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A THESIS

Chapter I
THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING
Introduction
Learning to read is an essential part of basic education. Reading, after all, is an important gateway to the other disciplines. It has been said that reading is the primary avenue to knowledge (Stern and Gould, 1995). It is the cornerstone of education and the foundation of lifelong learning. It unlocks the unknown and carries the reader to new discoveries and learning. It equips the person with varieties of knowledge which he can use in his daily living. A person who loves to read understands any phenomenon easily. He is well-informed, educated and well-adjusted to the events around him.
In Edward William Dolch’s 1951 book “Psychology and Teaching of Reading”, reading was defined as “imagining, thinking and feeling about ideas and thoughts made from past experiences that are suggested by perception of printed words. ” (p.9) Reading, as asserted by the author, is an activity that requires the different capabilities of the mind, as the reader processes words and their meanings.
The improvement of this reading skill as pointed out by Dolch, is highly essential, because a basic level of reading ability is generally “not enough to master a quantity of assigned reading in a special field” (p.329) in college. He also mentions that fluency in reading is especially required for English Literature subjects.
Reading is not only beneficial in terms of academics, though, as Dolch explains. It can also help in the improvement of relationships with other people across interests and

cultures, as readers come across books that “put on into the life and feelings and experiences of men and women of all occupations” (p.303).
According to Aikat(2007), reading plays a very important role in enhancing the minds of young individuals, developing their “capacity for focused attention” as well as their “imaginative growth” (p.699). Past research has shown a positive relationship between people’s reading habits and their active involvement in other endeavors.
Aikat (2007) also cited Louise M. Rosenblatt, an influential professor of literature and “scholar of reading”. Aikat stated that “the act of reading is a dynamic ‘transaction’ between the reader and the text” (p.700), an idea taken from Rosenblatt’s 1978 book, “The
Reader, The Text, The Poem” .
According to the aforementioned book, there are two kinds of reading—reading for leisure, called Aesthetic Reading, and Efferent Reading in order to gain information.
Efferent readers read for the purpose of the facts they will learn, while aesthetic readers read for the reading experience, making it easier for them to “connect emotionally” to the text.
Hence, in the life of a child, reading is very significant tool to use to discover basic knowledge about the world he lives in. Reading is not just however, an innate thing that originates with the child. It is a set of skills that gradually develops as the child is subjected to formal education by the school as the responsible institution for the child’s formal education.
A child who fails to develop his reading skills at a certain level of his education finds reading boring, and difficult to achieve (Mondero, 1995). If children are not independent readers by the end of the third grade, it is unlikely that they will be able to be successful in

the middle grades and beyond and most likely they rarely able to “catch up” with their peers. This phenomenon of reading failure makes the child inattentive, irritable and passive. Therefore, his failure in this area hampers him to achieve academically in other content area subjects. This may even lead to negative attitude towards schooling.
This undeniable reality urges schools to consider reading as a very significant factor to the success or failure in every educational endeavor. The Department of Education as the responsible department of the government in all educational events in the country has institutionalized the implementation of the ECARP or Every Child a Reader Program which aims to mobilize national goal of producing literacy and numeracy- skilled and independent citizens. One of its salient features is the additional time allotted to the development of the basic 3Rs: reading, writing and arithmetic in the lower grades. This effort aims to alleviate problems among mediocre graduates of elementary and secondary schools.
In line with this effort, the DepEd made the Communication Arts period longer in terms of contact hours in which reading is integrated. In the case of the private elementary curriculum, reading is taught as a separate subject to give enough time for the development and acquisition of the basic reading skills.
The Grade 3 level is generally regarded as the preparatory period to a more challenging phase of an intermediate education in the elementary level. It is therefore at this grade level where all the reading skills are expected to have been developed fully from the primary grades to the more shaped intermediate pupils where taught reading skills should have been learned. And it is also in this grade level that reading difficulties are apparent where there is still time for remediation and correction. The following traits are associated with children in the third grade level: (1) acquiring a wholesome concept of self

(2) beginning to have separate group in terms of sex (3) starting to develop intellectual capacity of mastering concepts required for daily living (4) developing personal independence and (5) developing new skills and refining acquired ones (McInerney and
McInerney, 1994)
Hence, if third graders fail to develop the pre-requisite skills, they cannot be expected to work independently with third grade reading materials. Hence, this study is done to systematically identify factors affecting reading difficulties that made them as nonreaders of grade three, four five, and six pupils of Cabatuanan elementary schools in Basay district, Division of Bayawan.
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
This chapter presents some relevant literature and studies which are closely related to the present study. The researcher was properly guided in formulating problems and hypotheses based from the studies herein cited which are supported by studies local and abroad.
Moreover, this part also presents the concepts of reading and literacy, the benefits of reading and its possible effects on students' academic performance. Sources and past studies related to this research study, which seeks to determine the reading difficulties of learners, and as well as the factors affecting the difficulties will be cited and discussed.The areas of concern are the different reading skills namely: vocabulary skills, comprehension skills, literacy appreciation skills, and work-study skills.

Related Literature
The 1992 survey on the achievement rates of Elementary School education revealed that the low achievement rates of 60% of elementary school pupils was below the desired
75% achievement rate. These figures imply that there was a deficiency of skills acquired by the elementary graduates.
On the other hand, On December 2013, The NSO's 2010 Census of Population and
Housing (CPH) showed that of the 71.5 million individuals who are 10 years old and above,
97.5 percent or 69.8 million were literate or could read and write. This is higher compared to the literacy rate of 92.3 percent recorded in the 2000 CPH. The 97.5% literacy rate is quite an impressive figure but if we will take a look at the result of the National
Achievement Test (NAT) ON 2012, Grade 3 students got a Mean Percentage Score of
54.42% in English reading Comprehension and 58.61% in Filipino. This figures shows that elementary grade Filipino children are considered as average readers in general. It also shows that Filipino elementary pupils have problem understanding what she/he is reading whether the text is written in English or Filipino.
According to Juan Miguel Cruz (2007), despite our supposedly high literacy rate, many Filipinos can barely read and write. This is true especially of those living in remote areas as well as the slum areas of the country. Someone once remarked that we are not a nation of readers; we are a nation of storytellers. Ours is a culture of oral history passed on by word of mouth not through the written word.
Many educators believe that failure of the child in formal education can be traced to his reading difficulties. These difficulties hinder him to succeed in school work requiring

the reading process. This problem prompted researchers to conduct studies in reading, and the factors affecting on it.
In Edward William Dolch’s 1951 book Psychology and Teaching of Reading, reading was defined as “imagining, thinking and feeling about ideas and thoughts made from past experiences that are suggested by perception of printed words" (p.9).
On the other hand, Aikat (2007) stated that “the act of reading is a dynamic
‘transaction’ between the reader and the text” (p.700), an idea taken from Louise M.
Rosenblatt’s 1978 book, The Reader, The Text, The Poem. According to the aforementioned book, there are two kinds of reading—reading for leisure, called Aesthetic
Reading, and Efferent Reading in order to gain information. Efferent readers read for the purpose of the facts they will learn, while aesthetic readers read for the reading experience, making it easier for them to “connect emotionally” to the text. In order for readers to attain this connection and fully comprehend the text they read, Dolch (1951) asserted that the process of reading requires the different capabilities of the mind, as the reader processes words and their meanings.
This processing of words and text can also be defined as "literacy" or as Castello and
Charlton (2007) explained, “the cognitive processing of text information, a motivational attitude toward reading, and the integration of texts into everyday life” (p.697). The authors asserted that through this cognitive process of reading, readers learn to apply the meanings of the words and sentences that they comprehend to their present knowledge.
Castello and Charlton posited that readers can then incorporate and evaluate the content of these readings to their own lives and experiences, as well as use the text as basis for future actions. The readers can then incorporate and evaluate the content of these

readings to their own lives and experiences, as well as use the text as basis for future actions, as Castello and Charlton explain.
A higher reading fluency, as noted by Castello and Charlton(2007), involves “a better understanding of the text” (p.698), which is often useful in college, where students undergo the systematic process of text interpretation and relations. Reading fluency though, is not only beneficial in terms of academics but is also useful in the readers’ social understanding and communication, assert Castello and Charlton(2007).
They also state that young women often use literature “to cope with critical life situations” (p.699) and are more motivated when it comes to reading than young men. In fact, according to Aikat(2007), past research has shown a positive relationship between people’s reading habits and their active involvement in other endeavors. Aikat also states that reading plays a very important role in enhancing the minds of young individuals, developing their “capacity for focused attention” as well as their “imaginative growth”
(p.699).
However, "Imaginative growth" as well as a capacity for attention are only a few of the benefits of reading and literacy. Another possible benefit may be the development of writing skills. In her work Theories of Literacy, Stewart (2006) explained the relationship between reading and writing, stating that they are two skills that are “so interrelated that one cannot be understood without the other”(p.618) so that students are able to “draw on their skills in one to develop the other as they build proficiency in both” (p.618).
Stewart also presented yet another benefit of reading--a proficiency in the oral language, taken from the theories of Michael Halliday in the 1970’s, which compared the two and stated that they were both “social” forms of communication. Aside from these

assertions, Stewart went on to say that literacy and reading in general also applies to students' academic performance in other fields, such as in language arts, mathematics, the sciences, the arts and computer technology.
Several studies have affirmed Stewart’s (2006) assertions. In RitzelMontalban’s
2010 research entitled The Correlation Between Reading Comprehension and The
Performance In Math Problem Solving of The Selected Second Year HIgh School Students Of
The Sisters of Mary School-Boystown, Montalban conducted studies to verify her hypothesis regarding the relationship between students’ performance in problem solving and their corresponding abilities in reading comprehension.
Some of the researchers cited by Montalban(2010) included Sutton & Krueger , who asserted that “reading, writing, and mathematics are, or should be, inseparable”.
Montalban also quoted Hiebert& Wilkinson, who suggested that “most reading and thinking strategies should be taught in the content areas, rather than isolated reading lessons.”
In general, the findings of the study show that there is in fact a relationship between reading, vocabulary, academics and reading abilities, although “this relationship is by no means simple and straightforward” (p.166).
The importance of this relationship was stressed by Miller and Moores in their 2006 work on Literacy, which regarded the “acquisition of reading and writing skills—especially reading” (p.790) as an “important element” of education. The issue of low levels in this development in literacy has been a large concern in the past, according to Miller and
Moores, causing conflicts known as the “reading wars” or the “great debate” (p.792).

The aforementioned reading wars consisted of three different ways of addressing the problem of literacy among students, the first being the “top-down” model, the second being the “bottom-up” model, and the “interactive” model as the third, state the authors.
The “top-down” model, as explained by Miller and Moores (2006), is a form of “lookand-say” (p.792) instruction that focuses more on the text and its content and meaning, and less on the technical aspects such as subject-verb agreement, spelling and punctuation. On the other hand, the opposite “bottom-up” model emphasized “phonics” and the technical aspects of writing and reading, explained Miller and Moores. The third “interactive” model unites both models. According to Miller and Moores, the interactive model is built on the fact that writing involves bout the “bottom up (text based) and top-down (cognitively based) processes that interact with and complement each other” (p.792).
Miller and Moores (2006) stated that in teaching real children, it has been “widely reported” that teachers “tend to utilize elements of both top-down and bottom-up models, hopefully approaching the idea of an interactive system” (p.792).
On the other hand, these two models by Miller and Moores(2006) do not take into consideration other possible factors that may influence a students’ or childs’ reading development. In a 2012 study entitled Factors affecting Second Year UP Cebu High School
Students Opinions on Reading, the researchers GenevicHabagat and GerianneRizon attempted to determine these factors that may affect high school students’ opinions on reading, particularly those of the Second Year students in the University of the Philippines
Cebu High School.
The importance and subject matter of this study was clearly explained through
Habagat and Rizon's well-organized Review of Related Literature that focused on the

concepts of "reading, its history, benefits and importance in a Philippine setting" (p.6). The review thoroughly critiqued methods employed by other institutions that might not be effective, such as Mountain Crest High Utah's "MC Story Night' which involves thrice-a-year reading sessions between high school and elementary students. On the other hand, the researchers also cited other programs that could be beneficial regarding the study, such as
Valerie Lee's research programs based on "The SSR" handbook, which mentions multiple factors in reading development, namely: "(1) access, (2) appeal, (3) conducive environment, (4) encouragement, (5) staff training, (6) non-accountability, (7) follow-up activities, and (8) distributed time to read." (Lee; as cited in Habagat&Rizon, 2012, p.8).
Foreign Literature.According to Strong, et al (1997), reading is a tool subject, without knowing how to read the pupil cannot learn and progress in other subjects like mathematics, science, social studies and etc. Reading therefore, is fundamental to the pupils’ success in the different subject areas mentioned. Likewise, the pupil will progress in other fields of endeavor if he knows how to read. He will be able to deal with his environment and perform his daily activities in life. As a result, this will enable him to adjust emotionally and socially to different situations making him a useful and productive citizen of his country.
Everyone has a need to learn to read. Reading is a tool in all aspects of learning.
The child who has not learned to read (non-reader) well in the elementary school runs the risks of becoming an adult handicapped in the many phases of living (Gray, 1993).
Congenital factor: According to Harris and Sipay (1995), attempts to remediate reading failure date back to the beginning of the seventeenth century. Morgan, a British
Ophthalmologist, published the first report of a case of reading disability in 1896. He used

the term “congenital word blindness”, to describe a 14-year old boy who had not learned to read, although he seemed to be intelligent. Many investigations began in Europe regarding these problems but these attracted relatively little notice from psychologists and educators in Great Britain.
The same author reported the first report, published in the United States in 1916, was an attempt to diagnose individual reading and prescribed treatment.
Like other neurologists, Samuel Orton (as cited by Harris and Sipay, 1995) studied the causes of delays in learning to read but he was mainly interested in the reading disability. His works attracted wide attention among psychologists.
Universities and clinics in the United States became the first centers for the training of reading specialists and remedial teachers. Some secondary schools initiated remedial reading programs after World War II when they became aware of a large number of illiterates in the military forces (Harris and Sipay, 1995).
Educational psychologists seemed to be impressed by a wide range of educational handicaps that may be seen in poor readers and have tended to favor a pluralistic theory of causation.
Emotional Factor: From about 1935 to 1955, many psychologists and clinical psychologists sought to explain reading disability as a symptom of “ emotional disturbance
“ and tended to recommend psychotherapy as the preferred mode of treatment. There is a little doubt that the great majority of children with reading disabilities who come to the attention of psychologists and psychiatrists have emotional symptoms and problems.
In individual cases, however, it is often difficult to determine whether emotional problems cause reading disability or the result of it. Most of these theories believed that

reading disability was a symptom of some underlying defect within the learner (Harris and
Sipay, 1995).
One of the most common problems attributed to learning disabled youngsters spend more time teaching reading than any of the academic areas (Hallohan and Kauffman, 1998).
The characteristics mentioned here were those of the learning disabled (Vallet,
1999). It is very important to know the characteristics of children with reading disabilities so that they can best understood for their destructive personality and needs. These characteristics provide the basis for understanding their educational needs. These common characteristics are: (a) Repeated failure experiences. Pupils with reading disabilities have had repeated failure experiences in their educational pursuits which negatively affect future learning. Many of these children have failed so often that they are convinced that they cannot learn regardless of how hard they might try. (b) Physical and environmental limitations. Many children have a number of reading disabilities which physical anomalies or limitations. (c) Motivational problems. Largely due to repeated failure experiences the child with reading disability tends lack interests, drive and enthusiasm for educational situations. (d) Anxiety. A vague anxiety, usually stemming from a sense of impending failure is also a characteristic of many of these children. (e)
Erratic behavior. They tend to demonstrate erratic in most learning situations.
Meanwhile, on test profiles, they are marked by extreme variations of strength and weaknesses with normal or superior performance in other areas. (f) Incomplete evaluation. Most pupils with reading disabilities have been educationally hindered to incomplete evaluation and improper diagnosis. Too often do we find children who have been labeled as “retarded”, or “emotionally disturbed” where little or no attempt has been

made to thoroughly evaluate and understand their specific learning problems and needs
(g) Inadequate education. The overwhelming majority of children with reading disabilities have not been properly educated. A common characteristic found among this group in the lack of any attempt at special education. Many of these pupils have also been the victims of poor education including inadequate facilities, untrained teachers and public difference
(Vallet, 1999).
Grant (1992) reported a study on main stress approaches which answer some of the characteristics exhibited by the reading disabled children.
A mainstream child lives in poor homes, broken homes, and homes with ineffective parents. These children go to school but they are not able to interact well with others not prepared to grow and learn, and do not meet the expectation of the school (Grant 1992).
Grant (1992) cited that the analyst in New HavenSchool suggested that the key to academic achievement is to promote overall development of students to encourage bonding in the school. Their task is to create a strategy that understands the child’s development, and enable them to improve relationship with parents.
The management team is made up of the parents, teachers’ administrators, and adult caretakers. There were social workers, psychologists and SPED teachers. It has a mental health team that work together and had a representatives on the management team. They shared their knowledge with the teaching staff. As a result the teachers responded in a supportive way to children. The teachers came to realize that the only difference between children and the children of the middle income families is that the latter received at home what is necessary to succeed at school. Out of the realization came the program called Social Skills Curriculum for the Inner City children and, as a result, the

school ranked first and second in attendance with or without serious reading or behavior problems (Grant, 1992).
Local Literature.
A study conducted by a non-profit organization located in Manila demonstrates that a short-term reading program that provides age-appropriate reading material and trains teachers to use it can have a significant effect on the reading ability of primary school children.
The government has a thrust of building proficiency through language (Mother
Tongue-based Multilingual Education) as part of our newly implemented k-12 curriculum.
This trust is considered as another burden to Filipino educators. There are no available materials in areas of science and mother-tongue based language. Teacher guides and learner materials (which are usually soft copy) are all written in English and the burden of translating it into the language /dialect of the local community is left to teachers. There are no available language books from kinder-grade IV. Language books which will expose children to written texts are not available.
The school experience can be relevant, or boring, frustrating, or fulfilling for any child. Generally speaking the common responses of reading disabled children and youth are reactions of frustrations to the educational environment. Frustrations may be displayed by students’ anger at or passive withdrawal from learning especially when the tool subjects like reading, writing and arithmetic are so inadequate that they are unusable for purposes of daily living. More importantly, academic achievement may be so weak that skill deficiencies actually multiply as the youth grows older.

As reading-disabled students attempt to learn, and fail, they also cannot meet their own expectations for achievement. This lowers their expectation for failure success until a generalized fear of failure dominates their attitudes and behaviors. Response generalization to other social, academic, and school-related activities is inevitable and a pattern of learned helplessness results. One of the principal aspects of that syndrome is that motivation to achieve deteriorates, negating self-concept and self-reliance (Sabatino,
1991).
The possible factors of reading disability(non-readers) are numerous. A single factor seldom causes reading disability. The difficulty is due to a composite of related conditions. Lalunio (1994) classifies the four causative factors or reading disability into four, namely: physical, external, intelligence, and educational: (a) Physical deficiencies.
Include visual, binocular difficulties, auditory deficiencies, motor, speech, and glandular disturbances and general health. Visual deficiencies and hyperopia, myopia and astigmatism. Binocular difficulties occur when the visual image of words and objects are blurred and when more serious two images of words and objects are blurred and when more serious two images are seen. The pupils use many fixations and regressions or backward movements.
Auditory deficiencies include impairment of hearing like inability to hear sounds accurately. Motor deficiency in the case of reading is poor coordination which is indicated by unsteady handling of book, and defective way of turning the pages. Speech defects cause confusion on the sounds of words to be associated with written and printed words.
The Glandular disturbances include manifestations such as overactive thyroids, tendency to lose weights, fatigue, and irritability; (b) External factors. These are emotional

maladjustment, environmental and attitudes. Emotionally maladjusted disabled readers are those who show symptoms in the form of shyness or retiring behavior, inability to concentrate, lack of self-confidence or nay kind of aggressive, compensatory behavior.
Invironmental Factors: On the other hand, environmental factors include: neglect of sympathetic understanding which may cause a child to feel that he is not loved or not wanted, apparent indifference on the part of the parent or over concern which may cause anxiety, lack of confidence, and perhaps attention-seeking behavior. Attitudes which are not favorable may result in reading disability while favorable attitudes foster progress in learning to read; (c) Low intelligence is not a direct cause of reading disability. It may only indirectly lead to reading disability when the reading material during the early years is not adapted to a slow learners’ needs; (d) Educational causes include administrative policies like promoting children by age rather than achievement, or over emphasis on the development of reading skills without giving permission to the development of pupils and lack of reading readiness where in the child is plunged right away to standard reading program before he has acquired the readiness which important to his success in classroom activities. Other is lack of individual differences and methods of teaching.
Related Studies
Foreign Studies. Reading is a complex process. Theories are formulated to explain this process. Brief discussion of some theories are presented as theoretical background of this study. The theories to be discussed are bottom-ups theory, top-down theory, interactive theory, schema theory, subskills theory and psycholinguistic theory.
The Reading Theories

This study is anchored on the different theories discussed above, namely, Bottom-up theory, Top-down theory, Schema theory, Interactive theory, Sub skills theory and
Psycholinguistics theory.
The elements in the whole framework are the reading theories, pupils learning reading, teachers teaching reading, perceived reading difficulties and the reading instruction.
The reading theories are the vehicles that can be used by the teachers in her reading instruction and activities of the students. This mainly depends upon the needs in terms of teacher-pupil capabilities, instructional materials and teaching and learning context.
The Bottom-Ups Theory. The Bottoms-up Theory is a text-driven approach. It suggests that reading is basically a process of translating graphic symbols into speech during oral or silent reading. Here are the basic features of this theory. The learner reads text by building from sound-system units to words meaning. Word-recognition accuracy is important to comprehension. The most effective instructional materials are phonics oriented. Learners use word-identification skills to unlock words not in their “ownership” or “sight” vocabularies. (Klein, Peterson and Simington 1991). Written Language is subservient to oral language. Lower-level processes are seen as taking place prior to higher-level or cognitive processes. (Hayes, 1991).
The Top-down Theory. It is opposite to the Bottom-Up theory. Its fundamental feature is that it is at the schema- end of the continuum. The following are among its primary tenets: Meaning is vested in the reader not in the text per se. Comprehension and meaning precede decoding and word attack. Learning proceeds basically from the whole to its parts and not from parts to a whole. Instruction is focused on meaning rather than on

text structure. (Klein, Peterson and Simington, 1991). According to this model, the reader plays an active role and supplies more information than the printed page does (Hayes.
1991).
The Interactive Theory. It is more of a compromise between bottom-up and topdown theories. This model believes that different processes are thought to be responsible for providing information that is shared with other processes. Hypothesis is arrived by means of top-down processing. As such, bottom-up processing is guided to a degree by the hypothesis imposed by top-down processing. The information obtained from each type of processing is combined to determine the most appropriate interpretation of the printed page, Hayes (1991). Rumelhart (1997) has developed an interactive model which suggests that, at least for skilled readers, top-down and bottom-up appeared simultaneously.
Schema Theory. This theory gives importance to prior knowledge. It suggests that knowledge and experiences act to facilitate the acquisition of new knowledge. It emphasizes the importance of teaching pupils how to comprehend before reading rather than fixing up understanding after reading, (Hayes 1991). Rand (1994) hypothesized that having many experiences with well-informed stories help children develop a story schema.
Reading comprehension involves relating textual information to pre-existing knowledge structures or schema (Pearson, et al., 1999).
Sub skills Theory. It believes that reading is a set of sub skills that children must master integrate. This theory explains that good readers have learned and integrated these skills and they use them automatically. Teaching these skills until they become automatic and smoothly integrated makes reading meaningful (Burns, Ross, Roe, 1992). “One of the hallmarks of the reader who learned the sub skills rapidly is that he was least aware of

them at the time, and therefore now he has little memory of them as separate sub skills”
(La Berge and Samuels). This model illustrates the process by which students master smaller before larger ones and integrate them into units after mastery.
Psycholinguistic Theory.About ten years ago, the “psycholinguistic model” of reading began to assert that contrary to this view of reading as a sequence of skills which one could teach, reading is in actuality a process of predicting meaning based on the reader’s knowledge of oral language syntax, semantics, and phonological cues.
In other words, based on the reader’s store of information about how language works from his knowledge of oral language, a reader already knows something about how words are ordered and what kinds of meaning words possess in certain contexts. The early psycholinguistic model is primarily a top down or conceptually driven model where the emphasis is on prediction of meaning. It is the concepts which generate a search for the data or words to confirm these predictions. (Goodman) Within this perspective Smith defines reading comprehension as making sense out of what you read by using what you know, or the theory of the world which you have in your head.
Essentially the reader is expected to use prior knowledge and experience with language to get meaning from print. A characteristic in the development of both the skills and psycholinguistic theories of reading comprehension is the use of paradigms or models from computer science. (Goodman; LaBerge and Samuels; Ruddell) Rummelhart’s information processing model integrates both the top-down and bottom-up processing concepts into his interactive theory of reading comprehension. In this view, while the reader is processing features, letters, spelling pat terns, etc., at the same time he or she is

also attending to general context, syntax, and the semantic and syntactic environment in which the words occur and from which an interpretation of meaning is made.
These practices are sometimes used by schools, educators, and parents when a young child developmentally lags behind his or her peers. The young child’s underperformance is interpreted as the child needing more time to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to perform at the level of his or her peers. It is based on the disciplines of psychology and linguistics.
Kenneth Goodman, a noted psycholinguist points out the importance of the reader’s ability to anticipate the material she has read. (Goodman 1993). Its salient features are the following: Learning to read does not require memorization of letter names, phonicrules or large list of words. Learning to read is not a matter of a child relying upon instruction because the essential skills of reading cannot be taught (F. Smith, 1998) Smith, like other psycholinguistics, believes that children learn to read as they learn to speak, by generating and testing hypotheses about the reading materials and getting appropriate feedback.
The Basic Skills in Reading
Vocabulary Skills
The rich store of vocabulary words in the readers’ storage of knowledge allows him to transmit his ideas with precision and imagination. Vocabulary knowledge or knowledge of word meanings is critical to reading comprehension. (Klein, Peterson and Simington,
1991). Children with limited vocabulary knowledge especially those who have not learned techniques and strategies for inferring the meanings of unknown words will experience difficulty comprehending both oral and written text (Hayes, 1991).

Vocabulary skills are rapidly developed during the child’s elementary school years.
It has been estimated that the typical child increases his or her vocabulary rate of about
1,000 words a year (Burns, 1992).
Vocabulary skills are characterized by the following (1) recognizing known words that are in one’s understanding but one does not recognize in print (2) learning new meanings for known words by adding new shades of meanings to words partly known (3) recognizing new words that represent new concepts (40 clarifying and enriching the meanings of known words in communication (Heilman, Blair and Rupley, 1996).
In the light of the impact that pupils’ vocabulary has on reading success, Johnson and Pearson, in teaching Reading Vocabulary (1994) recommended that teachers set aside time for general vocabulary development. Rouke (1994), as reported by Hayes (1991), asserted that vocabulary instruction has typically been viewed in a narrow context.. He recommended that elementary curriculum includes systematic strategies for vocabulary development.
According to Anderson (1992, a major factor in vocabulary acquisition after third grade is the amount of independent reading students do. Anderson and Freebody (1993) stated that when reading independently for 25 minutes per school day, an average pupil would encounter tens of thousands of words that she or he did not know.
A number of studies conducted on vocabulary skills are not similar to this present study. However, their significance are related to this.
Grambell, Wilson and Gatt (1998) conducted a study using fourth graders. They found out that while high-ability readers encounter only one unknown word out of 100 in a

typical instructional reading passage, low-ability readers frequently encounter an unknown word once in every 10 words they do not know.
Eldredge, Quinn and Butterfield (1990) examined the causal relationship between vocabulary and comprehension. Measure were obtained from 504 second-grade pupils. A cross-logged panel analysis was used to test for such a pattern. Findings indicate that reading comprehension has a causal effect on vocabulary instruction improved reading comprehension.
Mcswain (1994) experimented on the use of free reading as a method for vocabulary development and comprehension. Findings revealed that a faster comprehension happened than vocabulary development in the fourth grade structure group; however, unstructured group had the opposite result which showed vocabulary development faster than comprehension.
Comprehension Skills
Comprehension is the purpose of reading; without it, there is no reading (Heilman,
Blair and Rupley 1996). It is a constructive, interactive process involving three factors: the reader, the text and the context in which the text is read.
Anderson (1994) viewed comprehension primarily involving the construction of schema that accounts for the meaning in the text. It is an outline of script which provides a framework of comprehension. It is described as an internal mental process that cannot be observed or studied directly, Heilman, Blair and Rupley (1996). This notion brings out the idea of mental model. This is an inclusive theory of comprehension which can handle both scripted and unscripted activities. Two mental models are briefly described. The working

mental model is the construction of present events in the story and the passage mental model is the k knowledge of the whole story by building links between events.
Readers build up numerous comprehension skills in order to understand fully what they read. The following types are: the literal comprehension which means getting ideas directly stated in the passage, interpretation comprehension which is to read between the lines; critical comprehension which means evaluating the passage read; and the application which is to read beyond the lines.
A number of research studies about comprehension are not similar to mine, yet, their relevance can support this existing study.
Spearrit (1992) conducted an experimental study to identify the interrelatedness of comprehension sub skills using likelihood factor analysis. He found out that among the seven sub skills he identified, four of which were differentiated as separate sub skills.
These skills are recalling word meanings, drawing inferences, recognizing author’s purpose and following the structure of a passage. It was further stressed that although the four skills are distinguishable, only vocabulary skill is the best differentiated. This supports the category of skills this study is using. Vocabulary has been solely separated from comprehension.
Research by Matz and Rockwer (1991) supported that poor comprehend do not suffer from a general comprehension deficit when pictures are accompanied with auditory version.
Stanovich and Vata-Kassi (1995) found six variables correlating with comprehension namely: word recognition, speed vocabulary, time and technique in teaching. They all showed an interdependence of performance to reading. They further

defined that poor readers who read slow and can not decode words create according to graphic structure. Liberman and Shank (1999) suggested that inability to recognize words create a working bottleneck that interferes with comprehension.
Styler (1990) reported a result of a project using repeated reading to improve decoding skills and its impact to comprehension. The result showed that reading was difficult.
Literary Appreciation Skills
Reading can be entertaining as well as informative. Teachers can help the child to realize this fact by reading stories and poems to the child and setting aside a regular time to pleasure reading during which many good books of appropriate difficulty levels for each child and on many different interest areas are readily available.
Recreational reading skill helps carry out the enhancement of other reading skills.
Yet, a child cannot read independently when his vocabulary and comprehension skills are not yet developed. Hence, recreational reading is dependent on other reading skills.
According to Gunning (1992), recreational reading allows the child to manipulate his skills and prior knowledge without much pressure from the outside of the self . He stressed further, that if develops self-concept and independence. (Burns, Ross and Roe).
It is believed that even before the child enters school, his surrounding which fosters positive attitude towards reading can influence his interests to read. This is manifested by members of the family or even the extended surroundings which is the neighborhood. Cutts
(1994), said that the more recreational reading done, the more chance for skill development.

With the different kinds of materials the researcher read, unfortunately, there is no existing study made on literary appreciation skill.
Work-Study Skills
“Study skills are defined as skills necessary for acquiring critical information from a variety of text and media source for differing purposes and uses. In other words, a person who has mastered study skills knows how to review and read different kinds of texts and knows what information is important for the task at hand. Furthermore, the individual knows how to retrieve essential information and cast it in a format for the purpose, Hayes
(1991).
Hayes (1991) stressed that study skills are especially important for students who are having difficulty learning to read. These skills help pupils improve their reading comprehension and retain what they have read.
Pupils frequently experience difficulty in content materials. Possible reasons for this difficulty are the lack of systematic instruction in study skills, difficulty level of many content material in terms of vocabulary and concepts and lack of transfer of skills from the basic reading program to study-type materials Heilman, Blair, Rupley (1992)
Many study skills are only given passing mention and attention in schools. However, everyone needs systematic, planned instruction and practice to meet the challenges of content material and to be able to read in order to learn throughout life. Askov, E.N. and
Kann, (1992), recommended that study skills be taught as part of content area studies to ensure transfer of skills be taught as part of content area studies to ensure transfer of skills to realistic reading tasks. Incorporating study skills instruction into content area studies also helps students learn the content subject.

Pescosolido, Schell and Laurent (1990) emphasize the need of study skills applied in a content area. These skills need to be taught to students in a systematic, direct fashion. If a specific skill is directly taught by the teacher, transfer of the skill to content area materials will be automatic on the part of the students. Teachers must not assume students know and can apply the various reading skills in content areas.
Work-study skills are manifested when the child reads independently to accomplish an assigned task. It is also done in doing library researches using references like dictionary, encyclopedia, atlas, maps and globes, etc. The implication of this work skill is that the child is responsible for his own learning and that learning can continue without the teacher’s presence.
Student difficulty in content material may be due to the absence of interesting and varied practice to ensure mastery and application of particular skill.
Factors that Affect Reading Difficulties
There are three factors identified to have great influence on the reading difficulty of the children as specified in the perceived data. These factors are sex, educational attainment and economic status.
Educators have long been interested in variables that serve as accurate predicators of the failure of children in reading tasks. Systematic studies were conducted to answer this question, Lingele (1999) What influences, the child’s performance?
Economic Status.Klengele (1998) , in his quest for the answer, conducted a systematic study on the significant factors categorized under non-instructional factors that have an impact on the performance of the child. In his study using fourth graders, emerged the following variables: economic-status of pupils, economic status of teachers, and

economic status of the school. The economic status of the pupils appeared to be a common denominator that has a great influence on achievement of children. Halsted (1994) supported the findings of Klingele when the identified in his study some social factors like economic status of pupils and teachers. Pupils economic status played a vital role in skill development.
Halsted and Klengele(2009) study can support this study in the aspects of economic status of pupils and teachers as factors, that affect achievement
Teacher Factor. Another contributing factor to the achievement or failure of the child is the teacher. Spache (1993) as reported by Hayes commented on the importance of the teacher after reviewing the results of Cooperative Research program in First-Grade
Reading Instruction (1997). It was revealed that practices of the teacher and the kinds of teacher-pupil interaction are important determinants of pupil achievement.
McGuire (1994), looked into the teacher as factor of learning. He identified that the ability of the teacher to talk to each students beyond class session and firmness on policy implementation affect performance.
Hairekek (1992) identified teacher’s expertise or experience, economic status and pleasant personality makes learning effective and lasting. Johnson (1996) supported the findings of McGuire when he investigated the relationship between students’ growth in reading with teachers experience. Pupils taught by low experience teachers gain least reading skills. He recommended a training program for young teachers with the help of the experienced one.
Robeck and Wilson (1994) gave another three classifications or reading difficulties:
(a) lack of word attack skills. It showed simple lack of word analysis skills when reading

orally form context. Fluency errors with stops and repetitions.Lapsed into some word-byword reading when recognition errors accumulated, with substitution and refusal; (b) extreme tension associated with reading. A tendency to stop after a mistake and continue without correcting. These are stops after a mistake and make multiple repetitions of the parts of the sentences they felt sure of. There is nervousness and the rapid deterioration of the error ratio when committing mistakes; (c) lack of motivation for reading. They are the reluctant readers, careless readers and active avoiders. A reluctant reader reads very little; a careless reader is a very poor reader who does not seem to care whether he improves or not. They are likely to become self-directed avoiders, if pressed to improve their reading in the absence of improved motivation to learn to read. An active avoider does not want to try what he knows.
Typically, pupils who lack motivation for reading read in monotonous voice, are very careless about word endings; sometimes they make up their own phrases and are not concerned about mistakes; sometimes they correct themselves but not always correctly and do not really try (Robeck and Wilson, 1994).
Juhoven and Bear (1992) examined the social adjustment of 46 children with learning disabilities (LD) who were integrated full-time in third classrooms. No differences were found in the proportions of children with learning disabilities and children without learning disabilities across accepted and unpopular socio-metric groups. Two-thirds of children with learning disabilities had at least reciprocal friend, and more than half had a friendship with a classmate without learning disabilities. Girls with learning disabilities received the highest number of negative nominations and were the least preferred. Group comparison of socially adjusted and non-adjusted children with and learning disabilities to

be less socially and academically competent than adjusted children without learning disabilities. The results of the study showed that the children with learning disabilities were generally well socially integrated in the Team Approach Mastery Classroom, 83% (38 of 46) receive positive nominations (as compared with 87% (38 of 46) received positive nomination as compared with 87% of the children without learning disabilities), 67% (37 of 46) had at least one reciprocal positive nomination with a classmate without learning disability. The results of the study suggests that children with learning disabilities, particularly boys, are well socially integrated in Team Approach Mastery Classroom.
Reading disabilities may result from a learning disability or from non-disability factors such as low general intelligence, missed instructions, poor teaching, etc. The term
“disability” refers to an impairment or lack of normal function which is severe enough to be handicap. It does not imply a particular kind of impairment but merely indicated a relative inability to learn and retain. Inability to learn assumes ample opportunity including some individual instructions by a competent teacher. Every teacher should consider the nature of reading disability. A child may be unable to learn by one method but may not be disabled if a different method is used. Children with reading disability do not all have the same basis, degree or some of type of impairment, though these are some characteristics that are common to most cases (Newman, 1999).
Hallohan and Kauffman (1999), gave three causative factors of reading disabilities: organic and biological, genetic, and environmental: (a) Organic and biological. Brain injury is at the root cause of reading disabilities. The neurological evidence was far from convincing defected children were frequently referred to as “minimal” and changed it to
“brain injury”. In addition, the label “brain injury” often carries with it a note of finality.

Often teachers have used the label a reason not to teach a child. Using learning disabled does not carry with it connotations of performance.
Samuel Orton (as cited by Hallohan and Kauffman, 1999) developed a theory on the phenomenon of mixed dominance as indicator that brain pathology was the cause of reading disabilities. According to the theory “mixedness reflects an abnormal development of the brain. There is no social evidence to indicate that all, or most, learning disabled children have brain damage a causal factor in learning disabilities Bent Feingold as chief emeritus of the Department of Allergy limits children’s intake of artificial food flavoring and coloring. The few well controlled studies have known that all best there may be a small subgroup of hyperactive who respond favorably to the special diet. The studies of
Halverson and Woldrop show that there is a tendency for hyperactive children to possess a more minor physical anomalies (fine “electric” hair, low seated ears, abnormal head circumference, webbing of the two middle toss) than normal, such anomalies, are often associated with congenital defects as Down’s syndrome. The possibility that some hyperactive children may have some kind of subtle chromosomal irregularity or may have had an impediment to proper embryological development; (b) Genetic factors. Learning disabilities tend to “run in families”. Whether this due to hereditary factors or similar learning environments; (c) Environmental factors. The children who are environmentally disadvantaged are more prone to exhibit learning problems. Poor teaching is another factor to learning disability. If teachers were better prepared to handle the special learning problems of children in the early school years, any learning disabilities would be avoided.
Another factor in the environment is the socio-economic status (SES) and the academic achievement. A large proportion of children who do not perform well

academically come from low SES families. Low SES pupils are likely to experience learning problems; and when they do develop learning difficulties their academic prognosis is worse than for middle and upper SES student with the same difficulties (Harris and Sipay,
1995)
The learning of verbal language is so closely tied to the demands of the environment. It’s with verbal labels that reading disabled children have enormous difficulty, especially in the early grades. Behaviorally, these children demonstrate an impoverished of both verbal receptive and expressive labels and failure to learn sight words, arithmetic facts, sound symbol associations, spelling words, counting, and the alphabet (De Ruiter, 1992)
Newman (1999) attributed reading disabilities to five causes namely: mental, physiological, personality, environmental and social, educational factors:
(a) Mental factors. Specific reading disability may be found among pupils with low, average, or superior intelligence, and slow learning affects all academic subjects;
(b) Psychological factors. Paul Witty and David Kopel concluded that auditory factors appear to be related to reading only in individual cases where the defect is great, reasons for poor reader’s deficient phonetic skills may be traced to speech defects or hearing loss experienced during the earliest years of reading instruction. Other types of neurological disorders like the brain damage and mixed dominance have been proposed causes of reading disability while other investigators believe no relationship exists;
(c) Personality factors. Dr. Traxler has indicated that emotional difficulties are found among retarded readers but research has failed to define the extent to which personality maladjustment may be cause or result of reading retardation. Some writers

believe that reading disability is a symptom of basic emotional disorders and that treatment of the reading problem must preceded or accompanied by attention to the emotional difficulties. Personality traits that have been suggested as causes of reading failure are: dependency on one’s mother and lack of responsibility, excessive timidity, and predilection against reading or against all failure. Continued failure aggravates those conditions;
(d) Environmental and social factors. One of the most significant findings of
Robinson’s study was that maladaptive homes and poor intra-family relationships existed in 54.5% of the cases. Robinson noted that as the number of books in the home increases, the percentage of good readers most often from homes where have reached higher levels of education;
(e) Educational causes. Another possible source of reading disabilities are: (1) lack of adequate background to perform the reading task set, (2) failure to master the early elements on which later abilities are based, (3) confusions resulting from instruction not correctly adjusted to the level and learning rate of the child, and (4) the acquisition of faulty habits which impede progress.
The cultural and economic deprivation and lack of early opportunity to learn the
English language may prevent the child from learning to read. Failure in reading, in turn causes anxiety, feelings of inadequacy and inferiority or hostility which further intensifies the initial handicap, increases the difficulty of treatment (Gentile, 1995).
George and Spacher (1997) research with first graders shows that intelligence test results are not highly predictive of early reading success. If the pupils are arranged on the order of their reading test scores after a period of training does not neatly parallel a

ranking on their intelligence quotient only the ranks of very superior and mentally retarded pupils to agree in reading and intelligence.
The third psychological factor is self-concept. According to Cohn and Kornelly (cited in Lovitt, 1999), a significant positive relationship exists between reading achievement and self-concept. They maintained that a program of remediation for a low self-concept can produce positive achievement in reading. According to Pryor (1995), perhaps the first step toward solving a child’s academic problem is to change his self-confidence tend to get good readers while poor readers tend to have negative feelings about themselves.
According to Katz (1998), the idea that children should feel about themselves is remarkably a relatively modern one. Only one or two generations ago, praise was withhold from children for fear that youngsters might become conceited or “swell headed”. Some ideas to consider in developing a healthy sense of self-concept in children are the following:
Evaluation by oneself or others. The child should experience the feeling of being loved and accepted particularly by someone interpersonal situation to another. The parents should help a child cope with occasions or rejection or indifference by reassuring her of their love.
Self-concept is measured on certain criteria within the family. Whatever criteria you have in your family support your child’s effort to meet them: (a) Socio-economic factors.
Robinson (as cited by Katz, 1998) reported that maladjustment homes contributed to 54.5 percent of her cases. The U.S. Commission on Civil Rights (1991) reported that from 50 to
70 percent of Mexican and black students in the fourth, eight, and twelfth grades read below the grade level to which they are assigned. In contrast, only 25 to 34 percent of all
Anglo youngsters in those grades below grade level.

Brophy (1999) summarized research that evaluates the effects of teaching behavior on pupil achievement and concluded that teachers’ expectations for student learning are important. Effective teachers are good classroom managers. Effective teachers are do not waste time, they provide a maximum amount of instruction on critical skills, and students receive great amounts of direct instruction on structured curriculum have the highest achievement.
Another three causative factors of reading disabilities are given by Bond and Tinker
(1990): emotional, intellectual, and educational: (a) Emotional factors. Reading disability is accompanied by emotional involvement which adversely influence the personal and social adjustment of the child. This personality maladjustment may be due to constitutional factors, to one or more of the variety of pressures in the child’s environment or to failure in reading. The degree to which disability is a cause or an effect of the personality or emotional maladjustment is often not clear. Examination of the available suggests the following: (1) in relatively small proportion of the cases, children are emotionally upset and maladjusted when they arrive at school. The origin of their personality maybe something constitutional or may come from unfortunate environment,
(2) The children have formed well-adjusted personalities before they arrive at school. The frustration from failure to learn to read results in some degree of personality maladjustment. In these cases, reading disability causes the emotional difficulty, (3)
Emotional maladjustment maybe both an effect and a cause of reading disability in many cases. The emotional disturbance produce by failure to learn to read may then become a handicap to further learning. A vicious cycle is formed, and a reciprocal relationship exists between emotional conditioning and reading disability, (4) The personal and social

maladjustment is due to reading and tends to disappear in most cases when the child becomes a successful reader; (b) Intelligence.
Specific reading disability cannot be directly attributed to subnormality of intelligence, but perhaps it would be more accurate to say that while low intelligence in itself is not a direct cause, it may lead indirectly to reading disability. This occurs when reading instruction of the slow learners during the early school years is not adapted to their needs. The dull child is not ready to read as soon as the one with normal intelligence and he must of necessity proceed at a slower pace after he does again.
In the regular classroom situation the slow learner is likely not to learn enough at each lesson for effective handling of the next assignment. He drops farther and farther behind as time goes on in the development program; (c) Educational. Of the factors considered as possible causes of reading disability, the group of conditions classed as educational stands out as tremendously important. Any administrative policy which prevents either adjustment of instruction to individual differences or proper emphasis upon readiness hinder effective progress in reading. The most important educational cause of reading disability is ineffective teaching, or his acquisition of faulty learning may block later progress. Factors which may bring this about maybe such things as too rapid progress in the teaching schedule, inappropriate materials or methods, unhappy isolation of reading from other class activities, the wrong kind of emphasis upon a technique or skill, or treating reading as a product of content studies. Ordinarily two or more of these factors are involved, and sometimes a physical deficiency as well. In many cases, the disability arises because the instructional program has failed to maintain a proper balance in the growth of a large number of skills and disabilities.

Furthermore, Buda, (1990) gave two causative factors of Reading Disability: environmental and genetic: (a) Environmental factors are classified into two: biological and sociological risk factors. The biological risk factors are prenatal complications and congenital infections, while sociological risk factors include large family size and low socioeconomic status: (b) Genetic factors run in the family, reading disability frequently assumes a family type. There are number of instances of more than one member of the family being affected, and the mother often volunteers the statement that she herself was unable to read, although she had every opportunity.
Various writers believe that most disability cases are created and not inherent.
Reading disabilities are sometimes the result of unrecognized predisposing conditions within the child, but for the most part, they are caused by element of the child, but for the most part, they are caused by element of the child’s environment at home, at play and in school. Without appropriate guidance or without proper instruction given at the right time, the will fail to acquire the skills needed to develop normal reading disability.
Local Studies. Reading difficulties can be caused by many factors afficting non-readers, some internal and some external (Manalo, 2008). The more precise the description, the more likely it is to lead to effective provision. In the view of many experts, most reading problems rooted from decoding comprehension or retention. Decoding difficulties is the process by which a word is broken into individual phonemes and recognized based on those phonemes. Someone who has difficulty decoding and has difficulty in reading easily may not hear and differentiate the phonemes. Signs of decoding difficulty are trouble in sounding out words or recognizing words out of context, confusion

between letters and the sounds. Comprehension relies on mastery of decoding; children who struggle to decode find it difficult to understand and remember what has been read.
Because their efforts to grasp individual words are exhausting, they have no resources left for understanding. A retention difficulty is a trouble on remembering or summarizing what is read. Retention requires both decoding and comprehending what is written. This task relies on high level cognitive skills including memory and the ability to group and retrieve related ideas.
As pupils progress through grade levels, they are expected to retain more and more of what they read. It is then with the aforementioned concepts that the researchers will be utilizing in conducting this study.
The 1992 survey on the achievement rates of Elementary School education revealed that the low achievement rates of 60% of elementary school pupils was below the desired
75% achievement rate. These figures imply that there was a deficiency of skills acquired by the elementary graduates.
Many educators believe that failure of the child in formal education can be traced to his reading difficulties. These difficulties hinder him to succeed in school work requiring the reading process. This problem prompted researchers to conduct studies in reading.
A study conducted in the Philippines by Mondero (1995) looked into the possible causes of reading difficulties of Grade II pupils in a particular district in Pangasinan. She found out that reading deficiencies caused by the conditions in the home was grave. These factors are: poor study conditions, negative motivation and hostility of parents.

Banogon (1997) surveyed on teacher’s teaching competencies. Her findings showed that teachers with teaching experiences were more aware of the reading difficulties of their children.
Studies on teacher factor relates to my study in a way by which teacher participates in identifying reading difficulties of their children as influenced by their children as influenced by their experiences and economic status.
Sex Factor. Sex is a factor considered for the pupil respondents. A study on relationship between sex and intelligence variables with reading interest of the high school students as reported by Scharf (1993). Findings revealed that females tended to read books more frequently than males did. Esmeralda’s (1999) study showed that girls are better readers than boys.
Chui (1993) investigated the reading preferences of fourth graders according to sex and reading achievement. The t-test as his instrument revealed significant sex difference.
Girls preferred mystery, humor, adventure, biography, and animal stories and adventure.
A number of studies were conducted to show the cause and effect of behavior disorders.
Imelda Espigar (1991) conducted a study on behavior disorders. A problemchecklist consisting of a 40 item perception scale four categories, conduct disorders, anxiety withdrawal, immaturity, and socialized aggression was devised in gathering the data.
The results revealed that West Visayas State University Elementary Laboratory
School pupils to be average in conduct disorders and immaturity, low anxiety withdrawal and socialized aggression. Significant differences existed between the perceptions of

teachers and student teachers for each of the four categories of behavior disorders of pupils. No difference was present when the participants were grouped according to grade level assignment.
Another study was conducted by Autalay (1990) on the significant relationships between pupil achievement and pupil personal-related variables such as the size of the family and sibling rank. The study was conducted among the five school districts in
Antique. A questionnaire was used to gather data. The statistical tool used to analyze the data was the Pearson r. The results indicated that the pupil personal-related variables were statistically proved as predictors of pupil achievement such as the size of the family and sibling rank.
Mamon (1990) conducted a study in January National Comprehensive High School,
Januray, Iloilo on the behavior maladjustments characteristics of 50 first year high school students. The instruments used were the Standardized Oral Reading Paragraphs to determine the reading level and the Robert Dehaan’s Behavior Checklist (1968) to be used by the teacher respondents to observe the student’s behavior characteristics. Remedial reading sessions were conducted for eight months by the investigator who taught and observed the retarded readers. The findings showed that retarded readers are slow learners and underachievers and lag behind normal students in class performance.
Readingdisabilities impedes learning progress in other subject areas and cause maladjustment problems or increase them.
Gandeza (1999), used 583 public elementary school teachers in the Division of
Guimaras for the school year 1998-1999 for her study. Sixty percent of her respondents were handling primary grades and 40 percent were teaching in the intermediate level. The

study revealed that the disciplinary practices frequently used by the elementary school teachers in controlling behavior problems in school included verbalization, conditioning, manipulating or restructuring the environmental milieu and body language. Among these are instruction by illustration, voice or reading, disapproval by oral reprimand or tone of voice, training through repeated correct practice by the child, restructuring the situation, and looking at without talking. It is apparent that the same practices were used consistently in dealing with offenders in the school no matter what behavioral problem was being exhibited.
Another interesting study on the behavior problems of Grade I pupils was done by
Suma (1998). She identified the social and emotional problems of the Grade I pupils in
Dipolog, Zambaongadel Norte and she applied necessary guidance procedures to minimize and solve the problems. She used the “Philippine Personality Inventory Test” the feedback of which she verified by her own observational studies. Her findings indicated that the common emotional and social adjustment problems among the fifth grade pupils were dominance, submission, introversion, extroversion, emotional instability and social immaturity.
He concluded that the possible causes of these problem were: (a) parents’ over protection and unfavorable environment that developed children’s dominance, (b) children’s lack of time and concentration to study because of home and school problems which made them submissive and introverted, (c) children’s truancy which parents did not keep track of the activities with their peer groups and later developed extroversions. (d) thwarting of children’s impulses and desires for achievement and recognition which led to frustrations, embarrassment and withdrawal from the group, and (e) broken homes or bad

home conditions caused by parental disagreements, poverty and sickness that gave rise to emotional disturbances to the children.
Taneza (1997) conducted a study to find out the problems of the pupils in the
District of Dolores, Division of Abra. The problems were related to teaching-learning situations, discipline, home and family life, health and physical development, money and finance, and social relationships. The findings showed that the problems were traceable directly to adverse conditions obtained in the homes, such as: Parents’ poor disciplinary methods, parental neglect and lack of supervision, low household income, malnutrition, unsanitary ways of living, parents’ vices and quarrels, an poor conditions of life. The problems are also troubles to unfavorable conditions in the school, like lack of effective school-wide guidance services, poor class management, difficult lessons and inadequate school health and medical services.
Macrohon (1993), in his study on the problems of grade seven boys of two Catholic schools in Manila as revealed by the Mooney Problem Checklist, found that the problem area considered by the subjects as the most common was on the area of school. These problems were: (1) not interested in certain subjects, (2) not spending enough time in study, and (3) worried about grades. It is a significant that while the subjects exhibited lack of interest in school work, they did not disregard the positive value of study and the interest of their parents.
The Philippine Guidance and Personnel Association collected, organized, integrated and reviewed 320 theses and six were on behavior problems.Findings showed that teachers seemed to be highly sensitive to behavior that disturbed classroom routine such as irregular attendance, tardiness truancy, discourtesy and cheating. They were also

disturbed by pre-delinquent behavior problems such as gambling, smoking, stealing and use of obscene language. The generally favored children were shy and timid or those manifesting withdrawal tendencies brought about by rigid conformity to standards sets of adults. The only marked difference between the ratings of the mental hygienists and those of the teachers was the complete reversal of the ratings with respect to withdrawal as a problem of the most serious impact to mental hygienist while teachers rated it as the least serious. Having temper tantrum was at the bottom of the teachers’ list: The mental hygienist considered it of considerable importance.
There was a relatively close agreement between the ratings of the groups, with an obtained rank difference coefficient of correlation of .553. Most of the items rated serious by teachers were regarded fairly serious by the mental hygienists. Both groups placed disobedience, tardiness, cheating, lying, irregular attendance and inflicting pain practically on the same level. All other problems at the head of the teachers’ list such as drinking, gambling, stealing and vandalism were also regarded as serious by the mental hygienists.
Geronima (1991) in a study of the behavior problems of 500 pupils of Goa School found the following behavior problems to be prevalent: improper standing and sitting positions, walking to and fro, chatting with classmates, truancy, uneasiness when sitting, teasing others and making fun of them, whispering unpleasantly, discourtesy, tossing pieces of paper and habitual trips to the window and spitting. She also found that pupils who were truants were also inattentive and showed lack of interest in schoolwork. The majority of the maladjusted pupils had many frustrating experiences and adaptability failed to respond to school situations. They showed fear and uncertainly when given tasks to perform.

According to Matus (1997) in her study on behavior problems of intermediate grade pupils in Kalibo Pilot Elementary School, that the behavior problems reported by parents, as exhibited by more than 20% of the pupils were, from highest to lowest, boisterousness, roughness, violence and turbulence 58.97% shyness 56.95% absences 23.99% and lying and cheating 20.63%.
As reported by teachers, the following were behavior problems exhibited by the corresponding number of pupils. Neglecting preparation of assigned lesson, 345 pupils, inability to understand or comprehend, 339 absences, 382 tardiness, 269 inattentiveness,
132 timidity, 176 cutting classes, 143, sensitivity, 131 cheating and dishonesty in work,
126.
Relationship of the Previous Studies to the Present Study
The foregoing chapter discusses various literature and studies related to the present study. This relation dwells on the fact that these literature and studies served as background for analysis.
Detailed studies of the causes, characteristics and needs of children with reading disabilities and behavioral problems have been discussed.
Macrohon made a study on the problems of grade seven boys of two Catholic schools in Manila as revealed by the Mooney Problem Checklist, found that the problem area considered by the subjects as the most common was on the area of school
The present study would make teachers aware of the learning characteristics by the conduct problem and withdrawn children. Thus, teachers must be keen enough to observe such behavior to gain knowledge as to the learning methods to be utilized in dealing with deviation.

Matus in her study on behavior problems of intermediate grade pupils in
KaliboPilotElementary School looked into the possible relationship of the reading disabilities with the schoollocation, sex, behavioral problems, family size and sibling rank while the present study concentrated on the relationship of the reading levels and behavioral disorders.
The various readings on historical overview of reading disability, characteristics and needs of children with reading disabilities, reading problems of slow learners, classification of behavior disorders, characteristics and needs of children with behavioral problems, factors associated with behavioral disorders, and other factors affecting reading and behavior problems like family size, sibling rank, and location of school and gender have been included as an springboard to the present study.
Several studies conducted on reading disabilities and behavioral problems have shown that there is a significant relationship between emotional problems and reading disability. This study will likewise include other factors like sibling rank, family size, school location and sex.
Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework of the study attempts to visualize the existing reading difficulties among grade three pupils as perceived by the reading teachers who are mainly the respondents in this research. The four reading skill categories are namely: Vocabulary
Skills, Comprehension Skills, Literary Appreciation Skills, and Work Study Skills.

The essential components of this framework are the reading theories, sociodemographic variables of pupils and teachers, perceived reading difficulties of pupils by the teachers in the four reading skills cited.
This study starts with the theories that are relevant to the problems under scrutiny.
These theories form the basis or the foundation of the study.
The teachers with the help of the theories can create a learning atmosphere. This atmosphere can be established by the teachers’ background, which includes their socioeconomic status and teaching experiences. The teaching processes they employ can create positive or negative outputs to the pupils. Negative outputs are characterized by difficulties of pupils in performing reading skills when dealing with printed and oral language.
Reading difficulties are given more attention, as shown in the paradigm by the teachers. Teachers who establish the learning environment have the opportunities to see how each pupil perform. On the other hand, the pupils who learn certain skills can evaluate themselves to what degree each skill is acquired.
As shown in the diagram, the teachers and pupils are open systems which receive inputs from the environment around them. These inputs affect the atmosphere of teaching and learning. They affect how the theories are utilized by the pupils and teachers.
The results of the teaching and learning process can be difficulties in the learning process of the pupils.The pupils and teachers eventually identify the learning of the pupils.
Learning that are minimal in nature, can produce skills that are not totally developed by the pupils so they need attention for re-teaching and relearning. Deficiency in learning as identified cooperatively by pupils and teachers can be the basis for instruction.

With the set-up mentioned above, both teachers and pupils can come up with agreement or disagreement on the degree of acquiring the reading skills. The common denominators of reading difficulties can be used as basis for a reading instruction program.
Figure 1.The Conceptual Framework of the Study
Vocabulary
Skills
Literary
Appreciation
Skills
Reading Level
Of
Pupils
Figure 1.The Related Skills and Characteristics of Effective Reading Practice. Based on the specific skills as indicated in the reading curriculum, this figure represents the coherent system for teaching reading and the related components necessary for assuring teaching effectiveness in reading (Umali, 2016).

Statement of the Problem :
This study aims to answer the following questions:
1.
What is the socio-demographic profile of the teachers in terms of a) age b) gender c) civil status d) highest educational attainment e) number of years in teaching profession ?
2.
How may the reading difficulties incurred by the pupils be described as perceived by the teacher – respondents , such as; a) vocabulary skill difficulties b) comprehension skill difficulties c) literary appreciation skill difficulties d) Work-study skill difficulties?
3. Is there a significant difference in the reading difficulties incurred by pupils from the different public elementary schools in Basay district such as; vocabulary skill difficulties; comprehension skill difficulties; literary appreciation skill difficulties and work-study skill difficulties?
Hypothesis
There is no significant difference in the reading difficulties incurred by pupils from the different public elementary schools in Basay district suchas ; vocabulary skill

difficulties ; comprehension skill difficulties; literary appreciation skill difficulties and work-study skill difficulties .
Scope And Delimitations
The study was conducted in the a public elementary schools in Cabatuanan, Basay district ,Division of Bayawan during the school year, 2019-2020. The focus of this study was on the reading difficulties of the grade elementary pupils, start from grade three, four, five and six.72 pupils the four grade levels were selected as subjects of the study. Four teachers handling Grade three, four, five and six classes, and were the respondents from a
Cabatuanan elementary school in Basay district. These teachers were also assigned as teachers to handle to reading program of the schools.
For identifying the reading difficulties of the pupils, the checklist on Oral Reading
Difficulties was administered to the reading teachers which were accomplished based on their day to day observations.
Research Locale
This study was conducted in Cabatuanan elementary schools in Basay district ,
Division of Bayawan, during the School Year 2019-2020.
Cabatuanan elementary School lay in the center of Barangay Cabatuanan, a hinter barangay located in the boundary between the two municipalities and a barangay boundary of the two provinces, Negros Oriental and Occidental. Seventeen kilometers from the town of Basay. And took forty five minutes to one hour of travel of a local means of transportation, a “Habalhabal”, a singled motorcycle for hire, with a fare of one hundred fifty pesos per person.

The barangay is known as home of an Indigenous tribe, “Bukid Maghat tribe”.
Importance of the Study
The result of this study will be great help to teachers, pupils, parents, administrators, and researchers.
Teachers. The result of this study may provide teachers with basic information that all instruction involves continued on-going evaluation of the child. The giving of the pencil and paper test must be based on thorough diagnosis which is the most essential procedure in treating disability. The results will likewise help them improve as well as to modify the behavior problems of their pupils through proper instruction and guidance in the formation of desirable traits. It is only proper understanding of the causes of the pupils reading disability and through harmonious relationship with them that effective teaching would result.
Pupils. Indirectly, it would be helpful for the pupils if they would be discovered earlier as reading retardates. Their being identified early in the school year may help them overcome traumatic or embarrassing situations in the classroom. The experience of failure often leads to frustration and discouragement. According to Dreikurs, (2006) as cited by
Lindgren (2008), misbehavior is discouragement which is detrimental to the intellectual growth of children.
Parents. The findings would be very beneficial to parents who would be better informed of the aspects of behavior disorders of their children. Parents would be in better position to cooperate more effectively with the school in facilitating optimum growth and

development of their children. They could provide appropriate parental guidance through proper advice and a supportive home environment.
Administrators. The results may help the researcher understand better her role and the behavior of pupils with reading disabilities that would be serve as basis in giving proper instruction and guidance to the pupils.
Definitions Of Terms
The following are the operational definitions of terms for better understanding and clarity.
Academic Performance. It refers to the pupils’ achievement as reflected by the general rating in each of the basic subjects.
Comprehension. This refers to the act of understanding the meaning of printed or spoken language as contrasted with the ability to perceive and pronounce words without reference to the meanings.
Comprehension Skills. Is a multifaceted process affected by a variety of factors: experiential, background, word recognition capability, language ability and reading purposes.
Readers employ a number of types of comprehension in order to understand fully what they read. The following types which have direct bearing on this study are:
1. Literal comprehension is to take ideas that are directly stated in the passage. The skills involved are the ability to restate the author’s material. This is a pre-requisite to higher comprehension.
2. Interpretation level is reading between the lines or making inferences. It is the process of deriving ideas that are implied rather than directly stated.

3. Critical level is evaluating written material as right or wrong through characters’ reactions and emotions.
3.
Application level is going beyond the material presented by the authors. This involves identifying problems presented and relating it to real life situations.
Hesitation. This is the reading difficulty, in which the child hesitates to read, which may be attributed to non-recognition of words or printed symbols.
Language. It is a structural system of arbitrary vocal sounds and sequences of sound which is used in interpersonal communication and which, rather exhaustively, catalogs the things, events, and processes of human experiences.
Literary Appreciation Skill. It is the capability of the reader to see the aesthetic part of printed language. This is clearly illustrated in poems, stories, verse and others.
Oral reading ability. This refers to the reading skills acquired and applied in the vocalization and articulation of printed symbols at a reasonable rate and with clarity of expression to be understood by an average listener.
Reading. Experts in reading instruction around the world agree upon the common sense proposition that there are two major acts to be performed in the reading process: (1) recognizing the printed word on the page and (2) understanding and dealing with the meaning intended in the passage.
Reading Difficulty is defined in this study as the deficiency of skills acquired by fourth graders in four reading skill categories namely: Vocabulary Skills, Comprehension
Skills, Literary Appreciation and Work Study Skills. Based on the adjectival rating of responses, 4 is considered difficulty.

Repetition.It is an act of reading a word for the second time or more due to nonrecognition of the next word or limited eye span in reading.
Reversal. This is a kind of reading difficulty wherein a child has directed his attention to theend of the word, thus the word is read in the reverse order.
Stammering. This is another kind of reading difficulty wherein the reader repeats the first syllable of the word or even more, before reading the next syllable or the whole word.
Substitution. This refers to the reading difficulty wherein the reader the child changes a word with another word, or sometimes a mere guessing because of nonrecognition of the word.
Vocabulary Skill. Vocabulary terms are clusters of concepts or
Words grasped from experiences in reading and other forms of communication which the person can use independently. The ability of the person to use these concepts and words confidently in any form of communication illustrated his vocabulary skills.
There are four kinds of vocabulary words:
(1) Recognition vocabulary is a word for which the reader has general understanding as it is used in the context.
(2) Recall vocabulary is a word for which the reader can distinguish the correct synonym or definition.
(3) The vocabulary word with multiple meanings which the reader can use and understand in the different contexts in different ways.
(4) The vocabulary word to which the reader can give a deeper semantic interpretation in a given context.

Word for word reading.A reading difficulty which is characterized by the long pause between words due to non-recognition of the next word at a glance.
Work-Study Skill. Integrated reading skills that allow the child to do an independent study and work. They are concretized in the capacity of the child to study frequently, independently do researches in the library and to use reference materials such as encyclopedia, atlas, map, periodicals and others.
Reasearch Methodology
Research Design
This chapter dealt with description, research design, respondents, instruments, procedures, and statistical tools used in this study.
This study utilized the descriptive method of research which identified the reading difficulties of grade three pupils in six selected schools of District IV , Division of Manila.
Respondents of the Study
This study considered forthis study are the 450 Grade 3 pupils and nine teachers in the public elementary schools in District IV , Division of Manila as subjects and respondents of the study. The Grade 3 pupils were the ones enrolled at the time of the study. The teachers were those who were actually teaching Reading in Grade 3.
Each school operates with its philosophy and set of objectives which direct all teaching learning processes. Reading as part of the curriculum was also taught with deep concern on the achievement of the school’s philosophy and objectives.

Table 1 presents the respondents of the study.
Table 1
Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Respondents By Grade level
Grade
Level
Grade III
Grade IV
Grade V
Grade VI
Total
F
Teachers
M
Table 2 presents the frequency distribution of the subjects of the study.
Table 2
Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Respondents By Grade level
Name of Schools
District IV
Grade III
Grade IV
Grade V
Grade VI
F
Teachers
M

Research Instrument
The instrument would be mainly a questionnaire to be formulated in a checklist form and would be converted into a rating scale to have an objective estimate of the degree of difficulties. Responses were personally recorded by encircling the number which represents perception. A pre-test was conducted in each school mentioned above to establish the validity of the questionnaire. The pre-tested samples were included in the data being analyzed since the questionnaires were exposed to them once.
The contents in the questionnaire were taken from related books, teaching guides, curriculum guides that contain the scope and sequence of reading in Grade 3. The four main areas in the questionnaire were the vocabulary skills, comprehension skills, workstudy skills and literary appreciation skills.
The questionnaire consisted of parts:
Part I consists of the personal data sheet which asks for respondents’ sociodemographic profile such as socio-economic, sex, and educational attainment and teaching experiences.
Part II consists of the different reading skills categorized under the following headings: vocabulary skills, comprehension skills, literary appreciation skills, and workstudy skills.
Most of the skills in the questionnaire were taken from K to 12 Learning
Competencies. It is a list behavioral objectives stated in specific types of behavior that pupils are expected to demonstrate at the end of a learning experience.

Research Procedure
The researcher shall personally administer the questionnaires in thesix schools of
District IV. The survey shall be distributed after given permission by proper authorities of the DepEd in the district. The teacher respondents will be given the questionnaire for a week to study and answer.
The data shall be tabulated and interpreted based on the four major skill categories namely: Vocabulary Skills, Comprehension Skills, Literary Appreciation Skills and Work-
Study Skills.
Statistical Measures
This study shall utilize the descriptive analysis that would make use of the following statistical tools: percent, the weighted mean and t-test.
The extent of difficulty in a reading skill was interpreted as follows:
Category
Very Difficult
Difficult
Moderately Difficult
A Little Difficult
Weight
5
4
3
2
Interval
4.20 – 4.99
3.40 – 4.19
2.60 – 3.39
1.80 - 2.59
Not Difficult 1 1.00- 1.79
Frequencies and percentages shall be used to determine the distribution of respondents according to age, gender, civil status, highest educational attainment and number of year teaching experience.
The formula in determining the percentages
P = Part x 100

Whole
Where: part = frequency (f) or actual number of respondents or responses answered in the specific item.
Whole = the total number of respondents or responses
The Weighted Mean (x). The mean is point on the score scale that is equal to the sum of the scores divided by the total number of scores. The mean is the index of tendency that is usually referred to as an average (Polit, 1991).
To find out if there is any significant difference in the reading difficulties incurred by
Grade 3 pupils from sixselected public elementary schools in District IV suchas; vocabulary skill difficulties; comprehension skill difficulties; literary appreciation skill difficulties and work-study skill difficulties, the Analysis of Variance was used .This method is most appropriate to use with three (3) or more groups of respondents. Yule and Kendall, as cited by Cannu (1999), echoed that this technique of analysis is used whereas samples of variants can be classified as group.
The procedure for obtaining the level of significance to be used for all instruments.
To compare the obtained t-test or F-value, as the case maybe, with a given value in the corresponding tables used in determining the significance of statistics, at 0.05 level of significance. The null hypothesis tested, will be accepted or rejected depending upon the value that was obtained, less or greater than the appropriate value indicated in the table.