of a plantation (Rag, 1980).
Table 3. Area of bamboo and potential annual cut
State
Bamboo area (hectares) Potential annual cut (1000 culms)
Andhra Pradesh
1,979,000
255
Arunachal Pradesh
777,900
200
Assam
1,000,000
1,210
Bihar
529,400
200
Gujarat
193,600
46
Himachal Pradesh
10,400
3
Karnataka
600,000
475
Kerala
63,100
108
Madhya Pradesh
1,486,400
800
Maharashtra
850,000
300
Manipur
250,000
200
Orissa
1,050,000
489
Punjab
NA
9
Tamil Nadu
538,800
NA
Tripura
284,900
215
Uttar Pradesh
400,000
41
West Bengal
16,400
8
Total
10,029,900
4,559
Annual production and value: The area of bamboo in each state and the potential annual
cut are shown in Table 3 (Tewari, 1981).
Although no precise data are available, observations suggest that bamboo areas are
declining because of gregarious flowering and consequent dying of clumps. A large quantity
of seeds fall on the ground, producing innumerable young germinants, but effective
protection of seedlings from fire and other biotic damage is not ensured in many areas.
48
The price of bamboo varies with its end use. Most of the annual cut is used in making paper
or rayon, for which producers receive about Rs300 per ton. The value of the potential annual
cut is Rs1,367 million.
Gums and resins
General: Gums are translucent, amorphous substances which are degradation products of
the cell wall of woody species. They exude spontaneously from trees and are soluble in
water. Resins also are exudates but are soluble in alcohol, not water. Closely related to true
gums are gum resins, which are also produced by plants. Since these are a combination of
gum and resin, they do not dissolve in water completely. Resins often occur mixed with a
high percentage of essential oils known as oleoresins. When oleoresins include some gum,
as in the case of exudation from Boswellia serrata, they are called gum oleoresins. Table 4
gives the classification of these important products in world trade (Anon, 1972).
Table 4: Classification of Indian resins and gums
Category Typical product in world trade
Source of typical Indian products
Gum arabic
Acacia nilotica spp. indica
A. catechu
A. modesta
A. Senegal
Anogeissus latifolia
True gums
Bauhinia retusa
Gum tragacanth
Cochlospermum religiosum
Lannea coromandelica
Pterocarpus marsupium
Sterculia urens and S. villosa
Several minor species
Canarium strictum
Hopea odorata
Copal Dammar
Shorea robusta
Vateria indica
Hard resins
Amber
Lacquer
Shellac
Sandarac
Mastic
Turpentines
Pinus roxburghii and three other Pinus species
Balsams
of Peru
of Tolu
Oleo-resins
of Styrax orStorax
Boswellia serrata
other oleo-resins
Dipterocarpus turbinatus
Copaiba
Kingiodendron pinnatum
Elemi
Gamboge
Garcinia morella
Gum resins
Assafoetida
Galbanum
49
Myrrh
Olibanum or
Frankincense
Commiphora mukul
Uses: Commercial gums enter the market in the form of dried exudates. The varieties
having the least color and highest adhesive power and viscosity are the most valuable. The
finer grades are used in clarifying liquors, "finishing" silk, and in the preparation of quality
water colors. Intermediate grades are used in confectionery, pharmaceuticals, and printing
inks, in sizing and finishing textile fabrics, in dyeing, and in the paint industry. In the cosmetic
and pharmaceutical industry, gums serve to emulsify or bind mixtures in creams, lotions and
ointments. Many gums add body and bulk to foodstuffs (e.g. commercial ice cream).
Resins are used in the manufacture of lacquers and varnishes. Resinous substances can be
used for waterproof coatings. Resins dissolve readily in alkali to form soaps. They are used
in medicines, for sizing paper, for incense, and in the preparation of sealing wax and other
products.
Important oleoresins are turpentines, balsams, copaiba, and elemi. These are used in
perfumery and medicines, for making varnishes, and lacquers, as fixatives, and in scenting
soaps.
Gum resins have varied uses. Gamboge is Used to color golden lacquers, as watercolor
pigments, and in medicines. Assafoetida is used for flavoring curries and other food
products, and also as a drug. Galbanum is Used in medicine. Myrrh is used in incense,
perfume, and embalming. Frankincense is used primarily as incense.
Collection and marketing: Although spontaneous exudation of gums occurs from
unhealthy trees, artificial incisions are made in healthy trees to increase the yield of gums.
Harvesting is done by hand picking. Larger lumps are broken with a wooden mallet and
foreign bodies removed. Grading, based on color, size, and transparency of the tears is
done manually.
Resins ooze out through the bark, hardening on exposure. These are collected mostly from
artificial wounds or fossil material. The importance of natural resins has declined in recent
years because synthetic resins have become cheaper.
In India, Pinus roxburghii trees yield the highest amounts of oleoresin. Blazes on the tree
trunk are cut to facilitate the flow of oleoresin from resin canals. Traditionally, oleoresin is
collected by the cup-and-lip method from March to early November. The rill method for
tapping, though more scientific, has not found favor in the field. Treatment of blazes with
acid or 2-4D solution reportedly increases and prolongs the flow of resin. The yield is highest
in June, when the sun is hottest. The oleoresin collected in cups is transferred to tins every
time the cups are filled. The tins are transported to depots, then to factories for processing.
Salai gum (a gum oleoresin) is an exudate obtained by tapping Boswellia serrata trees. The
fresh exudation from the punctured resin ducts comes in 5- to 8- centimeter long tears. It
hardens in about four days. Tapping extends from November to June.
Among the above products, gum from Acacia nilotica (called "gum arable") and from
other Acacia species such as A. catechu, A. modesta, and A. senegal are collectively
categorized as Acacia gums. Gum karaya, or katira, from Sterculia urens, and oleoresin
from Pinus roxburghii, are tapped in significant quantities to be of commercial importance.
50
Annual production and value: Madhya Pradesh has the potential to produce as much gum
karaya as the rest of India combined. However, tapping of Sterculia urens in the state was
banned in 1982 for a period of 10 years. Approximately 1,400 tons of gum karaya are
collected annually from other states, valued at about Rs60 million. After 1991, when tapping
is resumed in Madhya Pradesh, production should be doubled. Production of other gums is
about 1,900 tons, fetching Rs12 million annually. About 46,000 tons of oleoresin are
obtained from Pinus roxburghii each year, valued at approximately Rs2.8 million.
Oil seeds
General: India has about 86 different oil seed tree species. A substantial amount of oil seed
is collected from Shorea robusta, Madhuca indica, Mangifera indica, Garcinia indica,
Azadirachta indica, Pongamia glabra, Schleichera trijuga, Salvadora oleoides, S.
persica, and Actinidaphne hookeri.
Uses: Sal (Shorea robusta) seed cotyledons yield the well known sal butter used for
cooking and lighting. It is a useful confectionery fat and can be used in soap making.
Mahua (Madhuca indica) seed: Almost the entire production of oil from this seed is used in
the production of washing soaps (Awasthi, 1971). Refined mahua oil can be utilized for
cooking, confectionery and in chocolate making (Anon, 1962). Refined oil is used in the jute
industry and in the manufacture of lubricating greases, candles, bathing oil, fatty alcohols,
and stearic acid. Mahua oil has emollient properties and is used in treating skin disease,
rheumatism and headaches. It is a good laxative and is used in treating habitual
constipation, piles, and hemorrhoids (Nagarajan, et al., 1988).
Karanj oil (Pongamia glabra): Both the seed and oil are poisonous but they possess
remarkable medicinal properties. The seed is carminative, purifies and enriches the blood,
and is used for inflammation, earache, lumbago, and chest ailments. The oil is styptic, antihelminthic, and good for rheumatism and cutaneous infections, and as a remedy for scabies
and herpes. Undistilled oils can be used in high-quality laundry soaps, while the distilled oils
can be used in the manufacture of toilet soap (Lakshmikanthan, 1988). The oil cake is a
good fertilizer.
Kusum (Schleichera trijuga): A major part of the kusum oil produced is utilized by the soap
industry. The oil compares favorably with other oils in softness and lathering. It is also used
in hair dressing, and in medicines used in treating skin diseases, rheumatism, and
headaches.
Neem (Azadirachta indica): Seed oil is used in soap and local medicines. Seed oil cake is
used as fertilizer (Gupta, 1944; Agarwal, 1955).
Mango (Mangifera indica): Seed oil is used as a cocoa butter substitute.
Khakan (Salvadora oleoides) and pisa (Actinodaphne hookeri): These oils are used in
making soap. The fruit of khakan is edible, and is fed to cattle to increase milk yield.
Distribution: Sal forests occur in the central Indian belt (accounting for 90 percent of the sal
forests) and at the foot of the Himalayas. Mahua trees grow in almost of all parts of India.
There are two species, Madhuca latifolia grows in the north and M. longifolia thrives in
south India. However, no distinction is made in the trade of their seeds or fats. Mango trees
grow throughout India except in the high Himalayas. Kusum trees occur mainly in forests in
sub-Himalayan tracts in north and central India, and parts of eastern India. Karanj is found in
dry deciduous forests and prefers saline soil. Neem grows wild in dry forests and is
51
cultivated throughout India. Salvadora is a shrub or a small tree growing wild in arid and
sandy areas. Pisa trees occur in subtropical hilly forests of the Western Ghats, some parts of
Assam, Orissa, and Sikkim.
Seed collection: The times and methods of seed collection for various species are:
Sal: Mid-May to end of June. Seeds are collected from the forest floor.
Mahua: May to July. Mature fruit is collected from the ground.
Mango: April to September. Pits are collected from villages and city waste dumps.
Kusum: June to July. Seeds are obtained by picking bunches of fruit. They are depulped by
soaking and rubbing them in water.
Neem: June to July. Bunches of fruit are picked from trees or from the ground.
Karanj: Throughout the year. Trees are climbed and the branches are beaten to shake loose
the seeds. Seeds are then collected from the ground.
Salvadora: May. The fruits are picked or felled by shaking the branches.
Pisa: May to June. Fruit-bearing twigs are plucked and berries are collected.
Processing, storage, and marketing: Only the sal seed trade is organized. After collection,
the fruit is piled and lightly burned. Through a rubbing process called "decortication," the
seeds are separated from the wings and pericarps. The seeds are brought to depots of
forest departments or corporations for sale. The purchasing agency stores the seeds in bags
for disposal, normally by auction.
The pulp surrounding neem seeds is removed by rubbing the fruit against rough surfaces.
The remaining adhering pulp is then removed by washing in water. Mango stones are sold to
purchasers who arrange for manual decortication and sun drying of kernels. Dried karanj
pods are usually split with a hammer or stick and the shells are removed by winnowing.
Kusum seed coats are brittle and break under slight pressure, exposing the kernels. Pisa
fruit is rubbed to separate the kernel from the outer shell, both of which yield oils of different
properties. All of these seeds and fruits are purchased by agents and taken for crushing.
Annual production and value: Sal seed is collected and marketed on a commercial scale.
The potential production is estimated at 5.5 million tons but current collection is only 100,000
tons, valued at Rs200 million. Mahua has a potential kernel production of 1.1 million tons but
the annual collection is around 25,000 tons, valued at about Rs17 million. Production of
other species has not been systematically monitored. Estimates of the production and value
of some seeds presented in Table 5.
Table 5. Annual seed production of selected tree species in India
Species Potential production (1000 Current production (1000
tons)
tons)
Kusum
200
30
Pilu
50
10
Pisa
1
NA
Value of current produce
(Million Rs.)
112
NA
NA
52
Karanj
Neem
110
400
26
100
78
150
Essential oils
General: Essential oils, also called volatile oils, are liquids which possess a pleasant taste
and strong aromatic odor. They occur in about 60 plant families and are frequent or
abundant in the Labiatae, Rutaceae, Geraniaceae, Umbellifereae, Asteraceae, Lauraceae,
Graminae, and Fabaceae families. Any part of the plant may be the source of essential oil.
They are used in making perfumes, soap, and other toiletries. Many are used as flavoring
agents or as essence for tooth paste and tobacco. Many have therapeutic and antiseptic
properties. Several others are used as solvents in the paint and varnish industries, as
insecticides and deodorants, and in the manufacture of synthetic scents and flavors.
The important essential oils produced in India are oils of sandalwood, lemon grass,
palmarosa, eucalyptus, khus and linaloe. These oils are distinguished from fatty oils because
they evaporate or volatilize when they come in contact with air.
Classification of Indian essential oils: An economic classification of plants yielding
essential oils based on their end use is exceedingly difficult as the uses often overlap. For
example, sandalwood oil is used for perfumery, medicine, and many other uses. In
numerous cases, the same oil is used for flavoring and in medicine. For convenience, the
essential oils are classified according to source:
(a) Grass oils: These are mostly obtained from tropical grasses rich in aromatic essential oil,
belonging mostly to the Andropogon and Cymbopogon genera. Indian grass oils include (i)
lemon grass oil, (ii) palmarosa oil, (iii) ginger grass oil, (iv) citronella oil, and (v) vetiver oil.
(b) Wood oils: (i) sandalwood oil, (ii) agar oil, (iii) deodar oil, and (iv) pine oil.
(c) Leaf oils: (i) Eucalyptus oil from E. globulus and E. citriodora, (ii) camphor and camphor
oil, (iii) cinnamon leaf and bark oils, (iv) pine needle oil, (v) mint oil, and (vi) wintergreen oil.
(d) Root oils: (i) Costus oil from Saussuria lappa (Kuth), and (ii) Indian valerian oil
from Valeriana wallichii.
(e) Flower oils
(f) Essential oils of lesser importance.
Industrial uses of essential oils: Essential oils are used in the following industries:
(i) Soap and cosmetics;
(ii) Pharmaceuticals;
(iii) Confectionery and aerated water; and
(iv) Attars, scented tobacco, agarbattis, incense, etc.
Collection of raw material and recovery of essential oil: Plant parts containing oil are
collected from the field, and essential oils are extracted in different ways depending on the
quantity and stability of the compound involved. The following methods are commonly
practiced:
53
(i) Distillation: applicable to materials in which the aroma is not spoiled by hot water or
steam;
(ii) Expression by hand or machinery: applicable especially to fruit rinds;
(iii) Extraction by volatile solvents, hot oils, fats (maceration), or cold neutral fats
(enfleurage).
Production of essential oils: Estimated production of some of the important essential oils
produced in India is presented in Table 6.
Table 6. Estimated production of essential oils
Essential oil Production (tons)
Lemon grass oil
1,200
Sandalwood oil
1,300
Palmarosa oil
90
Vetiver oil
50
Eucalyptus oil
50
Cinnamon oil
33
Deodar wood oil
2
Linoloe oil
3
Cinnamon oil
2
Total
2,830
Fibers and flosses
Fibers
General: Fibers fall into three categories: soft, hard, and surface. Soft fibers are obtained
from the best or stem of plants; hard fibers from the leaf; and surface fibers are those which
are borne on the surfaces of stems, leaves, seeds, etc. Based on their general use, they are
classified as textile fibers, brush fibers, plaiting and weaving fibers, filling fibers, natural
fabrics and paper making fibers. The most important fibers coming from the forests of India
are from the families of Bombacaceae, Sterculiaceae, Tiliaceae, Fabaceae,
Asclepiadaceae, Myrtaceae, Moraceae, Urticaceae, Palmaceae, Musaceae,
and Gramineae.
The following species are commonly Used by cottage industries: Agave sisalana, Abroma
augusta, Abutilon spp., Ananas cosmosus, Antiaris toxicaria, Boehmeria nivea,
Borassus flabillifer, Canabis sativa, Cordia dichotoma, C. rothii, Giradinia
heterophylla, Grewia glabra, G. elastica, G. optiva, Hibiscus spp., Malachra capitata,
Marsdenia tenacissima, M. volubilis, Phormium tenax, Sensivieria roxburghiana,
Sesbania bispinosa, Sida rhombifolia, Sterculia foetida, S. urens, S. villosa, Themeda
arundinacea, Trema orientalis, Typha elephantina, Urena lobata, Oreocnide
integrifolia.
Of the above species, only Agave sisalana and Sterculia villosa have commercial
importance. Agave fibers are Used in making ropes and mats. The fiber is also useful for
cordage, twines, and nets.
Agave plants usually grow in semi-arid tropical regions. They are propagated from rhizomes
or bulbils, planted at a spacing of 2.4 to 2.7 meters. It takes 2 to 6 years for the plant to grow
to harvestable size. Leaves are harvested from the plant until it dies after flowering. Yields
54
range from 1.0 to 2.8 tons of fiber per hectare. Fiber stripping is done within 48 hours of
harvest.
Sterculia villosa is mainly found in Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala, although it is
scattered throughout most of India. The species yields coarse, strong fiber which strips off
the tree in long broad flakes. The flakes have a characteristic net-like appearance. The fiber
is used for making ropes. In West Bengal and Tamil Nadu, it is used for making elephant
harnesses and drag ropes and for securing rafts. Fiber yields from Sterculia villosa vary
from 4.5 to 5.5 tons per hectare.
Annual production and value: It is estimated that around 2,500 tons per annum of agave
fibers are produced in the country, with a present value of Rs45 million. Overall production
data for Sterculia villosa are not available.
Flosses
General: Flosses are obtained from certain wild fruits. Important species are Bombax
ceiba and Ceiba pentandra.
Distribution: Bombax ceiba grows throughout the Indian plains and Deccan plateau. Ceiba
pentandra trees are found in Western and Southern states and the Andaman Islands.
Uses: The floss from Bombax ceiba is obtained from capsules and is known as "Indian
kapok." The floss is soft and strong and used in life-saving devices for boats, stuffing for
cushions, pillows and mattresses, thermal insulation, and soundproof covers and walls. It is
a preferred filling material for padded surgical dressings.
Flosses obtained from the fruit of Ceiba pentandra (kapok or silk cotton) are elastic and are
used in the manufacture of life belts and buoys.
Collection and processing: The capsules are collected green from the tree as the floss
loses much of its resilience after the capsules are open. The capsules are then dried in the
sun and split open with mallets. The floss, mixed with seeds, is again dried in the sun and
the seeds are separated by beating with sticks. The collection and processing is crude and
needs improvement to avoid waste and to improve quality.
Annual production and value: About 300 tons of kapok are produced annually in India,
with a value of Rs30 million.
Grasses
General: Grasses are used for paper making, cattle fodder, matting, ropes, thatching, and in
manufacturing furniture, baskets, and screens. These uses are discussed below:
(i) Grasses for paper making: Eulaliopsis binata (sabai grass) is the chief species,
distributed in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, and
Himachal Pradesh.
(ii) Fodder grasses: Andropogon grows in dry regions of India and is a principal
constituent of wild forage. Cenchrus ciliaris, Bothriochloa ischaemum, B. intermedia, B.
pertusa, and Bromus spp. are important fodder grasses growing in the wild.
55
(iii) Grasses for matting: The culms of Phragmites spp. and Arundo spp. are split and
used for matting. Saccharum munja, Typha elephantina and Cyperus corymbosus are
also preferred.
(iv) Grasses for ropes: Eulaliopsis binata, Desmostachya bipinnata, Saccharum
munja, S. spontaneum, and Themeda arundinacea are the main species.
(v) Thatching grasses: Imperata cylindrica is the main species; Saccharum munja, S.
spontaneum, and Heteropogon contortus are also used.
(vi) Grasses for miscellaneous uses: Furniture is made out of Saccharum munja stems.
Screens of Vetiveria zizanioides roots are used in houses and offices as room coolers
during summer. These are kept wet for a fragrant cooling effect. Thysanolaena
maxima grass is valued for brooms and fodder.
Regeneration: Eulaliopsis binata, Saccharum munja, Cenchrus ciliaris, Vetiveria
zizanioides, Thysanolaena maxima and some other fodder grasses are planted using
cuttings, slips or seeds.
Collection and processing: Fodder grasses are commonly grazed directly by cattle in the
forests. Others are collected and stall-fed to animals or sold in bundles. Some grasses are
cut, collected, and baled for transportation to depots. These are grasses usually utilized by
paper mills or for cattle fodder during times of scarcity.
Annual production and value: Some 0.3 to 0.4 million tons of grass could be harvested
annually in India (Sharma, 1977), but the figures for actual production are not available.
Some 60,000 to 80,000 tons of sabai grass are purchased each year by paper mills. The
price of sabai grass is around Rs300 per ton.
Tannins and dyes
Tannins
General: Tannins are polyphenolic compounds widely distributed among India's flora. They
occur in varying concentrations in all plant material, but only certain plants contain
concentrations permitting commerical exploitation. Tannins are classified as condensed or
hydrolizsable. The former, called catechol-type tannins, are based on polymeric flavan -3.01.
The latter, also called pyrogallol tannins are based on esters of Gallic acid and/or
hexahydroxy diphenic acid and its analogous acids, with a variety of polyols and alicyclic
acids. Different parts of plants may contain different types of tannins.
Classification: Tannins produced in India can be classified as fruit tannins, bark tannins, or
leaf tannins. Fruit tannins are generally obtained from myrobalans, though pods of Acacia
nilotica and drupes of Emblica officinalis and Zizyphus xylocarpa are also used locally.
The main tree species yielding bark tannins are Acacia nilotica, A. mollisima, Cassia
auriculata, and Shorea robusta. The leaves of Anogeissus latifolia and Carissa
spinarum are also harvested for tannin production.
Uses: 90 percent of the total vegetable tannins in the world are used by the leather industry.
India has the largest livestock population (about 415 million head) in the world (Anon., 1982).
Prospects for the leather industry are therefore bright.
Important tannin yielding plants:
56
Terminalia chebula
General: The fruit of Terminalia schebula, commercially known as chebulic myrobalan,
yields important tannin material. Chebulic myrobalan trees are found throughout the mixed
deciduous forests and dry forests. Myrobalans are the most important tanning materials of
the pyrogallol type. These tannins produce a brownish colored deposit on leather called
"bloom." Catchol type tannins do not produce a bloom. Myrobalan tannins are not very
astringent, and penetrate the hide very slowly. When used alone, they produces a soft,
mellow and rather spongy leather which lacks good wearing properties. Myrobalans in India
are largely used in combination with Acacia nilotica and Cassia auriculata tannins.
Time of collection: January to March is the best period for fruit collection, with January
harvests yielding optimum tannin content. The tannin content varies from 12 to 49 percent,
although average tannin content is around 32 percent.
Grading: Grading generally consists of separating inferior fruit which constitute a second
grade, the remainder being the first grade. The following grades are recognized, based on
their origin (Anon, 1972).
 Bimlies (Bs) exported from Bimlipatam (Andhra Pradesh);
 Jabalpur (Js) exported from Jabalpur (Madhya Pradesh);
 Rajpores (Rs) exported from Kolhapur (Maharashtra);
 Vingloras (Vs) exported from Maharashtra; and
 Coast Madras, or Madras, exported from Tamil Nadu forests.
The myrobalans from Salem district (Tamil Nadu) are regarded as the best in the country for
color and tannin content.
Processing: Collected fruit is sun dried. It is important to store the fruit properly as it easily
rots. Crushed myrobalans and solid extract of myrobalans regularly enter the commercial
trade. The extract is prepared in factories and is exported in solid blocks containing 50 to 60
percent tannin. Most tanners prefer to make their own liquors with 30-35 percent tannin
content.
Annual production and value: Around 78,000 to 100,000 tons of myrobalan nuts are
estimated to be produced annually, valued at Rs15 to 20 million.
Acacia mollissima (wattle)
General: Tannin is obtained from the bark of this tree. It gives astringent liquor with good
penetrating properties. It blends well with acid-producing tanning materials, such as
myrobalans, giving a pleasing biscuit color to leather. If used alone, it gives pink color, which
darkens on exposure to light. Wattle is planted in Kodaikanal and in the Ooty hills of Tamil
Nadu, covering about 20,000 hectares.
Collection and processing: Wattle is managed under the coppice system. Coppice shoots
are regularly cut and the bark is stripped and dried. Drying involves standing the pieces on
end against each other or against a rough trestle, with the outer bark exposed. This must be
done in fine weather or under cover, as rain water leaches away tannin. The dried bark
contains 18 to 35 percent tannin, depending upon the age and the part of the tree from
where bark has been collected. Tannin liquors are extracted from the bark by applying steam
in specially prepared wooden vats. These can be purified and mixed with other extracts to
give the desired color or quality to leather.
57
Annual production and value: Over 23,000 tons of wattle bark are harvested every year,
valued at Rs38 million.
Acacia nilotica (babul)
General: In northern India, the bark of A. nilotica forms the most important tannin-yielding
raw material. It is a common tree found in forest, wastelands, and cultivated fields
throughout India. Babul bark is very good for tanning heavier leathers. In combination with
myrobalans, it gives an excellent finished leather.
Collection and processing: Bark is available to the tanning industry as a by-product when
trees are felled for timber or fuel. Bark is dried and despatched in bundles to the tanning
factories. The most important consumption center for this bark is Kanpur. The tannin content
of babul bark varies considerably, with the average being 12 percent. The bark from older
trees is richer in tannin and deeper in color.
Production and value: An average 15-year-old plantation yields about 12.5 tons of bark.
About 22,000 tons of babul bark are produced annually, valued at Rs55 million.
Cassia auriculata (avaram)
General: Avaram is a small bush which grows wild in south India. It thrives on dry stony hills
and on black soils, along road sides, in degraded forests, and on wastelands.
Collection and processing: Bark is collected by cutting coppice shoots off at the base.
Shoots can be harvested annually. The bark is stripped and dried. The bark contains an
average of 18 percent of tannin. The leather tanned by unstripped twigs is as good as that
from stripped bark. The tannin from the bark penetrates hide quickly and produces a special
form of lightly tanned, pale colored leather with an elastic grain and good tensile stength.
Annual production and value: Annual production of avaram bark is estimated at 23,000
tons, valued at about Rs35 million.
Dyes
General: Over 2,000 plant pigments are known, of which only a few are of a commercial
importance. Vegetable dyes have not been able to successfully compete with artificial dyes
in recent years.
Classification:
(i) Wood dyes: Kutch dye from Acacia catechu and other dyes from Artocarpus
heterophyllus, A. lakoocha, Pterocarpus santalinus, and Caesalpinia sappan.
(ii) Bark dyes: Obtained from Terminalia tomentosa, Acacia concinna, A. farnesiana, A.
ieucophloea, Alnus spp. Casuarina equisetifolia, Manilkara littoralis, Myrica
esculenta, and Ventilago madraspatana.
(iii) Flower and fruit dyes: This is the most important group of natural dyes. Flower and fruit
dyes are commonly obtained from Mallouts philippensis, Woodfordia floribunda, Bixa
orellana, Butea monosperma, Toona ciliata, Nyctanthes arbortristis, Mammea
longifolia, Wrightiatinctoria, and Carocus stativus.
58
(iv) Root dyes: Root dyes are obtained from Berberis aristata, Datioca cannabina,
Morinda tinctoria, Punica granatum, and Rubia cordifolia.
(v) Leaf dyes: Indigofera tinctoria and Lanssonia inermis are important species.
The above plant parts do not provide significant livelihood to forest dwellers because the
procurement price in the markets is extremely low. There is no organized trade for collection,
processing and marketing of vegetable dye stuffs.
Drugs and Spices
General: India's medicinal plant wealth is comprised of about 1,500 species. Knowledge of
the medicinal properties of these plants has been recorded in "Materia-Medica" a description
of indigenous systems of medicine which have become extensive and heterogenous over
the centuries. Every region of India has contributed to its development.
Systematic studies and research have been carried out on only a few of the countless drugs
used in indigenous systems of medicine. Drugs have been classified depending upon the
plant organ from which they are derived: roots and other underground parts, bark, wood,
leaves, flowers, and fruit and seed.
Cultivation of important species: Due to continuous use, many medicinal plant species
have become scarce in the forests and efforts are being made to cultivate them.
Dioscorea deltoidea and D. trazeri grow in northwest Himalayas and northeastern India,
respectively. Both species yield diosgenin but grow very slowly and their production cannot
meet the demand. D. floribunda, a Central American species, has been introduced for
commercial cultivation in Assam, Goa, Bangalore, and Koorg districts of Karnataka. The
crop is raised from seeds, single-node leaf cuttings or tuber pieces. On average, a two-yearold plant yields 2.5 to 3 kilograms of tubers, or 50 to 60 tons per hectare. The content of
diosgenin is 3 percent on dry weight basis (Bammi and Rao, 1982).
D. composita, also a native of Central America, is now being cultivated in Jammu. Tubers
begin to increase in size from the third year on. This species yields about 2 to 3 percent
diosgenin. The highest diosgenin content is obtained in July when the plants are about to
flower, but it varies considerably from one locality to another. Propagation from rhizome
cuttings gives better results than from seeds or seedlings. With a planting density of 40,000
per hectare, yields of up to 54.8 tons per hectare after 16 or 17 months (the ideal age for
harvesting) are possible. An income of Rs 4,500 to 5,000 per hectare accrues to the
cultivator (Sobti et al., 1982).
Solanum khasianum occurs in northeast, northwest, southern and central India. It is
cultivated through seeds or nursery-raised seedlings. The crop takes about 6 months to
mature. Two improved varieties have been developed at the Regional Research Laboratory,
Jammu, yielding 7.5 and 8.3 tons fresh berries, respectively. Solasodine content ranges from
1.55 to 1.89 percent from the fruit. (Kaul and Zutshi, 1982).
Costus speciosus is widely distributed in India. In the plains, the plant occurs as a weed in
orchards, boundaries of cultivated fields, and in wastelands. In Meghalaya, Arunachal
Pradesh, Nagaland, and in tropical rain forests in Tamil Nadu, it grows on the forest floor.
Datura stramonium, D. innoxia and D. metel are important medicinal species. The first is
rich in hyoscyamin, while the latter two are rich in scopolamine. D. innoxia is a coarse bushy
59
annual which grows in the western Himalayas, the hilly region of peninsular India, and a few
other places in the country. D. metel is a spreading herb growing throughout India. All can
be raised by seeds. In the case of D. innoxia, fully grown, but green, fruits yield 1.2 to 1.7
tons of dry seeds per hectare, with alkaloid content varying from 0.2 to 0.35 percent. For D.
metel, maximum alkaloid yield is obtained by harvesting tender branches and leaves in June
and July. The plant regenerates and it is possible to harvest twice more in late August and
October. In addition to foliage, a large number of fruits are also harvested when ripe. Two
improved varieties of D. metal developed by the Regional Research Laboratory, Jammu,
yield 21 to 29 tons of green herb and 1.5 to 2.4 tons of seeds per hectare. The alkaloid
content varies from 0.24 to 0.36 percent in leaves and from 0.098 to 0.19 percent in seeds
(Sobti and Kaul, 1982).
Atropa acuminata (belladonna) occurs in the western Himalayas, particularly in Kashmir
and Himachal Pradesh. Its leaves and roots are used in the pharmaceutical industry. About
70 tons of dry leaves are needed annually to meet the country's demand. In recent years,
the natural stocks of the species have dwindled because of over-exploitation. The Kashmir
Forest Department has therefore been promoting its cultivation. It is raised from seeds. J.
eaves are harvested at the time of flowering when the content of active ingredients is at its
peak. Maximum yields are obtained by cutting the entire plant 7.5 centimeters above the
ground. After cutting, the plants sprout again. Two to four quintals of leaves are obtained
from each hectare (Gulati et al., 1982).
Rauwolfia serpentina is one of the most important medicinal plants in India, occurring
throughout the country. The plant which can be propagated from seeds, stem cuttings, or
root cuttings, is a perennial shrub growing up to 50 centimeters in height. The root should be
harvested 15 and 36 months after planting to obtain the optimum yield of alkaloid.
The major trade centers for Rauwolfia roots are Calcutta, Bombay and Patna, which in turn
are supplied by a number of primary trade centers throughout the country. The market value
per ton of roots varies from Rs2,000 to Rs4,000 depending upon the quality.
Cassia angustifolia (senna): is found in Tamil Nadu, and on a smaller scale in Karnataka
and Maharashtra. Sennosides are extracted from leaves and pods, and made into tablets.
The plant can be raised from seeds, and is ready to harvest after 2 months. Sennoside
content is maximum (11.92 percent) in 3 to 5 days old pods, while in leaves it is maximum
(6.93 percent) in immature leaves (Gupta et al., 1977).
About 7 quintals of leaves and a quintal of pods are obtained from one hectare under rainfed
conditions, and 14 quintals of leaves and 1.5 quintal of pods are obtained under irrigated
conditions. Senna leaves, pods or their powder retain their biological activity even after 5
years of storage. About 5,500 hectares of land are under senna cultivation in India, yielding
around 7,150 tons of leaves and pods annually, valued at Rs57 million.
Spices:
Spices are aromatic vegetable products characterized by pungency, strong flavors and
sweet or bitter taste. They occur naturally in some forests and are also cultivated in some
regions. The important spice-yielding plants are Alpinia glanga(greater
galangal), Cinnamomum zeylanicum (cinnamon or dalchini), Curcuma spp.
(haldi), Elettaria cardamomum(cardamom), and Piper longum and P. nigrum (pepper).
Animal products
60
Lac, honey and wax, silk, horns, ivory, bat guano, edible birds' nests, and bees' dammar are
some products that are obtained from forests. Of these, the former three are most important.
Lac
General: Commonly known as "shellac" in its refined flake form, lac is a resinous secretion
from the insect Laccifer lacca, which feeds on the plant sap.
Uses: Lac is presently used for various purposes in plastics, electricals, adhesives, leather,
wood finishing, printing, polish and varnish, ink and other industries. It is also the principal
ingredient of sealing wax.
Lac crops: Two main strains of lac insect are recognized: "rangeeni" and "kusumi". The
rangeeni crop is raised on several host plants, the important being Butea
monosperma and Zizyphus mauritiana. The kusumi strain is raised on Schleichera
oleosa. There are two crops of lac produced by both strains each year. In addition, there are
many other plants species which are of local or specific importance. Only species with near
neutral or slightly acidic sap are good hosts for lac insects.
Cultivation of lac: To get good results, the insects must be provided with succulent shoots.
Lac sticks, which have mature female insects (called "brood lac") ready to give rise to next
generation, are cut and tied on the branches of the new host plants. To get the maximum
benefit, lac cultivation is done on a rotational basis so that the host plants, whose vitality is
drained off by lac insects, are given sufficient periods to recover.
Collection and storage of stick lac: Lac is collected in two forms, "ari" and "phunki." The
former is cut from the host plant and the latter is collected from the brood lac, after being
used for inoculation. The lac is then sold "as is," or freed from the sticks and then sold. The
lac removed from the sticks is commercially known as "sticklac."
Sticklac is spread in shade about 15 centimeters thick and turned over once or twice a week
until it dries. After drying, sticklac is winnowed to free it from foreign matter. The granular
substance, obtained from sticklac after washing away the insect bodies and the dye is called
"seed lac," which after bleaching is used in the manufacture of interior floor polishes. Shellac
is manufactured from seed lac by either a heat process or a solvent process. The yield of
shellac is roughly 55 percent by weight of the sticklac.
Annual production and value: About 14,500 to 20,000 tons of stick lac is produced
annually in India. Its price varies from Rs4,500 to 16,000 per ton depending upon quality;
most of the produce sells around Rs14,000 per ton. Thus, the total value of the annual
production in India is Rs203 million to Rs280 million.
Honey and wax
General: Honey forms a natural nutritious food for the rural people. It is also used widely for
medicinal purposes. Two species of bees, Apis dorsata (rock bee) and Apis indica (Indian
bee) produce honey. The former is wild in montane and sub-montane regions throughout
India. It is a good honey gatherer and a single comb may yield up to 35 kilograms of honey
and one kilogram of wax. The latter is amenable to domestication, but it is not a good honey
gatherer. The yield per hive ranges from 3 to 13 kilograms of honey in the hills and 3 to 8
kilograms in the plains.
61
Annual production and value: About 250 tons of rock bee honey and 98 tons of Indian bee
honey are produced annually. At a price of Rs40 per kilogram, the total value of honey
produced is Rs139 million.
Bee's wax is used in the manufacture of furniture and floor polishes, dressing and water
proofing of leather goods. It is also an ingredient of shoe polish, cosmetics, lipstick, and face
cream. About 28 tons of wax are produced annually, valued at approximately Rs1.6 million.
Silk
India produces four kinds of silk: mulberry, tassar, muga, and eri. Silk is obtained from
cocoons of silk worms. Its production has four components; i) cultivation of host plants for
silk worms, ii) rearing silk worms up to cocoon stage, iii) reeling of cocoons into continuous
filaments called raw silk and, iv) silk throwing and weaving by which filaments are twisted
and woven into fabrics (Anon, 1976).
The silk worm Bombyx mori is fed on mulberry leaves cultivated in plantations. There are
other silk worms which are found wild on forest trees, the best known of these is Antheraea
paphia, which produces the famous "tassar" silk of India. It feeds on several trees such
as Anogeissus latifolia, Terminalia tomentosa, T. arjuna, Lagerstroemia
parviflora, and Madhuca indica. Two or three crops of cocoons are usually obtained each
year and about 12 grams of silk are obtained from 15-20 cocoons. Other wild silk worms
are Antheraea assamensis, producing "muga" silk, and Philosamia synthia ricini,
producing "eri" silk. In some areas silk worms are introduced on host plants to enhance the
production of silk. Estimated annual production of tassar silk is 130 tons. Production of other
types of silk exceed 10,000 tons.
Edible plant products
General: Natural forests supplement the food supply for human beings. Several forest fruits
and seeds, flowers, rhizomes, tubers, roots, barks, etc. are consumed by people during
periods of food scarcity and in normal times. A number of tree species provide such edible
products. Important fruits are from Buchanania lanzan (chironji), Anacardium
occidentale(kaju), Pinus gerardiana (chilgoza), Emblica officinalis (aonla), Tamarindus
indica (tamarind), Aegle marmelos (bel), Feronia elephantum (kaitha), Artocarpus
lakoocha (barhal), Syzygium cuminii (jamun), Annona squamosa (custard
apple), Carissa opaca (karaunda), Juglans regia (akhrot), Moringa oleifera (drum stick),
and Zizyphus jujuba (ber). Edible flowers came from Madhuca indica (mahua), and M.
longifolia (mahua). Roots and tubers of Amorphophalus campanulatum, Dioscorca
belophylla, D. oppositifolia, and Ipomoea aquatica are also important.
The following forest species are particularly important in producing delicacies consumed by
rural people:
Buchanamia lanzan is commonly known as chironji, achaar or char. It is frequently found in
dry mixed deciduous forests of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Maharashtra,
West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh.
It is a medium-sized tree, attaining a height of over 15 meters and a girth of 120 centimeters.
Natural regeneration is poor and artificial cultivation is difficult. People hack the branches to
collect the fruits, a practice that weakens the tree.
The species flowers from January to March and the fruit ripens from April to June. The fruit is
eaten by the local people and kernels are extracted and dried for sale in the market. Kernels
62
have a mixed flavor of pistachio and almond, and are eaten raw or roasted. They are
commonly used in preparing desserts. The market price is about Rs120 per kilogram.
Anacardium occidentale is a small tree, known as cashew nut or kaju. It was introduced to
India from Mexico, Central and South America, and eastern Brazil. In India, it is grown in
Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Goa and western Maharashtra.
Cashew is an erect, spreading evergreen tree, growing to a height of 10 meters. The tree
begins to flower in December. Mature fruit is collected from February to May.
The tree is usually propagated from seedlings raised in baskets, although it can be
propagated by grafting and layering. The tree starts bearing fruits from the third or fourth
year, but the best production starts from the tenth year and continues for another 20 years.
The average yield of kernels per tree ranges from 9 to 18 kilograms. The kernels vary in
size, ranging from 100 to 425 per kilogram (Verma, 1988).
The nuts are separated from cashew apples immediately after harvest. They are then dried
in the sen and shelled. The dried nuts are roasted either in open pans over furnaces or in
rotary cylinders with oilbaths. India, with an annual production of about 60,000 tons of raw
nuts, is the largest producer of cashew nuts in the world (Murthy and Subrahmanuam,
1989). The price of raw kernel is Rs30 per kilogram and that of processed nut is from Rs80
to 120 per kilogram.
Pinus gerardiana is an evergreen pine known as "chilgoza" or "neoza," attaining a height of
17 to 27 meters and girth of 2 to 4 meters. The species is endemic to a part of Himachal
Pradesh in the Himalayan dry temperate forests. The tree flowers in May-June and female
cones ripen during September-October of the following year. Good seed years alternate with
poor ones. A tree on an average yields about 7.4 kilograms of seeds. Collection is best done
in September-October when the cones are still green. On heating, the cone scales open and
the seeds are shaken out. Seeds are also separated by drying the green cones in the sun.
Natural regeneration is limited because local inhabitants aggressively collect the cones to
extract the chilgoza nuts. Attempts to raise chilgoza plantations by sowing have not
succeeded because the seeds are readily eaten by various animals. Some success has
been achieved, however, in planting seedlings and by heteroplastic grafting. Collection rights
are given to local villagers, who supply nuts to the markets in the plains. About 140 tons of
nuts are produced every year. They are priced at approximately Rs100 per kilogram (Gupta
and Sharma, 1975).
Export of non-wood forest products
The economic contribution of NWFPs exceeds 70 percent of the total value of forest-based
exports from India. NWFPs are primarily exported as raw materials. If proper facilities for
processing were available, earnings could be much higher.
Export figures for the period 1984 to 1988 are shown in Table 7.
Organization for collection and processing
In 1980, the Central Board of Forestry suggested the following plan of action for
procurement and processing of NWFPs to enhance the economic situation of tribal people.
63
(i) Adopt ways and means to ensure smooth, adequate and sustained supply of NWFPs for
domestic use and also for trade and processing.
(ii) Develop and utilize NWFP resources for the benefit of tribals and also for the contribution
to the national economy.
(iii) To ensure fair wages, the collection and initial processing of NWFP should be done
either by direct recruitment of labor or through Large-Size Multipurpose Cooperative
Societies (LAMPS). Intermediaries should be abolished.
Table 7. Export of important non-wood forest products
1984-85
1985-86
Quantity Value Quantity Value
Product
(tons)
(million
(tons)
(million
Rs)
Rs.)
Tendu leaves
2503
30.3
4487
54.1
Bamboo
132,3
0.8
1.4
0.007
Acacia gum
149.4
4.7
46.7
1.6
African gum
4.1
0.02
NA
NA
Arabic gum
0.9
0.0.4
58.2
0.9
Karaya gum
3044
82.9
2505
71,0
Asafoetida
111
4.6
140
5.3
Myrrh
3.0
0.06
16.9
0.3
Other gum
11.9
0.30
70.6
1.9
resin
Sal oil
3822.7
82.1
8751.0
231.0
Myrobalan
60.2
0.20
5.8
0.02
Belladona
0.4
0.008
3.0
0.036
leaves and
roots
Kuth roots
20.0
0.24
42.7
1.1
Psyllum husk
11019
365.2
1095
336.4
Psyllum seed 2071.2
28.6
2499,5
23.3
Serpentina
3.9
0.04
8.0
0.06
roots
Senna leaves 3313,4
29.2
5705.9
52.40
and pods
Henna leaves 5250.2
29.9
8067.0
48.10
and wood
Chiraita
8.1
0.05
6.8
0.03
Cassia pods
1007,6
7.5
723.7
3.2
Soap nut
27.9
0.17
271.2
0.9
Green pepper
98,7
4.2
76.3
5.4
Black pepper, 18622
410.6
38580
1754.4
garbled
Black pepper,
41.1
1.2
724.8
32.9
ungarbled
Pepper, long
4.4
0.16
NA
NA
Cinnamon
5.4
0.09
2.2
0.04
bark
1986-87
Quantity Value
(tons)
(million
Rs.)
5103
66.5
4.7
0.03
16.8
0.5
10.0
0.2
11.9
0.2
2124
57.4
102
5.3
7.0
0.3
42.1
1.1
1987-88
Quantity Value
(tons)
(million
Rs.)
5942
83.5
0.7
0.004
NA
NA
NA
NA
6.3
0.38
2801
64.20
140
8.3
NA
NA
102.4
2.7
192.6
378.9
3.1
5.4
1.2
0.9
532.0
304,7
NA
12.4
2.6
NA
3.6
8865
2994.1
55.9
0.3
233.8
25.6
0.4
0.5
12641
2265.2
NA
0.02
479.6
34.4
NA
5672.2
48.2
5270.4
34.9
5157.9
40.0
4783.1
42.1
38.2
901.4
69.3
179.0
35771
0.09
6.3
0.6
15.6
1947.3
58.5
NA
35.6
114.8
41332
1.7
NA
0.2
15.7
2463.0
404.8
19.8
433.8
24.3
11.5
1.3
0.2
0.02
NA
NA
NA
NA
64
Cardamom,
large
Cardamom,
small
Tamarind,
fresh
Tamarind,
dried
Shellac,
hand-made
Shellac,
machinemade
Seed lac
Button and
garnet lac
Other lacs
Cashew
kernel, broken
Cashew
kernel, whole
245.2
9.3
387.8
19.3
271.6
12.1
256.1
14.0
948.8
281.8
1657.9
264.6
1014.3
136.2
227.2
29.0
956.4
4.5
1046.2
7.2
1287.0
6.9
1160.0
3.1
3110.4
20.1
724.8
32.9
2792.0
25.9
NA
NA
763.4
34.1
580.1
38.6
543.4
20,0
637.6
28.0
1712.7
78.7
4175.9
299.0
3944.5
156.0
3655.2
121.5
310-9
28.5
10.3
2.2
272.6
3.1
12.5
0.2
146.0
1.7
4.3
0.09
NA
NA
NA
NA
1939.5
2453.1
66.7
113.0
1121.3
7182.4
70.7
377.9
2629.9
3222,9
101.3
234.7
NA
2804.7
NA
214.8
3002.6
137.7
29913.8
1863.1
39780.5
3040.7
3142.0
2894.7
In view of the above, the Tribal Development Federation (TRIFED) has been formed as an
apex body at the national level to help the state-level federations and forest development
corporations with marketing of NWFPs procured from tribals. TRIFED purchases all such
produce from the state-level federations or corporations, with the condition that the state
bodies pay tribals a fixed minimum price for their produce.
The institutional framework created for collection and marketing of NWFPs differs from state
to state:
Andhra Pradesh tribals have the right to collect, consume and sell NWFP items. The Girijan
Co-operative Corporation (GCC) has monopoly rights over procurement and marketing of
NWFPs. GCC engages primary cooperatives at the grass root-level for collecting and
processing the produce. The corporation pays royalties to the forest department.
In Bihar, tendu leaves and oil seeds (Shorea, Pongamia, Madhuca, and Schleichera) are
nationalized items. Collection of Diospyros melanoxylon leaves is undertaken by the forest
department itself. The Forest Development Corporation has monopoly over oil seeds and
their procurement is done through LAMPS and other agencies. Though lac is an important
NWFP item, it is not nationalized. Some lac is procured through LAMPS and marketed by
the Bihar State Cooperative Lac Marketing Federation. Other NWFPs are purchased directly
by agents.
Gujarat has established the Gujarat Forest Development Corporation, which procures
NWFPs like Diospyros leaves, Madhuca flowers, and other seeds and gums on a
monopoly basis. The corporation trains tribals in improved methods of collection and
processing and has increased collection and sale from Rs5.1 million in 1976-77 to over Rs30
million in 1987-88. Employment (primarily of children, women and elderly tribals) from the
collection of NWFPs has increased from 889,000 person-days in 197677 to 3,795,000
person-days in 1984-85. Gujarat is the only state where most of the forest coupes are being
worked by Forest Labour Cooperatives (FLCs). There are about 141 FLCs in the state, of
65
which 132 are in tribal areas. The membership of FLCs totals 63,000 of which 59,000 are
tribals.
In Kerala, the right to collect all NWFPs has been given to tribals (Girijans). A cooperative
society has been established in each forest area, with membership reserved only for
Girijans. State forest departments purchase all the collected NWFPs at procurement prices
fixed for each collection season by a committee constituted by the State Government.
In Madhya Pradesh, Diospyros leaves, Shorea seeds, Terminalia chebula nuts, gums
(five types), Acacia catechu wood, and bamboos are nationalized items specified for
monopoly state trading. Gums, catechu wood, and bamboos are collected through the
departmental agency. Shorea seeds and Terminalia nuts were largely handled through
purchaser-agent systems until recently, but the Madhya Pradesh Government has now
switched over to a direct tender system.
The state of Madhya Pradesh is the largest producer of tendu (Diospyros
melanoxylon) leaves. The average annual production of tendu leaves in the state is
123,000 tons, which accounts for over 60 percent of the total production in the country.
Tendu leaf trade has been fully controlled by the state government since 1964. Tendu leaf
growing areas of the state have been divided into units, from where Minor Forest Product
Cooperatives collect the leaves. After necessary curing and treatment, leaves are packed in
bags and stored in godowns. They are later sold by the forest department through sealed
tenders from registered bidi manufacturers and tendu pasta traders. After expenses are
deducted, the profits are distributed among the members of the Minor Forest Produce
Cooperatives.
The trade of sal seeds, myrobalans, and mahua flowers in Madhya Pradesh is nationalized
and the task of collection and disposal is entrusted to the State Forest Produce Trading and
Development Cooperative Federation, which is a subsidiary organization of the forest
department. The Federation has a large number of Tribal Cooperatives and Primary
Agricultural Cooperatives as its members. About 30 LAMPS are also engaged in
procurement of myrobalans on a commission basis.
For other NWFPs, local inhabitants obtain rights to collect from the forest department by
paying a nominal royalty. After collection they sell the produce to traders.
Since the Maharashtra Tribal Economic Condition Improvement Act, 1976, trading of
NWFPs in tribal areas has been entrusted to the Maharashtra State Cooperative Tribal
Development Corporation on a monopoly basis. This corporation presently is trading in
gums, Madhuca indica flowers and fruits, Terminalia chebula, and Buchanania
lanzan seeds, after procuring them from tribals. Where the Tribal Development Corporation
is not functioning, collection of NWFPs is contracted to Forest Labour Cooperative Societies
or auctioned to contracters. Tendu leaf trade has been nationalized in the state since 1969,
leaves being collected under the purchaser-agents system.
In Orissa, collection of NWFPs follows a multi-dimensional pattern. Diospyros leaves and
sal seeds are nationalized and the state has monopoly over their trading. The idea behind
the government taking over the trade is to remove the middleman and ensure better wages
to primary collectors. Tendu leaves are collected by the forest department through tribals
and after processing and packing they are handed over to the Orissa Forest Corporation for
marketing. Other NWFPs are collected by local inhabitants and sold to traders who pay
royalties to the forest department and process and market the produce.
66
In the tribal areas of Rajasthan, the NWFP collection monopoly has been given to the Tribal
Area Development Cooperative Federation (TADCF). LAMPS and Cooperative Societies are
involved in collection of grasses, gums, fruits, medicinal plants, etc.
In Uttar Pradesh, tendu leaf trade has been nationalized. The Tarai Anusuchit Janjati Vikas
Nigam has started involving tribal people in the collection of tendu leaves. Other items are
auctioned to contractors.
In West Bengal, the collection and trade of NWFPs is managed by the West Bengal Tribal
Development Cooperative Corporation (WBTDCC). The corporation involves tribals through
LAMPS in collecting the produce. LAMPS are provided with working capital in the form of
cash credit since these are the primary societies of WBTDCC. The corporation is
responsible for marketing the produce through open auction or tender. Tribals have been
given the right to collect all NWFPs for their own consumption or
sale. LAMPS procure Diospyros leaves, oil seeds (Shorea, Madhuca, Pongamia,
Schlichera, Azadirachta, etc.) Madhuca flowers, sabai grass, and Terminalia
belerica fruits from tribal collectors.
Employment generation and social benefits
In India, unemployment has always been a concern for planners and policy makers. The
forestry sector, with 23 percent of the country's geographical area, provides 2.3 million
person-years of employment. Of this total, 1.6 million person-years is related to NWFPs.
Employment generated by various NWFPs is presented in Table 8.
It is estimated that NWFPs are capable of generating 4 million person-years of employment
annually, if their full potential were exploited. The government is committed to increasing
employment opportunities, so NWFPs should be one of the first items to be considered. A
special national drive has been launched to intensify collection, procurement, processing,
and marketing of NWFPs.
Most NWFPs currently provide employment during only part of the year because processing
of NWFPs is still poorly developed. Improved labor-intensive technologies for processing
NWFPs would increase the employment opportunities for longer periods of the year and
ensure higher prices for the produce.
The Constitution of India enjoins the state to promote the educational and economic
interests of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, and to protect them from social
injustice and exploitation. It also requires the protection of the forests and wildlife of the
country. The National Forest Policy, 1988, also stresses the conservation of the country's
natural heritage and the efficient utilisation of all forest produce. The policy suggests that
NWFPs which provide employment to the population residing in and around forests should
be protected, improved, and managed for increased production. It emphasizes the need for
research in the conservation and management of forest resources and the application of
advanced scientific and technological measures.
Today, all the states of the country have forest corporations dealing with collection,
processing and marketing of forest produce. Poor forest laborers, who were previously
unorganized, have been brought under the umbrella of various organizations like the Forest
Labour Cooperative Societies, the Large-Area Multipurpose Societies (LAMPS), the Tribal
Development Corporations (TDC), the Minor Forest Produce Federations (MFPF), and other
organizations.
67
Table 8. Production and employment generation from non-wood forest products in
India
Product
Fibers
Kapok flosses
Grasses
Bamboo
Canes
Lemon grass oil
Palmaros oil
Eucalyptus oil
Cinnamon oil
Sandal wood oil
Deodar oil
Pine oil
Mahua seed
Neem seed
Karanj seed
Kusum seed
Sal seed
Kokum seed
Khakan seed
Nahor seed
Undi seed
Babul bark
Avaram bark
Wattle bark
Myrobalans
Karaya gum
Ghatti & babul
gums
Resins
Lac & lac
products
Tassar silk
Tendu leaves
Sarpagandha
Kuth
Cinchona
Edible products
Collection period
March-May
May-June
Oct-March
Continuous
Continuous
May-June
Oct-November
Continuous
Continuous
Continuous
Continuous
Continuous
April-June (Northern)
Oct-Nov (Southern)
May-June
June-Oct
June-July
April-June
May-June
May-June
May-June
April-June & SeptNovember
Continuous
Continuous
Continuous
Jan-March
April-June
April-June
March-June
Oct-Jan & April-July
Aug-Dec
April-June
Variable
October
Variable
Variable
Total
Production (thousand
Employment (thousand
tons)
person-years)
Current
Potential
Current
Potential
2.5
45
4.4
79
3
4.5
10
15
350
535
1,200
1,800
1,932
4,309
48.3
110
14
21
0.7
1.05
1,3
1.95
21.7
32,55
0.09
0.135
1.5
2.25
0.14
0.21
2.32
3.48
0.003
0.004
0.05
0.07
0.15
0.225
1.5
2.25
0.015
0.023
0.15
0.23
NA
100
NA
100
85
490
28.6
163
6
56
30
240
0.5
NA
1.7
NA
418
111
90
5,504
2
46.3
5.7
3.8
1
19
6.7
53
0.167
0.570
NA
NA
70
37
30
1,123
0.7
15.3
1.9
NA
27.4
30
30
100
15
2
50
45
45
150
22.5
3
4.57
5
5
6.6
50
7
8.3
7.5
7.5
9.9
75
10.5
74.2
22
150
33
30
7.3
60.2
10.95
0.3
210
0.6
0.6
1.42
NA
3,235.8
1.9
300
1
1
2
NA
12,492.2
1.5
74.9
16
16
23.635
NA
1,647.2
9.5
107
42.67
26.67
33.335
NA
3,995.8
Source: Gupta and Guleria (1982). Non-Wood Forest Products in India. Oxford and IBII
Pub. New Delhi
68
The Tribal Federation (TRIFED), a government agency, is protecting the interests of the
tribals by providing marketing support to state-level corporations, federations, and
cooperatives involved with tribal collection of NWFPs. The State Forest Departments are
permitting NWFPs to be collected, consumed, or marketed directly by the tribals, unless they
are nationalized.
Future directions to promote NWFPs
The present status and potential of many NWFPs is not fully understood or appreciated.
Since these products occupy an important place in the international markets, ample
opportunities exist for enhancing export earnings by developing appropriate facilities for
processing, drying, storage, packaging, and marketing.
Survey and documentation of the NWFP-yielding plants is urgently needed. It is essential to
know phenology of different species, their growth behavior, and utilization patterns by local
inhabitants. Although these facts are well appreciated, systematic studies have not been
carried out.
It is essential to first inventory selected forest areas in different eco-climatic zones. Based on
the results of surveys, the state forest departments should preserve selected areas for insitu conservation. Seeds and progagules of important species, especially those threatened
with extinction, should be collected, and nurseries and herbal gardens should be
established. This should be followed by source and provenance trials, genetic improvement,
and further cultivation of improved varieties.
Plantations of desired species should be raised for meeting the needs of industries and the
rural population. Training tribals and the rural poor on improved cultivation practices,
scientific collection, processing and marketing of NWFPs should be an important component
of the future program.
The majority of NWFPs are obtained from government forests. Many plants have been overexploited and are gradually disappearing. Crude collection methods, such as burning the
forest floor, hacking of branches, uprooting herbs or shrubs, and digging of roots and tubers,
have seriously degraded the resources. Therefore, cultivation of NWFP-yielding species on
private and communal lands is important.
Most of the NWFPs are collected in a particular season although they are utilized all year
round. Therefore, proper storage methods must be developed. Currently, as much as 50
percent of NWFPs spoil during storage. Scientific studies to develop suitable processing and
storage techniques for these products should be undertaken and well-designed warehouses
should be built in the interior areas to facilitate proper storage.
References
Anon. 1962. Wealth of India-raw materials. C.S.I.R. New Delhi.
Anon. 1976. Report of the National Commission on Agriculture-VI: crop production,
sericulture and agriculture. Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation. New Delhi.
Anon. 1982. Report of Committee on Forests and Tribals in India, Tribal Dev. Div., M.H.A.,
Govt. of India.
Agarwal, B.D. 1955. Journal Econ. Ent. (48): 553.
69
Awasthi, R.L. 1971. Availability of mahua flowers and seeds in Dandakarnya. Indian For.
(97): 20.
Bammi, R.K. and Gangadhara, Rao G. 1982. Commercial cultivation of Dioscorea
floribunda. In Cultivation and utilization of medicinal plants, C.K. Atal and B.M. Kapoor
(eds.). R.R.L., C.S.I.R. Jammu.
Gulati, B.C., N.A. Qureshi and Tajuddin. 1982. Cultivation of belladona in Kashmir (an
appraisal), In Cultivation and utilization of medicinal plants, C.K. Atal and B.M. Kapur, (ed.).
R.R.L., C.S.I.R. Jammu.
Gupta, B.D. 1944. Sugarcane pests in U.P. Bull. No. 73. Department of Agriculture, U.P.
Printing and Stationery Press. Allahabad.
Gupta B.N. and K.K. Sharma. 1975. The chilgoza pine and important nut pines of the
Himalayas. Western Australian Nuts Association Year Book (1): 21-32.
Gupta, R., V.K. Srivastava and M.L. Maheshwari. 1977. Indian J. Phanma 39 (5): 109-111.
Kaul, B.L. and Usha Zutshi. 1982. In Cultivation of Solanum Khasianum Clarke for steroids.
In Cultivation and utilization of medicinal plants, C.K. Atal and B.M. Kapur (eds.). R.R.L.
C.S.I.R. Jammu.
Lakshmikanthan, V. 1988. Chemistry and industry of tree borne oil seeds. In Oil seeds and
their utilization, K.K. Suri and K.C. Mathur (eds.). International Book Distributors. Dehradun.
Murty, A.V.S.S.S. and N.S. Subrahmanyam. 1989. A text book of economic botany. Wiley
Eastern Ltd. New Delhi.
Nagarajan, S., H.C. Jain and Y.R. Chadha 1988. Industrial utilization of forest based minor
oil seeds. In Oil seeds and their utilization, K.K. Suri and K.C. Mathur (eds.). International
Book Distributors. Dehradun.
Purshotham, A. 1962. Utilization of Bamboos. Jour. Timber Dryers and Pres. Assoc.,
India (9): 2-19.
Raizada, M.B. and R.N. Chatterujee. 1956. World distribution of bamboos, with special
reference to the Indian species and their more important uses. Indian For. Leaft No. 151.
Silviculture, Manager of Publications. Delhi.
Rao, C.M. 1980. Bamboo plantation in Andhra Pradesh. Proc. Southern Silviculturists
Conf. Dharwar, Karnataka.
Sarin, Y.K. 1982. Cultivation and utilization of Rauvolfia serpentina. In Cultivation and
utilization of medicinal plants. C.K. Atal and B.M. Kapur (eds.) R.R.L. C.S.I.R. Jammu.
Sharma, L.C. 1977. Development of forests and forest based industries. Bishen Singh
Mahendra Pal Singh. Dehradun.
Sobti, S.N. and B.L. Kaul. 1982. Cultivation of Datura innoxia and Datura metel in India.
In Cultivation. and utilization of medicinal plants, C.K. Atal and B.M. Kaput. (ed.). R.R.L.
C.S.I.R. Jammu.
70
Sobti, S.N., S. Gupta and C.K. Atal, 1982. Cultivation of Dioscorea composita Hemsl: a
potential source of diosgenin in jammu. In Cultivation and utilization of medicinal plants, C.K.
Atal and B.M. Kapur (eds.). R.R.L. C.S.I.R. Jammu.
Tewari, D.N. 1981. State trading in forest produce in India. Jugal Kishore and Co. Dehradun.
Verma V. 1988. A text book of economic botany. Emkay Publications. Delhi.
Acknowledgement
The author is deeply indebted to Dr. D.N. Tewari, IFS, Director General, Indian Council of
Forestry Research and Education, Dehradun, for his valuable suggestions and
encouragement in preparing this paper.
71
AGRICULTURE
How is fodder crisis rendering
livestock vulnerable?
Today, India faces an acute fodder shortage that has left drought-hit farmers and livestock vulnerable.
Jitendra finds out how fodder crisis has the potential to cripple India's rural economy
NEXT COVERAGE ❯
By Jitendra
Last Updated: Friday 24 March 2017
Photo: Reuters
72
Drought of fodder
Editor's Note: Currently, India faces green fodder shortage of 63.5 per cent. The
cost of green fodder increased by three times between 2011 and 2016. In droughthit states such as Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Telangana and Karnataka, the
inability to feed livestock is forcing farmers to resort to distress sale of cattle. In
the beginning of 2016, Down To Earth travelled to several districts in Marathwada
region to find out the causes of this chronic fodder shortage and how farmers are
dealing with it.
"Even bottled water is more expensive than milk.” This is the reply 39-year-old
Kishore Nirmal gives when asked why he wants to sell off his healthy cow.
Waiting for buyers under a peepal tree at a weekly animal fair, the farmer from
Neknoor village in Maharashtra’s Beed district says he gets only Rs 12 by selling a
litre of milk, whereas a litre of bottled drinking water costs Rs 20.
The highest price Nirmal has been offered for his cow so far is Rs 20,000, which is
not even half of what he was expecting. But Nirmal fears that the price of cows in
his area will only drop because it is decided on the amount of milk it produces,
which depends on the amount of green fodder a cow consumes. “And finding
green fodder is a luxury in today’s times when the entire district is reeling from
consecutive droughts,” says a worried Nirmal. He adds that Rs 20,000 would be
just enough to keep his family of six afloat till the rainy season in June 2016. “I
have no option but to hope that the monsoon will not disappoint us this year,” says
the farmer from Beed district.
Beed registered a 50 per cent rain deficit during the 2015 rainy season. The deficit
reached 55 per cent by December. In fact, the entire Marathawada region, except
Aurangabad district, saw 46 per cent rain deficit during the last monsoon. The
region recorded 47 per cent rain deficit during the 2014 monsoon.
73
The gravity of the fodder shortage hits home when farmer Bhaorao Silke, who is
also at the fair to sell his ox pair, says, “I am okay even if somebody takes them
right now and pays me six months later because I have nothing to feed them.” He
says fodder scarcity is responsible for the increase in the number of cattle sellers at
the fair. “Generally around 100 sellers came to the fair, but the number of sellers
has shot up by three times since December,” he says.
What is more worrying is that the worst is yet to come. “The period between
February and May is going to be the most challenging when fodder will be used up
74
in most districts,” says Nishikant Bhalerao, an agriculture expert from the region.
Even Maharashtra animal husbandry department data shows that most districts in
Marathwada will run out of fodder by February (see ‘Out of stock’,).
Seeing the crisis, Maharashtra government announced the setting up of 172 cattle
camps by October 2015 and started the Kamdhenu Dattak Gram Yojana under
which farmers will be given Rs 1,500 per hectare (ha) and seeds to grow fodder. It
also started a water harvesting programme called Jalyukt Shivir, which will create
rain harvesting structures in villages. The state has also put a ban on inter-state and
inter-district trade of fodder.
According to Umakant Dangat, agriculture divisional commissioner, Aurangabad,
the Jalyukt Shivir will cover the entire Marathawada region by 2019. “We have
selected 1,682 villages in the Marathwada region that will have access to water by
next year,” says Dangat. While Marathwada is the worst affected by fodder crisis,
the story is not very different in most of the other drought-hit states (see ‘Pushing
the panic button’,).
India faces a green fodder shortage of 63.5 per cent, says the vision document of
the country’s premier research institute Indian Grassland and Fodder Research
Institute (IGFRI). The shortage of dry fodder is 23.5 per cent, estimates the
national institute that is under the administrative control of the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research. If the current situation continues then India’s green fodder
shortage will reach 66 per cent and dry fodder will reach 25 per cent by 2030 (see
‘Worst is yet to come’,). Traditionally during drought, livestock assumes the role
of a shield for farmers, mostly small and marginal. But with the acute fodder
shortage, sustaining cattle has become extremely difficult in drought-affected
areas. If the situation continues, it will completely derail the rural economy.
75
76
The deficit pinches different states differently. Ajit Singh, a dairy farmer from
Muzaffarnagar in Uttar Pradesh, is a worried man. The reason: he has not earned
profit in the past six months despite having 23 healthy cattle that produce nearly
180 litres of milk every day.
“The cost of fodder, which accounts for 70 per cent of the input cost, has doubled
in the past six months,” says a worried Singh (see ‘Out of reach’,). Uttar Pradesh,
like Maharashtra, witnessed consecutive droughts in 2014 and 2015. Government
data suggests 50 out of the 75 districts in the state faced drought-like situation in
the two years. “The cost of green fodder has increased from Rs 1,500 to Rs 2,500
per tonne in the past six months. We are compensating the green fodder shortage
with feeds that are substantially more expensive,” he adds.
While for Punjab and Haryana, where nearly eight per cent of the total cultivable
area is used for fodder, the shortage is limited, it is acute in arid regions like
Bundelkhand, which grows fodder on less than two per cent of its cultivable land.
Similarly, Odisha is also struggling with severe fodder shortage. The Odisha
government has asked banks for insurance of rabi crops because of the poor kharif
crop. Deficient rainfall during kharif has severely affected agricultural production
in 139 blocks of 21 districts. “As farmers are likely to face scarcity of cattle fodder,
particularly in drought-affected areas, banks will also finance fodder cultivation
this season,” says chief secretary G C Pati. A study by the International Livestock
Research Institute (ILRI) shows that lack of adequate amounts and quality of
fodder is one of the biggest constraints Odisha farmers face. “Odisha is facing an
emergent fodder crisis necessitating urgent redirection of strategies to bridge the
widening demand-and-supply gap as well as ensure quality feed to boost livestock
productivity,” the study says. It estimates that there is already a shortfall of 48 per
cent in green fodder availability and 24 per cent in dry fodder in the state. By 2020,
77
there will be 57 per cent deficit in dry fodder availability, taking into consideration
the fact that one farmer will require at least four kg every day for a large ruminant.
Despite several state governments rolling out schemes to address the fodder
shortage, Union government agencies maintain there is no fodder problem. They
dismiss the shortage on the flimsy ground that no comprehensive data exists on
fodder production. “There is no credible survey or study that assesses the ground
situation. Whatever studies are in the public domain are just guess work. Logically
speaking, such a huge deficit should have affected the country’s milk production,
which is only increasing. This year, the production will touch 145 million tonnes,
which will increase to 162 million tonnes next year,” says S S Kandpal, director,
department of animal husbandry under the Union Ministry of Agriculture and
Farmers’ Welfare. He says the shortage in the Marathwada region is a local
problem. “We had spoken to the Ministry of Railways to supply fodder from
Punjab and Haryana to states that are facing shortage. But not a single state has
78
asked for fodder,” says Kandpal.
However, private players in the feed industry have a different explanation for the
increase in milk production. The huge fodder gap, they say, is being bridged by
their industry. “The crisis of green fodder has boosted the feed industry. This
explains the consistent rise in India’s milk production despite severe fodder
scarcity,” says Amit Saraogi, chairperson, CLFMA, a consortium of 250 feed
companies. According to government data, there are more than 500 feed
companies in the country. A report by CLFMA says India’s feed industry, which is
already worth $15 billion, is expected to double by 2020. According to The Indian
Feed Industry-Revitalizing Nutritional Security Knowledge, a report published by
Yes Bank in 2015, many companies are eyeing the huge feeds market. “The sector
is growing by eight per cent every year,” says Saraogi.
79
80
Read Full Coverage
Livestock
Areas
Animal Feed
Fodder
Pradesh
Drought Prone
Droughts
Rajasthan
Monsoons
Orissa (Odisha)
FarmersAgriculture
India
Maharashtra
Uttar
TelanganaKarnataka
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AGRICULTURE
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NEXT COVERAGE ❯
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Finding answers to the 34-million question
82
India’s agriculture labour market is in a state of flux. Going by the National
Sample Survey Office’s (NSSO’S) periodic surveys, 34 million workers left the
sector between 2004-05 and 2011-12. This is the first time in India’s living
memory that the sector is reporting a decline in labour participation (see ‘India’s
labour crisis’). It is a worrying situation because agriculture still employs close to
half of India’s workforce and accounts for 64 per cent of rural employment. The
dip in the agriculture labour force has been acute in India’s key grain-producing
states like Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. To make matters worse, the labour
shortage is impacting the country’s five staple crops: rice, wheat, sugarcane,
groundnut and cotton.
Such is the impact of the shortage that labourers are now earning more than the
farmers. This is due to the significant rise in agriculture labour wage. According to
an analysis by the International Crops Research Institute for Semi-arid Tropics
(ICRISAT), the daily nominal wage rate of various agricultural activities, such as
ploughing, sowing and transplanting, increased 3.6 to 4.2 times during 2004 and
2014. According to the Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, the cultivation
cost of major crops such as paddy and wheat has been increasing at an annual rate
of 10 per cent due to the rise in labour cost that now accounts for up to 50 per cent
of total production cost of crops like paddy.
So, why are labourers moving out of agriculture at this time? For many, it is a
simple play out of the change in Indian economy where people have better-paying
livelihood alternatives in non-farm sectors such as construction and service sectors.
According to ICRISAT, though the value of GDP from agriculture and allied
activities has increased by 142 per cent during the last decade, and by 121 per cent
during the past five years alone, its share in GDP has been declining due to the rise
in other sectors. The share of agriculture in the GDP has declined from 20.7 per
cent in 2001-02 to 12.9 per cent in 2013-14. Some also say the Mahatma Gandhi
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National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) that guarantees manual
jobs and offer significantly high wage rate is the reason labourers are quitting the
farm sector. But several surveys done by both government and non-government
agencies show that MGNREGA could hardly have lead to the abandonment of the
agriculture sector to such an extent; at an average the employment scheme offers
just 31 days of work a year. However, the employment programme did increase the
wage rate for agriculture labourers. At the same time, the dip in the overall
agricultural workforce has not been matching.
Estimates by consultancy agency KPMG, using the erstwhile Planning
Commission’s data, suggest another 23 million more will quit agriculture in the
next five years. It is clear that the current situation is both a threat and an
opportunity for India’s agriculture sector. The threat is overwhelming: scarcity of
labour and increasing wage bill might make agriculture unviable. The opportunity
is that the much talked about extension of agriculture mechanisation can happen
now. Farmers are now being forced to find new ways to reduce their dependency
on manual labour. Innovations are happening on several fronts: individual farmers
are embracing new technologies, governments are earmarking sizeable funds for
farm mechanisation, agritechnology companies are making use of this opportunity
to quickly supply machines suitable for India, and research institutions are
propagating crops that require less labour.
The good news is that the consolidated efforts of different interest groups are
working. According to the Indian Council of Agriculture Research, farmers are
already reaping benefits worth Rs 100,000 crore through various attempts to
minimise their labour cost. Down To Earth correspondents travelled across the
country to report on this turnaround, while India’s noted agriculture economists
and scientists explain the phenomenon. The message is clear: it is a curious case
for deep probing.
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https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/nagpur/bamboo-plantation-a-smart-business/articleshow/63860841.cms
‘Bamboo plantation, a smart business’
TNN | Updated: Apr 22, 2018, 10:24 IST
NAGPUR: People should go in for bamboo plantation that not o ..
Read more at:
http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/63860841.cms?utm_source=contentofinterest&utm_medium=text&utm_campaign=cppst
Dignitaries at the half-day workshop and awareness programme on ‘Bamboo nursery,
plantation
& management pract... Read More
NAGPUR: People should go in for bamboo plantation that not only gives a good yield but
also money as it has a unique quality to survive for long in any
weather conditions, said VM Ilorkar, director of Agroforestery Researh Plant, on Saturday.
Regions where sand-mixed soil is available are best suited for bamboo plantation as its water
holding capacity is better, which, in turn, can give cultivators rich
dividends, Ilorkar said at a workshop organized by the Maharashtra chapter of Bamboo
Society of India and College of Agriculture at VTI hall.
Maharashtra has bamboo varieties like manvel, katang, thorny, manga and chivari in
abundance. Bamboo plantation can earn farmers good money to support
their families, Ilorkar said.
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Highlighting the use of bamboo, he said the produce is extensively used in handicrafts
industry, paper mills, construction works, farming tools, furniture
ventures and for domestic and commercial purposes. In fact, it is a smart business, he added.
In his address, Ashok Mhaske of College of Agriculture said, nullah bunding is a simple
technique that helps stop irrigated water going waste and erosion of
soil. Rainwater collected in percolation pits enhances groundwater level which can then be
directly supplied to the farm, he said, adding, these simple methods
are pocket-friendly and give solution to many problems.
Delivering the introductory speech, Sunil Joshi, chairman of the Maharashtra chapter of BSI,
said bamboo plantation is fast catching up, especially in remote areas.
Uday Patil, deputy commissioner of Manarega, was the chief guest while vice-chancellor of
Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth VM Bhale was in the chair.
The function was anchored by Ram Gawande.
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