INFLUENCE OF PARENTING STYLES ON ADOLESCENTS’ SELFESTEEM IN SELECTED SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN ABEOKUTA NORTH
LOCAL GOVERNMENT, ABEOKUTA, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA
AJAYI, OLUWADAMILOLA MODUPE
PG/15/0266
B.Sc. (U.I)
BEING A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN THE DEPARTMENT OF
PUBLIC AND ALLIED HEALTH IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE
DEGREE OF MASTER OF PUBLIC HEALTH
BABCOCK UNIVERSITY
ILISHAN-REMO
OGUN STATE
NIGERIA
2017
i
CERTIFICATION
INFLUENCE OF PARENTING STYLES ON
ADOLESCENTS’ SELF-ESTEEM IN SELECTED SECONDARY SCHOOLS
IN ABEOKUTA NORTH LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, OGUN STATE,
NIGERIA, prepared and submitted by AJAYI, OLUWADAMILOLA MODUPE in partial
This
dissertation
titled,
fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF PUBLIC HEALTH (Health
Promotion and Education), is hereby accepted.
______________________________________
Dr. Omeonu, Precious Esther
Supervisor
Accepted as partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF
PUBLIC HEALTH (Health Promotion and Education)
_____________________________
Provost, College of Postgraduate Studies
Professor Yacob Haliso
ii
DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to my family comprising of my parents, Mr & Mrs A. Ajayi and
my siblings, Temiloluwa, Oluwaseun and Mosimiloluwa Ajayi
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I thank God for giving me the opportunity to pursue my graduate degree and for the strength to
complete this task. I also want to thank my parents, Mr and Mrs A. Ajayi, for being great parents
and for their enduring love and support, gentle encouragement and patience when I was in the
postgraduate school. Additionally, I would like to thank my brothers and sisters for their love and
encouragement. I want to express my most sincere and heartfelt thanks to my supervisor, Dr.
Omeonu Precious Esther, for her guidance, encouragement and unending patience. I also want to
give very special thanks to all the lecturers of my department and from other departments for
imparting their knowledge. I would like to acknowledge the moral support of my colleagues.
Finally, I would like to thank Gabriel Paul, for his love, inspiration, encouragement and support.
iv
ABSTRACT
The concept of self-esteem is an area of psychology that has gained considerable attention, but for
many years has also caused much confusion, as exactly what it encompasses and how it develops,
has been unclear. Low self-esteem can be a major risk-factor in mental and emotional health
problems such as suicide, alcohol and drug abuse, and violence. Studies have shown that one
of the most important factors affecting adolescents’ self-esteem is their parents’ style but with
varied results. Therefore, this study was designed to assess the influence of the different parenting
styles in adolescents’ self-esteem.
The study was a cross-sectional study which used quantitative approach for data collection. The
study population comprised of adolescents in selected secondary schools within Abeokuta north
local government, Abeokuta, Ogun State. Multi-stage random sampling technique was adopted in
selecting samples from the population. In the first stage, 4 private secondary schools and 4 public
secondary schools were selected by simple random sampling. This was followed by a stratified
random selection of students from classes based on the requested number of instruments the
schools were willing to accept. A total of 200 adolescents were gotten across the selected private
schools and 213 adolescents were gotten across the selected public schools. A self-administered
questionnaire was developed using constructs from the Belsky’s model of the determinant of
parenting.
Respondents were male (45.8%) and female (54.2%) whose age ranged from 12-19 years, majority
(96.1%) were of the Yoruba tribe while there were (0.7%) and (3.2%) respondents of Igbo and
Hausa respectively. Findings revealed that respondents exhibited a high level of self-esteem (17.56
± 0.19). Parental involvement in respondents’ daily activities was assessed to be high which can
be said to influence respondents’ self-esteem. It was also determined that of all the parenting styles
adopted by respondents’ parents, the authoritative (β = 0.585; P < 0.05) and authoritarian (β =
0.270; P < 0.05) had positive association with involvement, indicating these parenting styles
encompasses increased parental involvement.
This study concluded that parenting styles have influence on adolescents’ self-esteem, further
practice of strict, demanding style of parenting (authoritative) has an increased influence on
adolescents’ self-esteem and parents talking about issues with their adolescents in a supportive
manner instead of imposing punishment (authoritarian) also have a positive association with
increased self-esteem. These are the two parenting styles adopted by Nigerian parents as
influenced by culture of instilling discipline in the younger adolescents and this has proven to be
instrumental in developing a high self-esteem among the selected Nigerian adolescents. This
study recommends that religious organizations’ should be involved in the training and retraining
of parents in improving their children’s self-esteem.
Keywords: Self-esteem, Parenting styles, Adolescents, Personality, Abeokuta
Word Count: 449
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Content
Page
Title page
i
Certification
ii
Dedication
iii
Acknowledgements
iv
Abstract
v
Table of Contents
vi
List of Tables
x
List of Figures
xi
Abbreviations
xii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1
Background to the Study
1
1.2
Statement of the Problem
4
1.3
Objective of the study
5
1.4
Research Question
5
1.5
Justification for the Study
6
1.6
Hypotheses
7
1.7
Operational Definition of Terms
7
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.0
Introduction
9
vi
Content
Page
2.1
Factors Influencing Self-Esteem in Adolescents
10
2.2
Adolescents’ Self-Esteem
11
2.3
Parenting Styles and Adolescents’ Self-Esteem
13
2.4
Parental Involvement and Personality in Adolescents’ Self-Esteem
18
2.5
Adolescents’ Personality and Self-Esteem
20
2.6
Theoretical Framework
22
2.6.1 Belsky’s model of the determinants of parenting
23
2.6.2 Application of Belsky’s model of the determinant of parenting
24
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
3.1
Research Design
25
3.2
Population
25
3.2.1 Inclusion Criteria
25
3.2.2 Exclusion Criteria
25
3.2.3 Study Location
25
3.3
28
Sample size and sampling Technique
3.3.1 Sample size
28
3.3.2 Sampling Technique
29
3.4
29
Variables and Hypotheses Testing
3.4.1 Independent Variable
29
3.4.2 Dependent Variable
29
vii
Content
Page
3.4.3 Null hypothesis
29
3.5
Instrument
30
3.6
Validity and Reliability
31
3.6.1 Validity of Instrument
31
3.6.2 Reliability of Instrument
31
3.7
Method of Data Collection
31
3.8
Ethical Consideration
31
3.8.1 Informed consent
32
3.8.2 Confidentiality
32
3.8.3 Anonymity
32
3.8.4 Right to withdraw
32
3.9
Post Research Benefits
32
3.10
Plan for Data Analysis
33
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS, RESULTS AND
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
4.0
Introduction
34
4.1
Demographic Characteristics
34
4.2
Answering Research Questions
37
4.3
Testing of Hypotheses
50
viii
Content
Page
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1
Summary
53
5.2
Conclusion
55
5.3
Recommendations
56
5.4
Limitation of the Study
56
5.5
Implication of the study to Health Promotion and Education
56
References
57
Appendices
62
ix
LIST OF TABLES
Table
Page
4.1
Demographic characteristics of respondents
36
4.2
Respondents’ responses on self-esteem
38
4.3
Respondents’ self-esteem
39
4.4
Respondents’ responses to perceived parenting style
adopted by their parents
42
4.5
Respondents’ responses to adolescent personalities
46
4.6
Respondents’ response to parental involvement
48
4.7
Level of parental involvement
49
x
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
Page
1
Belsky’s model of the determinants of parenting
22
2
Application of Belsky’s model of the determinants of parenting
24
xi
ABBREVIATIONS
AANP:
Authoritative, Authoritarian, Neglectful and Permissive
ANOVA:
Analysis of Variance
BUHREC:
Babcock University Health Research Ethics Committee
SPSS:
Statistical Package for Social Science
WHO:
World Health Organization
xii
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Background to the Study
There is no one way to parenting. Differences in parenting styles can happen within individual
societies as well as between different cultures (Sanders, 2003). For instance, the way parents in
the United Kingdom or the United Sates choose to raise their children may differ dramatically
from the way parents in Nigeria or Ghana choose to raise their children. Parenting style is a global
climate in which a family functions and in which childrearing takes place (Sanders, 2003). Four
distinct parenting styles have been distinguished, namely the authoritative, authoritarian,
indulgent, and uninvolved styles, based on the two underlying dimensions of parental support
(often referred to as parental responsiveness) and strict control (often referred to as parental
demandingness) (Rose, Otten, Hein de Vries & Rutger, 2010).
Parental support refers to parental affectionate qualities and is associated with characteristics like
warmth, acceptance, and involvement (Rose, Otten, Hein de Vries & Rutger, 2010). Strict control
reflects parental control over their children’s behaviors and as such includes parental knowledge
of these activities as well as active monitoring attempts. Authoritative parents offer their children
a democratic climate of both high support and strict control. Authoritarian parents provide strict
control without being supportive, and are therefore perceived as demanding and power-assertive.
Children experiencing support in the absence of strict control are being reared by indulgent parents,
who are allowing and permissive. These parents apply few rules to constrain their children. Finally,
parents with an uninvolved parenting style are neither supportive nor controlling, and are relatively
more indifferent and uninvolved (or even neglectful) with respect to their children (Rose, Otten,
Hein de Vries & Rutger, 2010).
Studies have shown that one of the most important factors affecting children’s self-esteem and
behavior is their parents’ style (Tanhaye-Rashavanlou & Hejazi, 2012). For example, adolescents
of parents with an authoritative parenting style have higher than self-esteem (Moghaddam,
Validad, Rakhshani and Assareh, 2017), however, research conducted on the effects of parenting
styles on self-esteem in adolescents has shown variable results. For instance, a study by
xiii
Moghaddam, Validad, Rakhshani and Assareh, indicated that an authoritative parenting style has
an impact on self-esteem, whereas research by Dabiri, Delavar, Sarami & Falsafi-Nejad, pointed
out that parenting styles do not have a significant impact on children’s self-esteem.
The concept of self-esteem is an area of psychology that has gained considerable attention, but for
many years has also caused much confusion, as exactly what it encompasses and how it develops,
has been unclear. Self-esteem could be high or low, either level can be emotionally and
socially harmful for the individual. Adolescents with low self -esteem are often depressed and
paranoid. They are more likely to experience social anxiety and low levels of social confidence
Portia (2010). Adolescents who have high self-esteem values themselves and think of themselves
as worthy partners, capable problem solvers and are more likely to be happy. They feel that they
have positive characteristics and skills they can offer to other people and they also feel they are
worthy of being loved and accepted by others including family and friends. An optimum level of
self-esteem lies within the continuum i.e., between low and high self-esteem. Individuals
operating within this range are thought to be more socially dominant within relationships. This
social dominancy simply means that adolescents on middle level on the self-esteem scale is
comprised of varied personality characteristics, some of which can be more positive than others
McLeod (2012).
Adolescence is a period in human growth and development that occurs after childhood and before
adulthood. The World Health Organization (WHO) placed the age range from 10 to 19 years. It is
a time of critical transition for individuals, as they deal with the physical, cognitive and social
changes that occur during this developmental period. All of these changes can be stressful and
individuals can feel less valuable than others, making them at risk of a lower self-esteem. Selfesteem is modified from childhood through the adolescent’s life by social experiences that occur
both outside and within the family. Parental support is crucial in adolescence and parents could
promote self-esteem in their children and reduce psychological distress by offering their support
throughout this developmental phase (Boudreault-Bouchard, Dion, Hains, Vandermeerschen,
Laberge & Perron, 2013).
It has been shown that adolescents and adults who have high self-esteem are at better health, have
better capacity to cope and have lower incidence of depressive symptoms (Kaplan, Robbins, &
Martin, 2003). Trzesniewski, Donnellan, Moffitt, Robins and Poulton (2006) found out that those
xiv
adolescents that had low self-esteem had negative influence on their physical and emotional health.
Low self-esteem during adolescence has been shown to predict poor health, criminal behavior and
limited economic prospects during adulthood. Low self-esteem in adolescence also predicts
negative outcomes in their adulthood. Mcgee and Williams (2000) also identified that low selfesteem can affect adolescent social life, lead to eating disorders, depression and suicidal thoughts.
Gaylord-Harden, Ragsdale, Mandara, Richards and Petersen (2007) identified that self-esteem is
an important intermediary between social support and emotional adjustment both in early and late
adolescence. They proposed that support from family and peers would serve as a protective factor
on depression and anxiety, which would promote better self-esteem and perception of their ethnic
group.
This study will explore possible reasons for high or low self-esteem concentrating on the
development of self-esteem, by examining the potential influence of the parenting styles or type
of child rearing approach. To categorize the parenting style, Baumrind's styles of parenting are
used. These are: Authoritarian, Authoritative and Permissive, which are defined as follows:
1. Authoritative parenting style, which combines unconditional regard, acceptance of the
child's behaviour within certain limits, with relatively firm control.
2. Authoritarian parenting style, which involves the parent using unbending rules to shape the
child's behaviour and imposing their will on the child without any give and take. The
parent believes they are always right.
3. Permissive parenting style in which parents show warmth and allow the child a great
amount of autonomy while exercising little control over them. They allow their children to
shape their own behavior instead of being active in this process.
1.2
Statement of the Problem
Parenting style offers a vital indicator of parenting functioning that predicts a child’s well-being
across a wide spectrum of environment. There is no way in which parents can avoid having a
determining effect upon their children’s personality, character, and competence. The functions of
parenting greatly influence how adolescents develop. One important task of parenting is the
socialization of adolescents. This task requires parental expectations and guidance that change
with the development of the adolescent to encourage positive adolescent outcomes. The socially
xv
competent adolescent can be described as possessing independence, social responsibility, vigor,
and achievement orientation, which is the drive to seek intellectual challenges and solve problems
efficiently and with persistence. The role of parenting cannot be overlooked when assessing the
development of self-esteem in adolescents (Cramer, 2012).
Psychologists consider adolescence as a period of self search and identity formation. It is equally
viewed as a period of conflict with parents as they attempt to define who they are. From the
literature reviewed, proper parenting practice and parent-adolescent relationships at home
would lead to better sense of self which translates into good personal and social adjustment
which in turn give rise to a high self-esteem, while poor parenting and parent-adolescent
relationship leads to social incompetence and as a result lead to a low self-esteem Anyanwu
(2010).
Studies have shown that low self-esteem pose a great challenge in both the developed and
developing world. For instance, in Nigeria there are about two suicide attempts every month
traceable to depression from low self-esteem, suicidal tendencies in Nigerian teens (2014). Also,
in the United States, teen suicide is the third-leading cause of death for young people ages 15 to
24, surpassed only by homicide and accidents according to the United States Center for Disease
Control and Prevention (Josephat & Herbert, 2015).
Low self-esteem has been significantly related to depression as seen in a study carried out by Julia
and Ulrich (2013); Does low self-esteem predict depression and anxiety? A Meta-Analysis of
Longitudinal Studies. The result indicated that the relation between low self-esteem and anxiety is
more symmetric, with small, but significant, prospective effects in both directions. Low selfesteem creates a negative impact in the lives of adolescents. It makes the adolescent views
himself as inadequate, unworthy, unlovable, and/or incompetent. Once a low self-esteem is
formed, this negative view of self permeates every thought, producing defective assumptions
and continued self-defeating behavior. Low self-esteem can be a major risk-factor in mental
and emotional health problems such as suicide, alcohol and drug abuse, and violence (Julia
& Ulrich, 2013). Therefore, this study was to explore the influence parenting style could have on
adolescent self-esteem.
1.3
Objective of the Study
xvi
The main objective of this study was to assess the influence of parenting styles on adolescents’
self-esteem in Abeokuta North Local Government Area, Ogun State. The specific objectives
were to:
1. identify the levels of adolescents’ self-esteem;
2. evaluate the extent to which perceived personalities of the adolescents is associated with
their self-esteem;
3. determine the perceived parenting style’s influence on adolescents’ self-esteem and
4. assess the levels of parental involvement’s relationship with perceived parenting style
adopted by adolescents’ parents.
1.4
Research Questions
1. What are the levels of adolescents’ self-esteem
2. To what extent is perceived personalities of the adolescents associated with their selfesteem.
3. What is the perceived parenting style’s influence on adolescents’ self-esteem.
4. What are the levels of parental involvement’s relationship with perceived parenting style
adopted by adolescents’ parents.
1.5
Justification for the Study
Children are vital in making a positive future. Parents assist to mold their child’s self-confidence,
respect, and worth which are the qualities one must possess in order to make an impact on the
world. This study’s concentration is on the relationship between the four main parenting styles,
authoritative, authoritarian, neglectful and permissive (AANP) and self-esteem during
adolescence. Past research in the field of parenting styles and self-esteem generally points to a
strong connection between childhood and early adulthood. A study conducted by Yang & Liang
in 2008, suggests that nurturing and supportive parenting styles could improve children’s selfxvii
esteem. A study conducted in Nigeria by Hosogi, Okada, Fuji, Noguchi & Watanabe (2012), which
focused on children, revealed that the environment where children are raised adds intensely to the
development of their self-esteem. This implies that everything from school and family dynamics
to socioeconomic status and parenting styles affect children seriously. This statement specifies
additional research needs to be done on the relationship between parenting styles and self-esteem.
Furthermore, outcomes from diverse research showed that many studies have been conducted but
most of the studies are not conceptually and logically grounded in theories to identify some
significant factors associated with parenting and self-esteem. Hence, this study aims to provide
better understanding of those parental personalities associated with the quality of parenting and
the characteristics of the adolescents and how they are interrelated, therefore, this study is designed
in such a way that it is driven by Belsky’s model of the determinants of parenting which was
developed based on studies of child maltreatment to enable the factors associated with parenting
and self-esteem to be identified.
This study helps to identify the perceived parental involvement and parental personalities
associated with quality of parenting and the characteristics of the adolescent in influencing their
self-esteem, with the result targeted at expanding the area of research on parenting styles and selfesteem, also to add to the prospect that children will be raised, by helping parents to better
understand the effects that different parenting styles have on their child’s self-esteem in Abeokuta
North Local Government, Ogun State.
Findings from this study is also hoped to add to the body of knowledge available on these problems
and it could form the template for intervention strategies in helping reduce this social
dissatisfaction and managing parenting styles and self-esteem in a developing world like Nigeria.
1.6
Hypotheses
H1: There is a significant difference in the level of respondents’ self-esteem across their
demographic characteristic.
H2: There is a significant association between respondents’ parent’s involvement with the
parenting styles adopted.
xviii
H3: There is a significant association between adolescents’ parent’s parenting styles and their selfesteem.
H4: There is a significant association between adolescents’ personality and their self-esteem.
1.7
Operational Definition of Terms
1. Self-esteem: it is how one regards or values oneself in terms of accomplishments and
relationships.
2. Depression: it is a period of unhappiness or low morale which lasts longer than several
weeks and may include ideation of self-inflicted injury or suicide.
3. Adolescence: it is a period in human growth and development that occurs after childhood
and before adulthood.
4. Parenting style: is the exemplification of how parents demand and respond to their children.
5. Authoritative parenting style: it combines unconditional regard, acceptance of the child's
behaviour within certain limits, with relatively firm control.
6. Authoritarian parenting style: involves the parent using unbending rules to shape the child's
behaviour and imposing their will on the child without any give and take. The parent
believes they are always right.
7. Permissive parenting style: parents show warmth and allow the child a great amount of
autonomy while exercising little control over them. They allow their children to shape their
own behavior instead of being active in this process.
xix
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.0
Introduction
The term self-esteem comes from a Greek word meaning "reverence for self". The "self" part of
self-esteem is said to be the values, beliefs and attitudes that we hold about ourselves. The "esteem"
part of self-esteem describes the value and worth that one gives oneself. Self-esteem is therefore
the acceptance of us for whom and what we are at any given time in our lives (Deshpande and
Chhabriya 2013). Self-esteem influences the psychological development and wellbeing of
adolescents including their mental health adjustment and academic attainment.
One’s self-esteem determines the level of one’s achievement in all activities of life. Selfesteem by Lightfoot, Cole and Cole is one’s assessment of their own self-worth (Lightfoot, Cole
& Cole, 2009). Self-esteem can also be referred to as one’s global self-esteem, considering all
internal and external factors. Internal factors refer to emotions, genetic makeup and personality
traits, while external factors refer to specific events, family, career etc. However, that covers a few
different types of self-esteem. Trait self-esteem is the amount of regard we have for ourselves
through time (Gilovich, Keltner & Nisbett, 2012). This type of self-esteem tends to remain stable
over a lifetime, which is why some refer to this trait self-esteem as part of one’s personality.
Another type of self-esteem is state self-esteem. State self-esteem is much more fluid and is
affected by feelings and situations (Heatherton & Polivy, 2011). It has to do with how one is feeling
about himself or herself at a certain point in time. There also exist more specific types of selfesteem such as academic self-esteem, where one’s feeling of self-worth is somewhat contingent
upon how well one does academically (Valizadeh, 2012).
Self-esteem as perceived by Ngwoke (2010) is how one regards or values oneself in terms of
accomplishments and relationships. Ngwoke further pointed that it is essentially the image one
has for oneself. Self-esteem is the essence of living with positivity and reacting to life’s difficulties
in a realistic way. Self-esteem of a person has the potential to make or break him/her in his/her
personal and professional life (Aiger, 2011). An individual may have either low or high selfesteem. The consequences of low self-esteem have been implicated in low level of achievement,
xx
depression and other unstable behaviors (Ngwoke 2010). Low self-esteem generally is the result
of awkward incidences from childhood that have prompted a person to be unsociable which
usually leads to self-degradation and robs a person of self-confidence and rational thinking
(Aiger, 2011). Low self-esteem makes a person face life with inference and negative attitude.
It influences the emotions of people and has the potential to cause serious consequences
like extreme emotions that can lead to depression, suicide attempts, mental and physical
disorders, teenage pregnancy or even delinquency. In adolescents, low self-esteem is
responsible for violence which can cause severe physical damages.
In accordance with Belsky’s model, parental personality was considered the theoretically most
influential determinant of parenting because it is thought to affect parental behavior both directly
and indirectly. Despite the presumed importance of parental personality, its contribution to the
quality of parenting has received relatively little attention in empirical research. Moreover, most
studies relating parental personality to quality of parenting have focused on the associations
between disturbed psychological functioning or depression and non-optimal parenting.
2.1
Factors Influencing Self-Esteem in Adolescents
There are so many factors which can affect self-esteem but arguably none is more significant than
the family. This is not to imply that the family is the cause of an individual's level of self-esteem
but rather has a 'predisposing' effect. Certain parental attitudes have been found to effect selfesteem. These are:
1. Parental involvement: the greater a parents involvement with and to their child the higher
the levels of self-esteem.
2. Parental warmth: also referred to as the unconditional positive acceptance is the ability to
accept a child's strengths and weaknesses. This acceptance is 'warm' in that it is balanced.
3. Clear expectations: boundaries that are clear and firm without being authoritarian help the
child ascertain what behaviors are acceptable and what are not.
4. Respect: respect for one's children coupled with a democratic or authoritative parenting
style has the most positive effect on self-esteem.
5. Parental consistency: being consistent in the treatment of one's children enhances selfesteem because it reinforces the value of the child to the parent.
xxi
6. Empowering children: confident, capable individuals who believe they can achieve
generally have positive self-esteem. Parents can empower children by fostering
responsibility for their feelings and actions.
7. Modeling: children imitate what they see. Parents who face life's challenges honestly and
directly expose their children to examples of problem-solving strategies which can enhance
self-esteem.
8. Positive thinking: a positive perspective helps us see the good things in life rather than
the bad, which helps foster a positive self-esteem.
Just as there are experiences which build self-esteem there are others which can have a damaging
effect on self-esteem. Some of these are:
1. Repeated negative evaluation by others: if we are repeatedly told we are dumb, stupid,
slow, fat and so on we can come to believe this.
2. Severe or repeated criticism: self-worth and self-confidence can be damaged if we are told
that we are 'not good enough' or 'below average'.
3. Negative humour, putdowns and 'barbed kidding': all of these are criticism disguised
in a joke but nonetheless are a powerful form of putdown.
4. Mistakes, errors or failures: whilst all of these experiences are normal occurrences
in the path of experience, for many they can lower confidence and ultimately self-esteem
(Deshpande and Chhabriya 2013).
2.2
Adolescents’ Self-esteem
Evaluation of self-esteem among adolescents is a very vital issue often under-reported in
pediatrics practice and in this part of the world, its importance therefore cannot be
overemphasized especially its impact on health (this includes depression, suicidal attempts,
unwanted pregnancies) which had been mentioned above.
Review in literature in this area shows that few research work has been conducted in respect to
adolescent self-esteem. One of such research work is a study recently conducted on Self-Esteem
among Adolescents in Nigerian Secondary Schools by Josephat and Herbert (2015) which showed
that low self-esteem in adolescents does exist in our environment, though there is no cultural
and social recognition of its health risk. The prevalence of self-esteem among adolescent
xxii
from this study is noted to increase slightly as the adolescents grow older but tends to be at
its lowest at extreme of ages. It was noted from this study that the prevalence of low self-esteem
among adolescent is 3.6%. In Nigeria today, very little research has been performed on this
issue and so conclusion cannot actually be reached if this prevalence is increasing or
decreasing. However, the prevalence obtained in this study is lower when compared with that
of Rob McGee (in Dunedin, New Zealand) who had a prevalence of 18%.
This low prevalence has been attributed to several factors including: the lower divorce rate, lower
rates of parental divorce, and expressed feelings of higher competence by children and
adolescents. For instance, in America, parental divorce and father absence have been
associated with low self-esteem and lower feeling of competence in children and adolescents.
Furthermore, the low self-esteem obtained from this study when compared to that in America
and Europe could be due to some cultural differences. For instance, while teenagers from
American and Europe are at the stage in their lives where they want to break free from parental
control and assert their own independence and exert self-expression, personal uniqueness and
self-sufficiency; this assertion of independence can result in greater conflict and “less
cohesion” with their parents, often with direct negative effects on their psychological wellbeing, those from Africa have stricter parents and a well knitted extended family system where
discipline and values are maintained.
In addition, the studies on one’s self-esteem over time has yielded varying outcomes. The most
popular finding is that self-esteem increases throughout adolescence to middle adulthood where it
begins to decrease as one enters old age. When looking simply at the adolescent stage, results
mostly show a general increase in self-esteem throughout adolescence (Orth, Robins & Widaman,
2012). Another study arrived at the same conclusion of an increase in self-esteem throughout
adolescence, it identified that gender did not make a difference as expected (Erol & Orth, 2011).
Educational level was found to have an important effect on the level of self-esteem during
adolescence and it was established that the level of self-esteem increases as educational level
increased (Hallsten, Rudman, & Gustavsson, 2012).
2.3
Parenting Styles and adolescents’ self-esteem
xxiii
Parenting style is a psychological construct representing standard approaches that parents use in
their child rearing. The quality of parenting can be more essential than the quantity of time spent
with the child. Parenting styles are the exemplification of how parents demand and respond to their
children. It represents broader patterns of parenting practices. There are various theories and ideas
on the best ways to raise children, as well as varied levels of time and effort that parents are willing
to invest.
Parenting style refers to behaviors and strategies used by parents to control and socialize their
children (Lightfoot, Cole & Cole, 2009). Diana Baumrind in the 1970’s was first to establish the
fact that parenting style exist. In 1971, she carried out a study comprising of interviews and
observations with parents and children, concluding in the identification of three types of parenting
based on levels of demandingness (control, supervision, maturity demands) and responsiveness
(warmth, acceptance, involvement). These parenting styles she called authoritarian, authoritative,
and permissive. The authoritarian parenting style is described as a black and white style of
parenting, where rules are expected to be followed without question or there will be penalties.
These parents tend to be strict and demanding, while not treating their children as equals. They do
not appear very receptive to their children.
The authoritative parenting style is characterized by high levels of nurturance, involvement,
sensitivity, reasoning and encouragement of autonomy, however the parents tend to be more open
about their reasoning and take into account their children’s opinions more so than authoritarian
parents. Authoritative parents tend to talk about issues with their children in a supportive manner
instead of imposing punishment.
Permissive parenting is characterized by making few demands, displaying non-controlling
behaviors and using minimal punishment. For instance, parents who do not give rules and
guidelines for their child’s behavior would be defined as possessing a permissive parenting style.
Parents tend to act more responsively and demand less from their children; in turn they do not
usually discipline their children as regularly. They are also communicative and nurturing.
Several studies (Baumrind, 1991; Dornbusch et al., 1987; Querido et al., 2002; Strage & Brandt,
1999; Lightfoot, Cole & Cole, 2009; Driscoll 2013; Yara, Feliciano, Maria, Fuentes & Fernando,
2013; Deshpande & Chhabriya, 2013) has been done building on the work of Baumrind (1970).
xxiv
Parenting style offers a vital indicator of parenting functioning that predicts a child’s wellbeing across a wide spectrum of environment. Maccoby and Martin joined the two dimensions
of good parenting, the parental responsiveness (warmth) and parental demandingness (control) as
measures to reexamine the three styles of parenting in 1983. According to their findings, there
seemed to be more parenting styles than had previously been shown. Maccoby and Martin
concluded by dividing the permissive style into two different parenting techniques that appropriate
their findings when bearing in mind observed levels of demandingness and responsiveness. Thus,
the researchers formed the permissive and neglectful labels for these styles of parenting. After this,
four parenting styles have widely been known to exist, authoritative (high on demandingness and
responsiveness), authoritarian (high on demandingness but low on responsiveness), permissive
(low on demandingness but high on responsiveness), and neglectful (low on both demandingness
and responsiveness, Maccoby & Martin, 1983). Research later carried out by Steinberg, Lamborn,
Darling, Mounts and Dornbusch (1994), supports this four parenting styles widely known.
Moreover, previous research has concluded that specific qualities of a parent can lead to higher
levels of self-esteem. The quality of supportiveness as perceived by the child, predicted higher
levels of implicit self-esteem in a study conducted by Antonopoulou, Alexopoulos and MaridakiKassotaki (2012). This means it is likely that children with neglectful parents would have lower
levels of self-esteem. Furthermore parents who were known as more nurturing (authoritative and
permissive) had a positive effect on their children’s self-esteem, while parents perceived to be
overprotective (authoritarian) had a negative effect (DeHart, Pelham & Tennen, 2006).
Additionally emotional warmth (authoritative and permissive) has been positively correlated with
higher levels of self-esteem, while negative loving, anger and rejecting were negatively correlated
(Yang & Zhou, 2008). While considering the effects of these traits on self-esteem it is important
to look at the potential changes in self-esteem over time, unlike these past studies that focused on
examining participants at only a single time period.
Also, Lightfoot, Cole and Cole (2009) found that inconsistent parenting can be related to
aggressive and rebellious behavior. Further studies have shown that for any and every age group
the bonding, responsiveness and sensitivity qualities in a parent are most important to the child’s
successful development while the disciplinary characteristic is the least important when trying to
xxv
raise a happy and effective child (Shamah, 2011). Due to these findings, perhaps a singular
parenting style is better across all ages.
Driscoll (2013) studied the link between self-esteem and parenting styles at four stages of life
with four different age points .The results showed that self-esteem was lowest during 14 years of
age for the children in general, reason being it’s the stage when they experience tough times in the
sense that there are various changes that they have to deal with ranging from their body to the
relationships they have with their friends and family and most common type of parenting generally
changes to permissive parenting during 18-23 years of age. Children from authoritative families
had higher self-esteem at all four age points as compared to children from authoritarian families.
Even permissive parenting was found to result in higher self-esteem levels in comparison to
authoritarian parenting.
Deshpande and Chhabriya (2013) did a research on parenting styles and its effect on adolescents’
self-esteem for which they focused on adolescent teenagers and conveyed through their research
that due to generation gap between parents and their adolescents and inability of parents to
understand their adolescents, conflicts arise. Their findings included that adolescents who perceive
acceptance attitude in their parents have a higher self-esteem than the adolescents who perceive
avoidance and concentration attitude in their parents, parental acceptance or support is positively
related to adolescents’ self-esteem. And that mild punishment from parents can result in high selfesteem in adolescents’ as they view their parents as their caretaker and sometimes protector.
Gunjan and Dr. Neelam (2015) assessed and studied the parenting styles and its effect on the selfesteem of adolescents, specifically in Indian context. The study showed that there is no significant
difference between permissive and authoritative parenting both in case of mothers’ and fathers’
parenting on the self-esteem of adolescents, these styles of parenting mostly results in higher selfesteem among adolescents as compared to authoritarian style of parenting which is found to have
a significant negative correlation with the self-esteem of adolescents. Also, not much difference is
found between the self-esteem levels of male and female adolescents in present times in urban
Indian context.
Moghaddam, Validad, Rakhshani and Assareh (2017) investigated the relationship between
parenting styles and self-esteem in children and the results indicated that authoritative parenting
xxvi
style was a significant predictor of children’s self-esteem, which suggests that children of parents
with authoritative parenting style have significantly higher self-esteem with the total self-esteem
score of the children participating in the study as 5.6 ± 32.5. The study also showed that most
mothers had an authoritative parenting style (80.6%). There was significant relationship between
self-esteem and authoritative parenting style (p ≤ 0.05).
MacDonald, Steger and Adams from University of British Columbia did a study on Child rearingbehaviors and Adolescent Self-esteem: An examination of reciprocal effects. In this study the
influence of perceived parental support and control on adolescents’ self-esteem was examined.
Their result showed a reciprocal relationship between perceived parental behavior and adolescent’s
self-esteem, a positive association between parental support and adolescent self-esteem and a
negative association between parental control and their adolescent self-esteem was found.
Yara, Feliciano, Maria, Fuentes and Fernando (2013) conducted a study that analyses the
relationship between parenting styles and adolescent’s psychosocial adjustment (self-esteem) in
the Portugese culture. Results from this study indicated that adolescents from indulgent families
scored equal or even better than those from authoritative families in some of the indicators of
psychosocial adjustment evaluated. These suggest that authoritative parenting is not associated
with optimum self-esteem in Portugal.
Chang (2007) carried out a study on cultural differences in parenting styles and their effects on
teens’ self-esteem between race (Asian American and Causacian) and parenting style, however,
significant differences were found in that Asian American parents tended to be more authoritarian
than their Caucasian counterparts. Results also indicated that there were no significant differences
between race and authoritative parenting style. Furthermore, authoritative parenting was found to
be associated with higher self-esteem and satisfaction. Findings from the study are discussed in
terms of the impact of cultural expectations on adolescents’ satisfaction with self and with their
parents.
Akinsola (2013) conducted a study on cultural variations in parenting styles in the majority world
evidences from Nigeria and Cameroon, it identified the culture and parenting strategies of Nigeria
as a socio-cultural context. Culture was found to influence parenting practices. This may not be
far from the fact that culture itself is the totality of a people’s way of life; hence activities, practices,
xxvii
beliefs tend to revolve within the cultural ambit. The Nigerian society has been described as being
patriarchal and hierarchical in which the family comprising the father, mother and children is
perceived to be central. Children are expected to obey the elders and child upbringing seen as a
communal affair. This is reflected in the extended family structure positioning Nigeria as a
collectivist society in which values such as helpfulness, conformity and interdependence are
promoted. And this would mark it different from individualistic society.
Akinsola (2013) in this vein noted that, the promotion of different values in different cultures
would affect a child’s outcome in such cultures because each culture would have different
goals and expectations of their citizens and children in such cultures would be socialized under
different conditions. She continued by referring to studies carried out to determine effective
parenting practices in different cultures which brought to the fore the fact that effective
parenting practices in one culture may not necessarily turned out effective in another culture.
She concluded that the culture in which one lives will direct the choice of a particular parenting
style one would adopt. The cultural milieu in Nigeria has made parents to adopt parenting
styles that mostly geared towards obedience to parental authority, and compliance with parental
instructions from their children, though many of the parents, accompany such demands for
obedience and compliance with instructions, responsiveness, love, care, sensitivity, reciprocal
dialogue, and explanations for parental disciplinary actions. This leads to a kind of hybridized
form of parenting which makes Nigerian children to perceive their parents as authoritative some
of the time and authoritarian at other times and has been supported by research findings that
indicated that authoritative and authoritarian parenting styles as well as their hybrids are
significantly practiced by Nigerian parents. The Nigerian parents have been reported to practice
dominantly authoritative parenting style and the hybrid authoritarian/authoritative parenting
style.
2.4
Parental involvement and personality in adolescents’ self-esteem
When young people feel unconnected to home, they may become involved in activities that put
their health at risk. However, when parents affirm the value of their children, young people often
develop positive and healthy attitudes about themselves. Parents often have difficulty
communicating some issues to their children and sometimes even when they communicate,
they sound negative and such could make children scared of communicating issues of their
xxviii
interest to their parents. Nevertheless, positive communication between parents and children
greatly help young people to establish individual values and to make healthy decisions
about
themselves (Advocates
for
youth,
2010).
Shannon (2008) asserted that good
communication is one of the most important parents’ practices. She also established that a
relationship exists between parent-adolescent communication and several adjustment outcomes
such as adolescent self-esteem, academic achievement and well-being.
Better health channel (2012) asserted that effective parent-child communications is the basis
of positive parent-child interactions and high self-esteem in children. It becomes obvious
that parent-child communication patterns could bring about differences in students’ self-esteem
and academic achievement in school. This could be affirmed from the assertion made by
Shanon and better Health channel above. Lack of communication also affects behaviours and
attitudes. Young people who reported feeling a lack of parental warmth, love, or loving were also
more likely to report emotional distress, lower self-esteem, school problems and drug use
(Advocates for youth, 2010). Alicia Whittaker (2010), went further to reveal that when parents
and adolescents have good communication pattern, along with appropriate firmness, youths
report less depression and anxiety and more self-reliance and self-esteem.
A study from 2011 indicated that relationships between adolescents and their parents play
important role in the development of self-perception (Kokkinos & Hatzinikolaou, 2011).
Participants in the study were young people from Greece and they studied the importance of
parenting styles on academic achievement, communication and self-esteem. Results indicated that
adolescents who had warm and caring parents experienced more positive emotions and had better
body image, which lead to higher self-esteem. On the other hand, adolescents who had experienced
rejection from their parents and overprotection had lower self-esteem.
Helga Hafdis Gunnarsdottir (2014) conducted a study on Effects of parental and peer support on
self-esteem in adolescents. The study was to examine if parental and peer support would have an
impact on adolescent’s self-esteem and to examine the correlation between self-esteem and various
factors in parental and peer support. The main hypotheses were that those adolescents that receive
support from their parents have higher self-esteem than those who do not and those adolescents
that receive support from their peers have higher self-esteem than those who do not. The results
showed that the more support adolescents receive from their parents and peers, the higher the selfxxix
esteem. Parental and peer support had positive influence on self-esteem, the correlation for parental
support was higher, indicating more importance for self-esteem.
Research on personality and parent style in parents of adolescents conducted by Rose, Roy, Hein
de Vries and Rutger (2010) examined the relation between parental personality and parenting style
among 688 Dutch parents of adolescents. The study assessed Big Five personality traits and
derived parenting styles (authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, and uninvolved) and results
showed that two aspects of parent’s personality, namely those reflecting interpersonal interaction
(extraversion and agreeableness) were related to levels of supportiveness, whereas emotional
stability was associated with the exertion of strict control. Extraverted, agreeable and less
emotionally stable individuals were most likely to be authoritative parents. The findings for
extraversion were in line with those of previous research. Extraverted parents are more supportive,
and extraverted individuals are less likely to be characterized by authoritarian than authoritative
parenting styles. This is in agreement with the findings of previous research, which suggests that
extraverted individuals raise their children in a more positive manner. Moreover, findings also
showed that the associations between extraversion and supportive parenting are not exclusively
restricted to parents of toddlers, but also to parents of adolescents. This underlines the robust links
between extraversion and parenting. The most important outcome of these findings is that this
personality feature is mainly associated with the affective aspect of parenting and not with the
control aspect (Rose, Roy, Hein de Vries & Rutger, 2010).
Other researchers have also carried out studies in respect to parental attitudes and its influence on
adolescent self-esteem. One of these studies include: Family relationship and Adolescent selfesteem, the findings showed that adolescents who perceived that there was no parental favoritism
and who felt accepted by the family had higher self-esteem than those who perceived avoidance
in the family structure.
All in all, self-esteem is high among adolescents and if not taken with all seriousness, adolescents
may be at risk of such consequences as depression, anxiety, suicidal attempts, alcohol and drug
use, teenage pregnancies, eating disorders, achieve lower academic excellence to mention a few
which in turn diminishes the efficiency of the nation because these adolescents are the largest part
of the population and are the future parents.
xxx
2.5
Adolesecents’ personality and self-esteem
It is been shown that individual differences exists in social behavior. People have conservatively
been known in terms of such personality traits as extroversion or dominance. Personality
has been noted to the patterns of behavior, thought and emotion unique to an individual, also to
the ways they interact to help or hinder the adjustment of a person to other people and situations.
Recently, there has been trait theories with the purpose of determining aspects of personality that
make an individual to respond in a certain way to a given situation. Objections to trait theories
point out that behavior is largely situation dependent, and that such traits as "honesty" are
not especially helpful in characterizing personality and behavior. Despite such objections,
trait theories have been popular models for quantifying personality (Gudberg & Johnson,
2011).
Eysenck proposed three fundamental dimensions of personality: extroversion-introversion,
neuroticism, and psychoticism which serves as a basis to other dimensions of personality. They
are, extroversion- introversion, it include the trait of sociability, which can also be related to
emotion (e.g., interest, as expressed toward people, versus shyness). Neuroticism includes
emotionality
defined,
as
in
temperament
theory,
as nonspecific negative emotional
responsiveness. According to Eysenck's Personality Inventory test, an introvert is associated with
controlled behaviors, seriousness, unenthusiastic and reliability. He does not act on impulse nor
does he like excitement. An extrovert, on the other hand, is associated with sociable tendencies,
optimistic, aggressiveness and impulsive behaviors. He does not keep his feelings under control
nor does he like to do things by himself. Extroverts appear to be more open to change their
judgments under the influence of prestige suggestions. However, when an introvert encounters an
extrovert with different views on a controversial issue, the introvert is more likely to be persuaded
to modify his position (Kalyani, 2014). Studies on differences in communication style between
extraverts and introverts, suggest that people who are extraverts speak more rapidly, using higher
pitch, and give more feedback than introverts. Introverts have also been found to be more likely to
take the role of the interviewer in dyadic situation. According to Argyle several studies have
confirmed that extraverts gaze more frequently, with longer glances, especially while talking,
than introverts (Kalyani, 2014).
xxxi
A study by Kalyani (2014) investigated the correlation of self-esteem with that of personality type
of youth boys and girls who came to attend the one month Leadership Internship program me
organized in June 2012, the sample comprised of 41 youths from all over the country. The
study was to determine whether the participants was neurotic or extroverted, results showed a
significant positive correlation of self-esteem and personality (Extrovert Personality) of the
participants.
xxxii
2.6
Theoretical Framework
Belsky’s model of the determinants of parenting
Figure 1: Belsky’s model of the determinants of parenting (Cramer, 2012)
xxxiii
2.6.1
Belsky’s model of the determinants of parenting
Belsky’s (1984) model of the determinants of parenting was developed based on studies of child
maltreatment. It examined the factors that influence parenting and consequently, child outcomes,
and it sought to answer the question of ‘why do parents parent the way they do?’ Belsky (1984)
stated that “the determinants of parenting shape childrearing, which in turn influences child
development”. In the past few decades, Belsky’s (1984) ecological model of the determinants
of parenting has been widely adopted as a theoretical framework for research on parenting
and child development. The model presumes that the quality of parenting is determined by factors
from three domains: characteristics of the parent, contextual sources of stress and support, and
child characteristics. Among these domains, the parental characteristics, that is, parents’ personal
psychological resources are viewed as the most influential determinants of growth-promoting
parental behavior. The model also organizes the effects of the various determinants of
parenting by specifying pathways of influence, such as the effect of parents’ developmental
history on quality of parenting, which is presumed to be mediated by their personalities. In
the past few years, the basic assumptions of Belsky’s model have been examined in various
comprehensive investigations of the model (Luster, 1998; Meyers, 1999).
xxxiv
2.6.2 Application of Belsky’s model of the determinants of parenting
Demographic
characteristics
Age
Gender
Religion
Ethnicity
Perceived Parental
Involvement
Parent-adolescent
communication
Parental support
Parents’ emotional
stability
Perceived
Parenting Styles
Authoritarian
Adolescent
Personalities
Authoritative
Emotional
stability
Permissive
Communication
Adolescent
Self-esteem
Low selfesteem
High selfesteem
Figure 2: Application of Belsky’s model of the determinants of parenting
xxxv
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.1
Research Design
The study adopted the cross-sectional research design which used quantitative approach for data
collection. The purpose of this study was to assess the influence of parenting styles on adolescents’
self-esteem in Abeokuta North Local Government, Ogun State, Nigeria.
3.2
Population
The study population comprised of 423 adolescents within Abeokuta North Local Government
Area of Ogun State.
3.2.1 Inclusion criteria
The inclusion criteria for participants in the study are given below:
1. The adolescents were residents of Abeokuta North Local Government, Ogun State.
2. The adolescents were living in the same apartment with the parents in Abeokuta North
Local Government, Ogun State.
3.2.2 Exclusion criteria
The exclusion criteria for participants in the study are given below:
1. The adolescents were not residents of Abeokuta North Local Government, Ogun State.
2. The adolescents that did not live with their parents in the same apartment in Abeokuta
North Local Government, Ogun State.
3.2.3 Study Location
Abeokuta North Local Government is one of the twenty (20) Local Governments that make up
Ogun State. Its headquarters is situated at Akomoje in Iberekodo area of the State Capital. The
Local Government first came into existence in 1981, as Abeokuta South Local Government, but
was later merged the same year to make up the defunct Abeokuta Local Government. It however
xxxvi
re-emerged again on 27th September, 1991 when the Federal Government created some new local
governments to meet the demand for Government to be closer to the people at the grassroots.
The Local Government shares common boundaries with Odeda Local Government in the North,
Ifo and Obafemi Owode Local Governments in the South and Abeokuta South and Egbado North
Local Governments in the East and West respectively. Generally in the boundary areas, friendly
and healthy relationship is maintained by the people of the Local Government with their neighbors.
It has a projected population of 198,793 people (2006 population census).
The Local Government is made up of people from Oke-Ona, Gbagura, Owu and Oke-Ogun. These
people are peace loving Yorubas. The major Language spoken is the Yoruba Language with Egba
and Owu dialects. This fosters easy understanding amongst the people without communication
gap.
An insight into the cultural heritage of the people reveals that they are blessed with rich Yoruba
traditional dances such as Ogodo, Egungun and Bolojo dances in some areas of the Local
Government. These various dances serve as source of entertainment for the people during social
functions.
The people of Abeokuta North Local Government are predominantly farmers, most of who engage
in subsistence and low-key commercial farming. There are some who engage in livestock and fish
farming. The major food crops of the area include Cassava, Cocoyam, Plantain, Maize and
Vegetables, while Palm-produce and Cocoa, form the major cash-crops. They are also engaged in
Quarry business, Artisan works and handicrafts such as dye-making and pottery. The popular
Adire fabrics are also produced in some parts of the Local Government Area. There is freedom of
worship for everyone. Muslims and Christians are found in the area, while some take to the
traditional religion such as the worshipping of traditional gods and goddesses such as Obatala,
Sango, Egungun, Igunnuko, amongst others.
In terms of economic and commercial activities, Abeokuta North is developing fast due to rapid
population growth and enhanced political status. Identifiable economic activities in the area
include banking, Insurance, commercial markets, petrol stations, and hospitalities, to mention just
a few. Notable among these are some of the oldest banking branches of Wema Bank PLC at
Lafenwa, and First Bank PLC at Lafenwa. Other long-established and thriving commercial
xxxvii
enterprises include Midgal Galvanizing Company PLC, West African Aluminum Products,
Nigerian Porcelain Wares, and Arco group of companies.
Olumo Rock is one of the most outstanding historical and socio-cultural landmarks in the Local
Government Area and Abeokuta, in general. The rock is situated in the heart of Abeokuta, between
Ikija and Ikereku. The rock is a massive outcrop of granite rocks of primitive formation from which
the state capital derives its name – ‘‘Abeokuta’’ meaning ‘‘Under the ROCK’’ (it served as a
refuge for warriors and indigenes during the old Egba Inter-tribal wars).
Apart from the fact that it is a symbol of faith, unity and strength, it remains sacred in the history
of Egba-land. It is one of the widely visited National Monuments in Nigeria, and the State
Government has made it a world class tourist attraction Centre.
The mineral resources of economic importance in the Local Government Area are Stone, granite
and Clay. Several quarries are also commercially operated in the area.
Abeokuta North Local Government also boasts of a strong traditional heritage and a sound cultural
background, at the head of which are enlightened Royal Fathers. The Local Government has seven
(7) Obas and fifty one (51) Baales spread throughout the Local Government Area.
Abeokuta North Local Government has eighty-six (86) Public Primary Schools and twenty-seven
(27) Public Secondary Schools, while the Federal University of Agriculture and the Crescent
University are the higher institutions domiciled within the Local Government Area.
3.3
Sample size and sampling Technique
3.3.1 Sample size
Sample size was determined using the formula:
ni =
𝑍𝛼2 .𝑃(1−𝑃)
𝑑2
xxxviii
Where, Zα2 = (1.96)2
d = 5% = 0.05 (minimum proportion)
Prevalence = 50% = 0.05
ni =
1.962 ×0.5×0.5
0.052
0.9604
ni = 0.0025
ni =384.16
ni ≈ 384
Adolescent’s population in Abeokuta North Local Government is projected to be 43,933.
Therefore, to determine the number of respondents:
nf =
𝑛𝑖
𝑛
1+( 𝑖 )
𝑁
Where ni = 384,
N = Total population = 43,933
nf =
384
384
)
43933
1+(
384
nf = 1.00874
nf = 380.67
nf ≈ 381
10% of calculated sample size was added to accommodate for response bias, thus the minimum
sample size was 423.
The sample had a size of 423 adolescents in Abeokuta North Local Government, Ogun State.
3.3.2 Sampling Technique
xxxix
Multi-stage random sampling technique was adopted in selecting samples from the population. In
the first stage, 4 private secondary schools and 4 public secondary schools were selected by simple
random sampling. This was followed by a stratified random selection of students from classes
based on the requested number of instruments the schools were willing to accept. A total of 200
adolescents were gotten across the selected private schools and 213 adolescents were gotten across
the selected public schools.
3.4
Variables and Hypothesis Testing
3.4.1 Independent Variable
The independent variables in this study included the parenting styles and the parental personality
as identified in the conceptual framework of the study. The parenting styles were measured on a
42-point rating scale. Parental involvement was measured on 15-point rating scale.
3.4.2 Dependent Variable
The dependent variable in this study is self-esteem. The level of adolescent self-esteem of the
target population was measured using a self-administered instrument adapted from the Rosenberg
Self-Esteem Scale.
3.4.3 Null hypothesis
H01: There is no significant difference in the level of respondents’ self-esteem across their
demographic characteristics.
H02: There is no significant association between respondents’ parent’s involvement with the
parenting styles adopted.
H03: There is no significant association between respondents’ parent’s parenting styles and their
self-esteem.
H04: There is no significant association between respondents’ personality and their self-esteem.
3.5
Instrument
xl
The instrument for data collection in this study was a self-administered questionnaire. The
objectives and hypotheses of the study were also considered. Each section of the questionnaire
evaluated the variables.
The sections of the questionnaires are as follows:
Section A: Socio demographic (Age, Gender, Religion, Ethnicity, Educational attainment, Live
together with your parent).
Section B: Adolescent Personalities measured how adolescents see themselves. It was measured
using a 15-item question and responses assessed using likert rating scale: SA=Strongly Agree,
A=Agree, D=Disagree and SD=Strongly Disagree on a 45-point rating scale.
Section C: Adolescent Self-Esteem measured adolescents’ general feelings about themselves. It
was measured using a 10-item question and responses assessed using likert rating scale:
SA=Strongly Agree; A=Agree; D=Disagree and SD=Strongly Disagree on a 30-point rating scale.
Section D: Perceived parenting style in adolescent’s self-esteem measured how adolescents
perceive their parents engage in the different parenting styles. It was measured using a 15-item
question and responses assessed using likert rating scale: N=Never, R=Rarely, O=Occasionally
and A=Always on a 45-point rating scale.
Section E: Perceived parental involvement in adolescent’s self-esteem measured how adolescents’
feelings corresponds with regards to how their parents acts toward them. It was measured using a
5-item question and responses assessed using likert rating scale: SA=Strongly Agree; A=Agree;
D=Disagree and SD=Strongly Disagree on a 15-point rating scale.
3.6
Validity and Reliability
3.6.1 Validity of Instrument
The content validity, face validity and construct validity of the instrument were carried out by the
researcher and assisted by her supervisor and colleagues. Content validity was done to verify that
the items and domains of the instrument are appropriate and comprehensive relative to its intended
measurements concept, population and use. The face validity and construct validity of the
instrument were done to verify the relationship and connection among items.
xli
3.6.2 Reliability of Instrument
The reliability of the instrument was evaluated using cronbach alpha to analyze test-retest
reliability and reliability co-efficient.
3.7
Method of Data Collection
Research assistants were recruited and trained on how to administer questionnaires to respondents.
The researcher met with the principals of the selected schools, introduced herself, the nature of the
research work and seeks for approval to carry out the study in their schools. The researcher and
the research assistants then entered the classroom, addressed the adolescents and randomly
distributed the questionnaires among the adolescents in the selected secondary schools with the
help of some of their teachers.
3.8
Ethical Consideration
Ethical clearance was requested for from the Babcock University Health Research Ethics
Committee (BUHREC). A letter of introduction was obtained from the department of Public health
in order to have access to adolescents in Abeokuta North Local Government Area of Ogun State.
Questionnaires will be administered to adolescents in Abeokuta North Local Government Area of
Ogun State. Data from research was made confidential. However, there was no reward or
compensation for participation.
3.8.1 Informed consent
In line with standard ethical procedures for conducting research, this study solicited the consent of
the respondents before they participated in the study. The respondents were well informed about
the objectives of the research and an attempt was made to convince them about the importance of
their participation in the study. They were given the right to choose to either participate or decline
the request for participation from the researcher.
3.8.2 Confidentiality
The study was conducted while assuring the participants about the confidentiality of the
information provided to the researcher. The researcher did everything possible to avoid sharing
information given by the participants and protect the information given by the participants from
xlii
any third party in such a way that it will be almost impossible for any third party to match the
participant’s information with the participants in question.
3.8.3 Anonymity
Instrument was given to the respondents anonymously without having their names. This method
made it almost impossible for the researcher or any other concerned fellow to be able to match the
respondents’ information to the particular respondents who filled the instrument.
3.8.4 Right to withdraw
The researcher informed the respondents that he or she has the right to pull out from participating
in the study at any point. It is not necessary that a participant who starts the study must complete
it. The choice of completion of the study was totally the right of the respondents.
3.9
Post Research Benefits
The study revealed that self-esteem plays an important role in prevalence of depression especially
with low self-esteem. The study is therefore of great benefit in designing intervention aimed at
reducing depression among adolescents. It will also be used as a basis for further research work in
the field of parenting and self-esteem in adolescents.
3.10
Plan for Data Analysis
The data obtained from completed questionnaires will be collated and be analysed using Statistical
Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 21.0 using Correlation, Independent Sample T-test,
ANOVA and Cronbach test of reliability for testing of hypotheses and variable calculation.
xliii
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA ANALYSIS, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
4.0
Introduction
The purpose of this study was to determine the influence of parenting styles on adolescents’ selfesteem. The specific objectives that guided the design of the study include:
1. Identify the levels of adolescents’ self-esteem.
2. Evaluate to what extent is perceived personalities of the adolescents associated with their
self-esteem.
3. Determine the perceived parenting style’s influence on adolescents’ self-esteem.
4. Assess the levels of parental involvement’s relationship with perceived parenting style
adopted by adolescents’ parents.
This part of the research work thus focused on the report of the findings and analysis of data
obtained from the field. The result presented here considered prominent variables related to selfesteem as conceptualized in the conceptual framework for the study. This chapter is divided into
three parts; frequencies for demographic information of respondents, summary of descriptive
statistics of respondents’ scores for all variables and evaluations of claims of significant difference
and significant relationship between variables.
All statistical tests were set at p=0.05 level of significance. The decision rule applied indicated that
the null hypothesis will be rejected in favor of the research hypothesis if the computed p value is
lesser or equal to 0.05.
4.1
Demographic Characteristics
The study was carried out among 412 secondary school students of ages between 12 and 19 years
old in Abeokuta North Local Government Area of Ogun state, mean age of respondents was given
at 16.09 ± 1.74 with majority of the respondents aged 17 years old at 110 respondents (26.7%).
There were 189 male respondents and 223 female respondents indicating a superior number of
xliv
female students for this study with most number of female respondents being of 15 years old
(23.3%) as against more of the male population being 17 years old (41.3%), which can be deduced
that male respondents were older then the female respondents in this study, findings also revealed
a high number of respondents were of Christian belief (62.4%) compared to Islam (37.6%).
Abeokuta is a prominent Yoruba city in the South West of Nigeria; this is reflected in the ethnicity
of respondents as 96.1% of respondents were of Yoruba ethnic group while there were three (3)
and thirteen (13) respondents of Igbo and Hausa ethnic groups respectively. It was found out that
a high proportion of respondents (82%) live with both of their parents (this includes both the
mother and father), interestingly a small proportion indicated as not living with either of their
parents most of which were of age 15 years (83.3%), it can also be said that of the respondents
who live with Guardians, they were of age 18 years (76.9%) (See Table 4.1).
xlv
Table 4.1 showing demographic characteristics of respondents
Age
Total
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
N (%)
N (%)
N (%)
N (%)
N (%)
N (%)
N (%)
N (%)
Gender
Male
3 (1.6%)
0 (0.0%)
2 (1.1%)
35 (18.5%)
32 (16.9%)
78 (41.3%)
22 (11.6%)
17 (9.0%)
189
Female
3 (1.3%)
38 (17.0%)
23 (10.3%)
53 (23.3%)
30 (13.5%)
32 (14.3%)
28 (12.6%)
17 (7.6%)
223
Christianity
6 (2.3%)
23 (8.9%)
24 (9.3%)
51 (19.8%)
24 (9.3%)
82 (31.9%)
13 (5.1%)
34 (13.2%)
257
Islam
0 (0.0%)
15 (9.7%)
1 (0.6%)
36 (23.2%)
38 (24.5%)
28 (18.1%)
37 (23.9%)
0 (0.0%)
155
Yoruba
6 (1.5%)
37 (9.3%)
24 (6.1%)
84 (21.2%)
62 (15.7%)
101 (25.5%)
48 (12.1%)
34 (8.6%)
396
Igbo
0 (0.0%)
0 (0.0%)
0 (0.0%)
1 (33.3%)
0 (0.0%)
0 (0.0%)
2 (66.7%)
0 (0.0%)
3
Hausa/Fulani
0 (0.0%)
1 (7.7%)
1 (7.7%)
2 (15.4%)
0 (0.0%)
9 (69.2%)
0 (0.0%)
0 (0.0%)
13
Religion
Ethnicity
Home
Both parents
6 (1.8%)
33 (9.8%)
13 (3.8%)
71 (21.0%)
60 (17.8%)
108 (32.0%)
13 (3.8%)
34 (10.1%)
338
One of parents
0 (0.0%)
4 (8.2%)
11 (22.4%)
3 (6.1%)
2 (4.1%)
2 (4.1%)
27 (55.1%)
0 (0.0%)
49
Guardian
0 (0.0%)
0 (0.0%)
0 (0.0%)
3 (23.1%)
0 (0.0%)
0 (0.0%)
10 (76.9%)
0 (0.0%)
13
None
0 (0.0%)
1 (8.3%)
1 (8.3%)
10 (83.3%)
0 (0.0%)
0 (0.0%)
0 (0.0%)
0 (0.0%)
12
xlvi
4.2
Answering research questions
4.2.1 At what level is the self-esteem of respondents?
Respondents were assessed on their level of self-esteem by posing statement for consideration
from which their self-esteem will be deduced. It was gathered that more than half (210) of the
respondents strongly feel satisfied with themselves while 79 respondents showed dissatisfaction
with themselves. There were 43.4% of the respondents who think they are no good at all however
a high proportion (85.9%) felt they have a number of good qualities. Despite less than 27% of the
respondents feeling they cannot do things as well as most other people do, more than 40% strongly
believe they can.
Although respondents felt they have a number of good qualities, more than half (54.8%) of the
respondents feel they do not have much to be proud of however, there was a higher proportion
who disagreed to feeling useless.
Findings also revealed 42.2% of respondents strongly agreeing being persons of worth although
19.4% strongly disagreed. It was also noted that more than half (58%) of the respondents strongly
wish they had more self-respect notwithstanding that up to 68% of the respondents disagreeing to
feeling that they are failures. On taking positive attitude towards themselves, it was gathered that
81% agreed to this (see Table 4.2).
It was concluded that respondents’ self-esteem was at 17.65 ± 0.19, giving a self-esteem level of
58.83% which is deduced at good but can get better (see Table 4.3).
xlvii
Table 4.2 showing respondents’ responses on self esteem
Statement for Consideration
SA
A
D
210 (51.0%)
123 (29.9%)
63 (15.3%)
16 (3.9%)
78 (18.9%)
101 (24.5%)
144 (35.0%)
87 (21.1%)
I feel that I have a number of good qualities
232 (56.3%)
122 (29.6%)
53 (12.9%)
5 (1.2%)
I am able to do things as well as most other people
173 (42.0%)
129 (31.3%)
76 (18.4%)
34 (8.3%)
I feel I do not have much to be proud of
106 (25.7%)
120 (29.1%)
132 (32.0%)
54 (13.1%)
50 (12.1%)
117 (28.4%)
150 (36.4%)
95 (23.1%)
174 (42.2%)
123 (29.9%)
35 (8.5%)
80 (19.4%)
239 (58.0%)
158 (38.3%)
9 (2.2%)
2 (0.5%)
81 (19.7%)
30 (7.3%)
139 (33.7%)
145 (35.2%)
190 (46.1%)
146 (35.4%)
52 (12.6%)
22 (5.3%)
On the whole, I am satisfied with myself
At times I think I am no good at all
I certainly feel useless at times.
I feel that I'm a person of worth, at least on the same
SD
plane with others
I wish I could have more respect for myself
All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure
I take a positive attitude toward myself
xlviii
Table 4.3 showing respondents’ self esteem
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
Variance
Percentage
16.655
58.83%
(SD)
Self Esteem of respondents rated on
443
17.6456
a 30 point rating scale
Keys:
0% to 29%
- Very low self-esteem
30% to 49%
- Low self-esteem
50% to 69%
- Good self-esteem
70% to 89%
- High self-esteem
90% to 100%
- Very high self-esteem
xlix
4.08101
4.2.2 What are the parenting styles adopted by respondents parents?
Respondents’ perception of the parenting style adopted by their parents, it was revealed that 52.4%
of the respondents have their parents always being responsive to their feelings and needs while 42
(9.5%) respondents never have their parents responsive to their feelings and needs. It was also
gathered that parents of 202 respondents often take their wish into consideration before asking
them to do something and also 76 respondents never had their parents do that to them. A high
proportion of respondents have parents who explain how they feel about their good or bad
behavior, also over half of respondents have parents who encourage them to talk about their
feelings and problems and also explain reasons behind their expectation of them. Findings suggest
that with a mean score of 14.39 ± 0.23, the authoritative parenting style was the most adopted style
of parenting at a level of 71.95%.
Furthermore, findings showed that most of the respondents have had their parents explode in anger
towards them, however, only 92 (20.8%) respondents experience this always. Also, 158
respondents rarely have their parents punish them by withholding emotional expression and in
addition, similar figure of 140 respondents have their parents punish them by taking privilege away
from them. It was also found at that use of threat as a form of punishment with little or no
justification is practiced always by parents of 100 respondents. There were 125 (28.2%)
respondents who have parents who openly criticize them when their behaviors do not meet
expectation.
Findings also suggest that with a mean score of 12.94 ± 0.21, the authoritarian parenting style was
the second most adopted style of parenting at a level of 64.7%.
There were 269 (60.7%) respondents whose parents never had difficulty disciplining them when
they do something wrong, it was also found out that 33.6% of the respondents parents rarely give
in when they cause commotion about something while 46 (10.4%) have their parents always giving
in when they cause commotion. Results showed that close to half (46%) of the respondents do not
have parents that spoil them however, 120 (27.1%) respondents often have their parents spoil them.
Lastly, half of the respondents (49.9%) do not have parents that ignore their bad behavior. Findings
further suggest that with a mean score of 7.77 ± 0.16, the permissive parenting style was the least
adopted style of parenting at a level of 38.9% (see Table 4.4).
l
li
Table 4.4 showing respondents’ responses to perceived parenting style adopted by their
parents
Statement for Consideration
N
R
O
A
Mean
Score
Authoritative
My parent is responsive to my feelings
and needs
42
(9.5%)
45
(10.2%)
109
(24.6%)
232
(52.4%)
My parent take my wish into
consideration before asking me to do
something
76
(17.2%)
33
(7.4%)
202
(45.6%)
132
(29.8%)
My parent explain how he/she feel
about my good/bad behaviour
74
(16.7%)
78
(17.6%)
141
(31.8%)
150
(33.9%)
My parent encourage me to talk about
my feelings and problems
82
(18.5%)
80
(18.1%)
134
(30.2%)
147
(33.2%)
My parent explains the reasons behind
their expectations
65
(14.7%)
115
(26.0%)
122
(27.5%)
141
(31.8%)
My parent explode in anger towards
me
40
(9.0%)
174
(39.3%)
137
(30.9%)
92 (20.8%)
My parent punish me by withholding
emotional expressions (kisses)
61
(13.8%)
158
(35.7%)
98 (22.1%)
126
(28.4%)
My parent punish me by taking
privileges (e.g., T.V, games, visiting
friends) away from me
75
(16.9%)
140
(31.6%)
98 (22.1%)
130
(29.3%)
My parent use threats as a form of
punishment with little or no
justification
60
(13.5%)
174
(39.3%)
109
(24.6%)
100
(22.6%)
My parent openly criticise me when
my
behaviour
doesn’t
meet
expectation
115
(26.0%)
109
(24.6%)
125
(28.2%)
94 (21.2%)
14.39
Authoritarian
lii
12.94
Permissive
My parent find it difficult to discipline
me
269
(60.7%)
79
(17.8%)
49 (11.1%)
46 (10.4%)
My parent give in when I cause
commotion about something
138
(31.2%)
149
(33.6%)
110
(24.8%)
46 (10.4%)
My parent spoil me
204
(46.0%)
94
(21.2%)
120
(27.1%)
25 (5.6%)
My parent ignore my bad behaviour
221
(49.9%)
51
(11.5%)
125
(28.2%)
46 (10.4%)
liii
7.77
4.2.3 What are the personalities exhibited by respondents?
On assessing the personalities exhibited by respondents, they were assessed on the big-5
personality traits. Findings showed that the extraversion personality with mean score of 7.76 ±
0.09 was exhibited at an above average level of 64.76%, this was informed by more than half
(69%) of the respondents not seeing themselves as talkative and also with 43.9% disagreeing to
being reserved while 49.3% agreeing to be reserved, also was the very high proportion of the
respondents (82.2%) perceiving themselves to be full of energy as against 7.8% who did not.
Agreeableness personality trait was found out to be the trait most exhibited by respondents at a
high level of 75.91% with mean score of 9.11 ± 0.07, this was informed by 164 respondents
(40.8%) who disagreed to seeing themselves as someone that find fault with other as against 139
(33.7%) respondents who agreed to this statement, also close to 90% of respondents were found
to see themselves as helpful and unselfish with others which was further reflected in a high
proportion (87.2%) of the respondents not starting quarrel with others.
The conscientiousness personality was also found to be exhibited at a high level (however not as
high as agreeableness) at 69.08% with mean score of 8.29 ± 0.07, it was further found out that a
considerable amount of respondents of 54.9% disagreed to being careless and also 38.1% of the
respondents agreeing to being lazy as against 23.5% who strongly disagreed, furthermore, it was
gotten that 46.6% of the respondents see themselves as making plans and following it through as
against 35.9% and 4.6% who disagreed and strongly disagreed respectively.
Neuroticism personality with a mean score of 7.52 ± 0.10 at a level of 62.67% is the least exhibited
trait by the respondents. It was determined that more than half of respondents (59.2%) see
themselves as being tense with 72.9% of respondents seeing themselves as emotionally stable and
not easily upset however, 187 respondents (45.4%) see themselves as someone who cannot be
moody as against 215 respondents who agree to being moody.
Openness personality was also assessed with a mean score of 8.06 ± 0.10 at a level of 67.17% was
exhibited by the respondents. It was also gathered that most respondents (69.2%) see themselves
as someone who is curious about many different things. There were 127 (30.8%) respondents who
do not have an active imagination as against 49.2% of the respondents who have active
liv
imagination. More than half of the respondents are found to prefer work that is routine (see Table
4.5).
lv
Table 4.5 showing respondents’ responses to adolescent personalities
Statement for Consideration
Extraversion
I see myself as someone who is
talkative
I see myself as someone who is
reserved
I see myself as someone who is full
of energy
Agreeableness
I see myself as someone who tends
to find fault with others
I see myself as someone who is
helpful and unselfish with others
I see myself as someone who starts
quarrels with others
Conscientiousness
I see myself as someone who can be
somewhat careless
I see myself as someone who tends
to be lazy
I see myself as someone who makes
plans and follows through with
them
Neuroticism
I see myself as someone who can be
tense
I see myself as someone who is
emotionally stable, not easily upset
I see myself as someone who can be
moody
Openness
I see myself as someone who is
curious about many different things
I see myself as someone who has an
active imagination
Prefers work that is routine
SA
A
D
SD
11
(2.7%)
84
(20.4%)
158
(28.3%)
117
(28.4%)
119
(28.9%)
222
(53.9%)
135
(32.8%)
181
(43.9%)
30
(7.3%)
149
(36.2%)
28
(6.8%)
2
(0.5%)
30
(7.3%)
170
(41.3%)
0 (0.0%)
139
(33.7%)
202
(49.0%)
53
(12.9%)
168
(40.8%)
40
(9.7%)
243
(59.0%)
75
(18.2%)
0
(0.0%)
116
(28.2%)
2 (0.5%)
31
(7.5%)
53
(12.9%)
115
(27.9%)
157
(38.1%)
192
(46.6%)
226
(54.9%)
127
(30.8%)
148
(35.9%)
69
(16.7%)
97
(23.5%)
19
(4.6%)
83
(20.1%)
48
(11.7%)
115
(27.9%)
161
(39.1%)
252
(61.2%)
100
(24.3%)
145
(35.2%)
91
(22.1%)
140
(34.0%)
23
(5.6%)
21
(5.1%)
47
(11.4%)
44
(10.7%)
48
(11.7%)
75
(18.2%)
241
(58.5%)
237
(57.5%)
99
(24.0%)
97
(23.5%)
127
(30.8%)
203
(49.3%)
30
(7.3%)
0
(0.0%)
35
(8.5%)
lvi
Mean
Score
7.76
9.11
8.29
7.52
8.06
4.2.4 At what level is parental involvement in adolescents?
Results of analysis revealed that 198 and 139 respondents strongly agreed and agreed to their
parents making them feel better after talking over their worries respectively which sums up a
cumulative percentage of 81.8% of the respondents. It was also found that 46.8% of respondents
have parents who are not patient with them and another 79.3% of the respondents agreeing to their
parents seeing that they know exactly what they may or may not do. More than half of respondents
was found to have parents who do not forget rules they made at any point in time, in addition, a
considerable number of respondents (53.4%) have very strict parents (see Table 4.6).
The level of parental involvement was assessed with a mean score of 9.07 ± 0.10 putting the level
at an above average level of 60.47% (see Table 4.7).
lvii
Table 4.6 showing respondents’ response to parental involvement
Statement for Consideration
SA
A
My parent makes me feel better after 198 (48.1%)
139 (33.7%)
D
24 (5.8%)
SD
47 (11.4%)
talking over my worries
My parent is not patient with me
62 (15.0%)
131 (31.8%)
112 (27.2%) 107 (26.0%)
My parent sees that I know exactly 139 (33.7%)
188 (45.6%)
70 (17.0%)
1 (0.2%)
79 (19.2%)
89 (21.6%)
171 (41.5%)
71 (17.2%)
108 (26.2%)
112 (27.2%)
114 (27.7%)
78 (18.9%)
what I may or may not do
My parent soon forgets a rule
My parent is very strict
lviii
Table 4.7 showing level of parental involvement
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
Variance
Percentage
4.16
60.47%
(SD)
Parental Involvement measured on
443
9.07
a 15 point rating scale
Keys:
0% to 29%
- Very low level
30% to 49%
- Low level
50% to 69%
- Above average level
70% to 89%
- High level
90% to 100%
- Very high level
lix
0.10
4.3
Testing of hypothesis
4.3.1 There is no significant difference in the level of respondents’ self-esteem across their
demographic characteristics.
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used in testing this hypothesis with a significant level set at
0.05 as cutoff point in determination of acceptance or rejection.
Result showed that level of respondents self-esteem has significant difference across their ages (F
= 28.4; P < 0.05), genders (F = 9.74; P < 0.05), religious beliefs (F = 10.87; P < 0.05), ethnic
background (F = 73.10; P < 0.05) and living with parents (F = 18.69; P < 0.05). This indicates
that respondents’ self-esteem may be associated to specific demographic characteristics possessed.
The null hypothesis is hereby rejected.
Results showed that level of self-esteem of respondents varied across their ages, revealing
respondents of age of 14 years having the lowest self-esteem (49.47%) in comparison to other
ages, there was an increase at 15 years old (61.95%) however at ages 17 and 18 years, there was
reduced self-esteem level at 55.8% and 54.28% respectively, respondents of age 19 years recorded
the highest self-esteem level (68.33%).
Result also revealed male respondents had a higher self-esteem (17.91 ± 4.27) than their female
counterpart (17.42 ± 3.92) indicating male adolescents tend to exhibit higher self confidence and
self-esteem compared to female adolescents. Christian respondents were also found to have higher
self-esteem (18.22 ± 3.90) than Muslim respondents, further, it was revealed that Hausa
respondents had higher self-esteem (21.71 ± 3.91) than Yoruba respondents (17.52 ± 4.03).
In understanding self-esteem of respondents and its relationship with living with parents, it was
found that self-esteem was highest among respondents living with both their parents (17.93 ±
4.11), closely followed by respondents not living with any of their parents (17.92 ± 0.28),
respondents living with either their mother or father at a time also exhibited good self-esteem
(17.02 ± 3.66), however respondents who live with guardians exhibited low self-esteem (12.07 ±
2.13).
lx
4.3.2 There is no significant association between respondents’ parent’s involvement with
the parenting styles adopted.
Regression analysis was used in testing this hypothesis with a significant level set at 0.05 as cutoff
point in determination of acceptance or rejection.
Results showed a significant association (df = 3; R Square = 0.367; P < 0.05) between parental
involvement and the parenting styles adopted by parents of respondents in this study, indicating
parental involvement influence of 36.7% on the parenting styles adopted.
The null hypothesis is hereby rejected.
Findings also suggest that Authoritative style of parenting had the highest coefficient of parental
involvement (t = 14.62; β = 0.585; P < 0.05) suggesting this style of parenting involves active
parental involvement. Likewise, authoritarian style of parenting also had a positive association (t
= 6.624; β = 0.270; P < 0.05) with parental involvement. These two parenting styles of
authoritative and authoritarian, according to findings, involve parental involvement. However,
Permissive parenting style had a negative association (t = -6.396; β = -0.252; P < 0.05) indicating
a reduction in parental involvement should permissive parenting style be adopted.
4.3.3 There is no significant association between respondents’ parent’s parenting styles and
their self-esteem.
Regression analysis was used in testing this hypothesis with a significant level set at 0.05 as cutoff
point in determination of acceptance or rejection.
Results showed a significant association (df = 3; R Square = 0.082; P < 0.05) between parenting
styles adopted by parents of respondents and self-esteem of respondents in this study, indicating
that parenting style has an 8.2% influence on the on the self-esteem of respondents.
The null hypothesis is hereby rejected.
Findings further revealed that Authoritative style of parenting had the highest coefficient of selfesteem (t = 5.934; β = 0.286; P < 0.05) suggesting an increase or adoption of this style of parenting
increases respondents’ self-esteem. Likewise, authoritarian style of parenting also had a positive
association (t = 3.381; β = 0.166; P < 0.05) with respondents’ self-esteem, similarly indicating
lxi
authoritarian style of parenting improves self-esteem of respondents. However, Permissive
parenting style had a negative nonexistent association with respondents’ self-esteem (t = -0.980; β
= -0.046; P = 0.328) indicating that permissive parenting style does not have any association with
increase in respondents self-esteem.
4.3.4 There is no significant association between respondents’ personality and their selfesteem.
Regression analysis was used in testing this hypothesis with a significant level set at 0.05 as cutoff
point in determination of acceptance or rejection.
Results showed a significant association (df = 3; R Square = 0.140; P < 0.05) between respondents’
personalities and their respective self-esteem, indicating that respondents’ personalities are
accountable for 14% of their self-esteem levels.
The null hypothesis is hereby rejected.
The extraversion personality exhibited by respondents was found not to have significant
association with increase in self-esteem of respondents (t = -0.417; β = -0.020; P = 0.677). it was
also found that agreeableness personality (t = 5.731; β = 0.264; P < 0.05) and conscientiousness
personality (t = 3.831; β = 0.216; P < 0.05) had a positive association with respondents’ selfesteem, indication respondents who exhibits these two personalities have increased level of selfesteem. Furthermore, the personalities of neuroticism (t = -2.136; β = -0.136; P < 0.05) and
openness (t = -2.718; β = -0.167; P < 0.05) had a negative association with respondents’ selfesteem indicating a decrease in the level of self-esteem should respondents exhibit these
personalities.
CHAPTER FIVE
lxii
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1
Summary
The aim of the study was to assess how adolescent’s self-esteem is being affected by different
parenting styles, the study was carried out among secondary school students of Abeokuta Local
Government Area of Ogun state. The study was carried out among 412 students who had majority
of them to be of age 17 years old, this is attributed to the senior secondary school wing of the
schools used in this study and at this age of 17 years, is it expected that students will be between
SSS1 and SSS3 of Nigerian secondary school scheme. Findings also suggested that male students
were older than female students indicating an educational start for female children in the selected
location of study and being a Yoruba settlement, majority of respondents were of Yoruba ethnicity.
The Nigerian society has been described as being patriarchal and hierarchical in which the family
comprising the father, mother and children is perceived to be central and this was reflected
among respondents with majority (82%) living with both their mothers and fathers.
Findings revealed that respondents exhibited a high level of self-esteem (17.56 ± 0.19) there is
however no conclusion on the prevalence of self-esteem among Nigerian adolescents, Orth, Robins
and Widaman (2012) further explained that a general increase in self-esteem throughout
adolescence, this was evident in the findings of this study showing an increased self-esteem from
age 14 who had the lowest self-esteem (14.84 ± 3.92) similar to findings of Driscoll (2013) who
showed that self-esteem was lowest during 14 years of age for the children in general owning to
the fact that at this stage, they experience tough times with various changes that they have to deal
with ranging from their body to the relationships they have with their friends and family,
respondents at age 19 years however had the highest level of self-esteem (20.5 ± 4.08) this was
supported by findings of Josephat and Herbert (2015) who stated that self-esteem
among
adolescent increases slightly as the adolescents grow older.
Parental involvement in respondents’ daily activities was assessed to be high (9.07 ± 0.10), this
can be said to influence respondents’ self-esteem as respondents who lived with both their parents
getting involved had higher self-esteem than those who lived only with one of either mother and
father which can be attributed to involvement of both parents playing a more significant role in
increasing self-esteem than single parenthood. It was also determined that of all the parenting
lxiii
styles adopted by respondents’ parents, the authoritative (β = 0.585; P < 0.05) and authoritarian
(β = 0.270; P < 0.05) had positive association with involvement, indicating these parenting styles
encompasses increased parental involvement, this is an expected result as these parenting style are
characterized with parents being strict, demanding and parents talking about issues with their
children in a supportive manner instead of imposing punishment which will involve parents always
being in the picture. Permissive parenting style however, expectedly had a negative association
with parental involvement (β = -0.252; P < 0.05) explaining that permissive parenting style have
a reduced parental involvement as its characterized by parents making few demands and using
minimal punishment.
Akinsola (2013) stated that the cultural setting in Nigeria has made parents to adopt parenting
styles that mostly positioned towards obedience to parental authority, and compliance with
parental instructions from their children, though many of the parents, accompany such
demands for obedience and compliance with instructions, responsiveness, love, care,
sensitivity, reciprocal dialogue, and explanations for parental disciplinary actions, it was also
indicated that authoritarian parenting styles as well as their hybrids are significantly practiced
by Nigerian parents. This was evident in this study, findings identified authoritative (14.39 ± 0.23)
at 71.95% and authoritarian (12.94 ± 0.21) at 64.7% parenting styles were mostly adopted by
parents of respondents in this study.
In assessing the relationship of parenting style of respondents’ self-esteem, it was gathered that all
parenting style adopted by parents have a significant association with respondents’ self-esteem as
also indicated by DeHart, Pelham and Tennen (2006) on the consequences of specific parenting
styles who concluded that these parenting styles do affect the child’s self-esteem. At a more
explanatory level however, these parenting styles have different level at which they affect selfesteem of children. Results revealed that both authoritative (β = 0.286; P < 0.05) and authoritarian
(β = 0.166; P < 0.05) parenting styles had positive association with self-esteem of respondents
and respondents with parents adopting these parenting styles had higher self-esteem at 14.39 ±
4.74 and 12.94 ± 4.43 respectively, there are however conflicting and inconclusive findings from
Martínez and García (2007), they found that children of permissive parents had the highest levels
of self-esteem while children of authoritarian parents had the lowest, Martínez and García (2008)
also found that adolescents with permissive parents had equal or higher levels of self-esteem than
lxiv
adolescents with authoritative parents, Garcia and Gracia (2009) found that both the children of
permissive parenting style as well as the authoritative parenting styles had the highest levels of
self-esteem. It was also found that authoritative and permissive had a positive effect on their
children’s self-esteem, while parents perceived to be overprotective (authoritarian) had a negative
effect (DeHart, Pelham & Tennen, 2006). Akinsola (2013) stated that studies carried out to
determine effective parenting practices in different cultures which brought to the fore the
fact that effective parenting practices in one culture may not necessarily turned out effective
in another culture, in light of this, it can be said that in the context of Nigerian culture, the
authoritative and authoritarian parenting styles improves children’s self-esteem.
5.2
Conclusion
Parents serve as role model to their adolescent and they are expected to teach and nurture them to
adulthood, however, practices engaged in by parents in the upbringing of these adolescents is also
equally essential. Findings from this study projected that parenting styles have influence on
children’s self-esteem, further practice of strict, demanding style of parenting (authoritative) has
an increased influence on adolescents’ self-esteem and parents talking about issues with their
children in a supportive manner instead of imposing punishment (authoritarian) also have a
positive association with increased self-esteem. These are the two parenting styles adopted by
Nigerian parents as influenced by culture of instilling discipline in the younger adolescents and
this has proven to be instrumental in developing a high self-esteem among the selected Nigerian
adolescents.
5.3
Recommendations
Based on the result from this study, the following recommendations were made:
1. The result of this study may only be attributed to Yoruba ethnicity as different Nigerian
ethnic groups have different culture, it may be necessary a similar study is conducted in
other ethnic region of Nigeria to provide a holistic finding on the subject matter.
2. Health promotion program creating awareness on the impact of parenting styles on
adolescent self-esteem need to be conducted for parents.
lxv
3. There is need for religious organizations’ involvement in the training and retraining of
parents in the improving of their children’s self-esteem.
5.4
Limitation of the study
The limitation of the study was that the study focused on in-school adolescents in the senior
secondary school in Abeokuta North Local Government, Ogun State, Nigeria, instead of
adolescents in both junior and senior secondary school. Also, the adolescents were not willing to
fill the questionnaire until their teachers intervened. The sample size was supposed to be 423 but
was 412 because not all the questionnaires were returned.
5.5
Implication of the study to Health Promotion and Education
The study has a major implication to health promotion and education:
In the control and treatment of depression among adolescents, it is discovered that self-esteem
plays an important role in prevalence of depression especially with low self-esteem. It is in light
of this that in designing intervention aimed at reducing depression among adolescents, parenting
styles needs to be considered as a protective factor.
lxvi
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APPENDIX A
INFORMED CONSENT FORM FOR PARENTS PARTICIPATING IN THE RESEARCH
Dear Respondent,
My name is Ajayi, Oluwadamilola Modupe, a Masters student in the department of Public Health
at Babcock University, Ilishan Remo, Ogun State. My telephone number is 08162255251 and my
email address is ajayioluwadamilola27@gmail.com. The purpose of this study is to gather essential
data on parental involvement in adolescent self-esteem, perceived source of parental stress and
support on adolescent’s self-esteem in Abeokuta North Local Government, Ogun State.
The procedure to be used in this research is the simple random sampling in which parents will be
drawn from the wards in Abeokuta North Local Government, Ogun State. The study will require
parents to respond to questionnaire designed on questions about adolescent self-esteem.
The completion of the instrument will be voluntary and participants have the right to withdraw
from continuing in the study at any point in time. All information gathered during the course of
this study will be treated with utmost confidentiality. I hope you will be willing to partake in the
study.
Name of participant
Name of witness
Signature of participant
Date
Signature of witness
Date
lxxii
Questionnaire on the influence of parenting styles on adolescent self-esteem in Abeokuta North
Local Government, Ogun State. Nigeria.
Dear Respondent,
My name is Ajayi, Oluwadamilola Modupe, a Master of Public Health student at Babcock
University, Ilishan Remo, Ogun State. The purpose of this study is to gather essential data on
perceived parental involvement and adolescent characteristics influencing adolescent self-esteem
in Abeokuta North Local Government, Ogun State.
The study will involve asking you to respond to questionnaire designed to find out your parent’s
involvement and your personalities influencing adolescent self-esteem. The completion of this
questionnaire is essential but absolutely voluntary. Your willingness to answer these questions
implies that you have consented to participate in this study. It is required that sincere answers be
given as there are no right or wrong answers. All information gathered during the course of this
study will be treated with utmost confidentiality. Please, do not write your name.
Kindly indicate willingness to participate by ticking (√) in the BOX [ ].
Thanks for your cooperation.
Section A: Demographic Characteristics
Kindly tick [√] the following as it relates to you.
1.
Age at last birthday: ____________years
2.
Gender: a. Male [ ] b. Female [ ]
3.
Religion: a. Christianity [
4.
Ethnicity: a. Yoruba [ ] b. Igbo [ ] c. Hausa/Fulani [ ] d. Others [ ]
5.
Educational Attainment: a. Non-Formal [ ] b. Primary [ ] c. Secondary [ ] d. Tertiary [ ]
6.
Live together with your parent: a. The whole parent [ ] b. More than 50% of the time [
] b. Islam [
] c. Traditional [ ]
] c. Half the time [ ] d. Less than 50% of the time [ ] e. Not often [ ]
lxxiii
Section B: Adolescent Personalities
Kindly tick [√] in the appropriate column to indicate how you see yourself in the statements
below using the following keys: SA=Strongly Agree; A=Agree; D=Disagree and SD=Strongly
Disagree
S/N Statement for Consideration
SA A D SD
7.
I see myself as someone who is talkative
8.
I see myself as someone who is reserved
9.
I see myself as someone who is full of energy
10.
I see myself as someone who tends to find fault with others
11.
I see myself as someone who is helpful and unselfish with others
12.
I see myself as someone who starts quarrels with others
13.
I see myself as someone who can be somewhat careless
14.
I see myself as someone who tends to be lazy
15.
I see myself as someone who makes plans and follows through with
them
16.
I see myself as someone who can be tense
17.
I see myself as someone who is emotionally stable, not easily upset
18.
I see myself as someone who can be moody
19.
I see myself as someone who is curious about many different things
20.
I see myself as someone who has an active imagination
21.
Prefers work that is routine
Section C: Adolescent Self-Esteem
lxxiv
Kindly tick [√] in the appropriate column to indicate your general feelings about yourself in
the statements below using the following keys: SA=Strongly Agree; A=Agree; D=Disagree
and SD=Strongly Disagree
S/N Statement for consideration
SA A D SD
22.
On the whole, I am satisfied with myself
23.
At times I think I am no good at all
24.
I feel that I have a number of good qualities
25.
I am able to do things as well as most other people
26.
I feel I do not have much to be proud of
27.
I certainly feel useless at times.
28.
I feel that I'm a person of worth, at least on the same plane with others
29.
I wish I could have more respect for myself
30.
All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure
31.
I take a positive attitude toward myself
lxxv
Section D: Perceived Parenting Style in Adolescent’s Self-Esteem
Kindly tick [√] in the appropriate column to indicate how your parent engage in the different
parenting styles in the statements below using the following keys: N=Never; R= Rarely;
O=Occasionally and A=Always
S/N Statement for Consideration
N
32.
My parent is responsive to my feelings and needs
33.
My parent take my wish into consideration before asking me to do
something
34.
My parent explain how he/she feel about my good/bad behaviour
35.
My parent encourage me to talk about my feelings and problems
36.
My parent explains the reasons behind their expectations
37.
My parent explode in anger towards me
38.
My parent punish me by withholding emotional expressions (kisses)
39.
My parent punish me by taking privileges (e.g., T.V, games, visiting
friends) away from me
40.
My parent use threats as a form of punishment with little or no
justification
41.
My parent openly criticise me when my behaviour doesn’t meet
expectation
42.
My parent find it difficult to discipline me
43.
My parent give in when I cause commotion about something
44.
My parent spoil me
45.
My parent ignore my bad behaviour
lxxvi
R
O
A
Section E: Perceived Parental Involvement in Adolescent’s Self-Esteem
Kindly tick [√] in the appropriate column to indicate your feelings or how your
emotions/reaction correspond with regards to how each of your parents acts toward you in
the statements below using the following key: SA=Strongly Agree; A=Agree; D=Disagree
and SD=Strongly Disagree.
S/N Statement for Consideration
SA A
46.
My parent makes me feel better after talking over my worries
47.
My parent is not patient with me
48.
My parent sees that I know exactly what I may or may not do
49.
My parent soon forgets a rule
50.
My parent is very strict
Thank you for taking time to complete this questionnaire
lxxvii
D
SD