International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology (IJMET)
Volume 10, Issue 04, April 2019, pp. 711–719, Article ID: IJMET_10_04_069
Available online at http://www.iaeme.com/ijmet/issues.asp?JType=IJMET&VType=10&IType=4
ISSN Print: 0976-6340 and ISSN Online: 0976-6359
© IAEME Publication
Scopus Indexed
QUANTITATIVE ASSESSMENT OF THE
EFFECTIVENESS OF HARDENING
MECHANISMS FOR CARBON AND LOWALLOY STEELS WITH DIFFERENT
STRUCTURAL STATES
Kanaev A.T
"Kazakh Agro-Technical University named after S.Seifullin", Kazakhstan, Astana
Topolyansky P.A
LLC "Plasmacentre", Russian Federation, Saint Petersburg
Biizhanov S.K.
"Kazakh Agro-Technical University named after S.Seifullin", Kazakhstan, Astana
ABSTRACT
The aim of the work is a quantitative approximate assessment of the contribution
of various hardening mechanisms for carbon and low alloy steels according to their
chemical composition and parameters of a thin metallographic structure. It is
generally accepted that the work is of scientific and practical interest, since, as is
known, there is currently no theory that satisfactorily describes hardening
mechanisms, especially for new promising hardening methods (combined hardening
methods, combined heat treatment methods, plasma, laser processing, etc.). There are
only approximations that describe the existing hardening mechanisms, which do not
provide a rigorous quantitative assessment of the yield strength of steels with different
structural states.
In this paper, by analyzing the literature data and our own experimental studies
(on chemical composition and structure parameters), the approximate contribution of
various hardening mechanisms to the yield strength of carbon, wheel and low-alloy
steels was quantified. The assessment is not strict, based on a number of assumptions.
It was established that for hot-rolled steel (St5ps) [1] the greatest contribution to
the yield strength is made by solid-solution and grain-boundary hardening (37.3%
and 33.3%), in low-alloy steel 16G2AF [2], along with these components of
hardening, dispersion hardening plays a noticeable role (21.5%). It is shown that the
combined heat-strain treatment of St.5ps steel leads to an increase in dislocation
hardening up to 32% due to an increase in the density of dislocations and the
preservation of most of the dislocations in rolled metal during accelerated cooling of
hot-deformed austenite. In wheeled steel, thermally treated by traditional technology
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Quantitative Assessment of the Effectiveness of Hardening Mechanisms for Carbon and LowAlloy Steels with Different Structural States Control of Semi-Active Suspension
(intermittent hardening and tempering), the main contribution to strength is the grainboundary and dislocation hardening (~ 33%). In the same steel, subjected to surface
plasma hardening, due to the strong grinding of the structure and formation of the
nano-structured phase components, strength indices increase significantly (42%).
Key words: hardening mechanisms, yield strength, deformation-heat treatment,
accelerated cooling, surface plasma quenching, nanostructured phase components,
grain size
Cite this Article: Kanaev A.T., Topolyansky P.A., Biizhanov S.K., Quantitative
Assessment of the Effectiveness of Hardening Mechanisms for Carbon and Low-Alloy
Steels with Different Structural States, International Journal of Mechanical
Engineering and Technology 10(4), 2019, pp. 711–719.
http://www.iaeme.com/IJMET/issues.asp?JType=IJMET&VType=10&IType=4
1. INTRODUCTION
The methodological basis of the research is the idea of the existence of a deep connection
between the structure and the physicomechanical and operational properties of metallic
materials. The entire previous groundwork in this scientific field is an illustration of the
central principle of materials science, according to which the behavior of materials is always
determined by their structure [1-3].
It is known that one of the main problems of modern metallurgy is the establishment of
quantitative connection between the structure and properties of alloys. To solve this problem,
it is necessary to identify the role and contribution of the existing mechanisms of hardening in
the constructive strength of steels subjected to different heat treatment, and therefore having
different structure [4-6]. Therefore, it is of theoretical and practical interest to quantify the
contribution to the yield strength of individual hardening mechanisms for carbon, wheel and
low alloy steels, widely used in construction and railway engineering.
2. RESEARCH MATERIALS AND METHODS
The main characteristics of carbon and low-alloy steels, which determine their structural
strength, are the yield strength and tendency to brittle fracture [11–13].
The yield strength, assessing the strength of steel, is determined by the well-known ratio
of Hall-Petch, which for the conditions of tension has the form:
(1)
where - friction tension of the crystal lattice during the motion of dislocations inside the
grains;
ky - coefficient characterizing the contribution of grains to the hardening;
d - diameter of the grain.
From formula (1) it follows that the strength of steel is inversely proportional to the
square root of the grain size (σT of the material increases with decreasing grain size). Lattice
friction tension
(2)
In this equation,
is the sum of
- friction tension of the α-Fe lattice, increasing the
strength of solid solutions during doping , hardening due to the formation of perlite , deformation and dispersion hardening. In [13], it was shown that the
influence of all the listed hardening mechanisms on the yield strength is linearly additive, i.e.
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Kanaev A.T., Topolyansky P.A., Biizhanov S.K.
they can be summed up. Therefore, the yield strength of the investigated structural steels
(St5ps, wheel steel grade 2 and low alloyed steel 16G2AF) can be considered as the sum of
the terms in equation (2). The share of the contribution of individual hardening factors
(equations 1 and 2) to the total yield strength of steel is not the same, and it depends on the
type of alloying elements and the degree of doping, the presence and dispersion of hardening
phases, applied deformation-thermal, plasma treatment and other factors.
Note that the tendency of steel to brittle fracture is estimated from the temperature of
transition from a viscous to a brittle state, which is defined as the ratio of the area of a viscous
fracture to the initial design section. The lower the temperature of the transition from a
viscous to a brittle state, the more reliable the material is, therefore, the more often they tend
to apply a material whose transition temperature is below the operating temperature, and this
temperature significantly depends on the grain size [14,15].
Based on the well-known hardening mechanisms described by equation (2), we analyzed
the effectiveness of various hardening mechanisms for carbon, wheel and low-alloyed steels
used in construction and railway transport, which differ not only in chemical composition, but
also in heat treatment [16-18].
The value of individual hardening factors and their contribution to the total yield strength
of these steels were determined by the known empirical formulas. The necessary for the
calculation coefficients are taken from the literature data [8,19]. In this case, the calculated
values of the yield strength of the investigated steels were compared with experimental data
according to GOST 5781, GOST 10884, GOST 19281 and GOST 10791.
Determination of structure parameters (content of perlite in steel, diameter of ferritic
grains, size and volume of the carbonitride phase fraction, etc.) to quantify the yield strength
by quantitative metallographic methods using a Neophot 21 research horizontal microscope
and Jeol JEM 2100 electron microscope. As the diameter of ferritic grains (d), we used the
average length of a straight line segment that intersects the grain in the plane of the thin
section [20-22].
The volumetric fraction of dispersed particles (f) and their diameter (D) in low-alloy steel
16G2AF was determined by the method of electronic photography of thin foil, and the
interpartial distance (l) - by a known ratio
( ⁄ )
The share of the pearlite component was determined by the Rosevale method, according
to which the areas of the structural components are calculated from the lengths of the straight
segments that fell on each of the structural components in accordance with the Cavalieri
principle [23].
The density of the dislocations of hardened steels was determined by X-ray analysis on
the form of diffraction lines, and in hot rolled steel the density of dislocations was quantified
by the translucent electron microscopy of thin foil [24, 25] (Table 1).
Note. Based on the experimental data, it was assumed that ~ 0.015 (C + N) was dissolved
in the ferrite, the rest of the carbon and nitrogen were bound into carbonitrides. The friction
tension of the α-iron lattice (Peierls-Nabarro tension) is estimated by the formula
(3)
where G is the shear modulus of iron. G = 84000 MPa.
The Peierls-Nabarro tension is the minimum tension necessary for the movement of a
dislocation in a crystal, and it is determined by the properties of the crystal lattice and
characterizes the friction forces in it. At alloying of metal there is an increase of friction
forces, i.e. alloying increases resistance of dislocations, due to interaction of dissolved atoms
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Quantitative Assessment of the Effectiveness of Hardening Mechanisms for Carbon and LowAlloy Steels with Different Structural States Control of Semi-Active Suspension
of alloying elements with dislocation. In the first approximation, the Peierls-Nabarro tension
can be correlated with the yield strength of a single crystal metal. This value significantly
depends on the content of impurities in the metal. Therefore, as the purity of the metal and the
degree of perfection of the crystals improved, it turned out to be an ever-smaller value of the
yield strength of single crystals. Taking into account the literature data in the calculation, the
friction tension of the α-Fe lattice is assumed to be ~ 30 MPa [8,26,27] (Table 2).
Table 1 Baseline data for the quantitative assessment of the yield strength of the investigated steels
№
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Steel characteristics
St5ps,
hot Rolled
Content of alloying elements in αFe, %:
Mn
Si
P
V
(C+ N)
Cr
Ni
Cu
Hardening phase (dispersed
particle)
Perlite share, %
Grain size:
(number according to GOST 563982),
d, MM
Volume fraction of dispersed
particles, f, %
Size of disperse particles, D, nm
Interpartial distance, λ, nm
The nature of the dislocation
structure (with a uniform
distribution of dislocations), ρ, cm-2
Mark of the studied steels and their structural state
Grade 2 wheel
steel,
Grade 2 wheel
St5ps,
intermittent
steel,
deformation-heat
hardening and surface plasma
treatment
medium
hardening
tempering
16G2AF
Normalization
0,65
0,11
0,04
0,015
-
0,65
0,11
0,04
0,015
-
0,80
0,40
0,033
0,015
0,25
0,23
-
0,80
0,40
0,033
0,015
0,25
0,23
0,10
1,5
0,45
0,035
0,11
0,015
-
-
-
-
-
V (С, N)
40
30
-
37,5
17
0,061
(5)
0,015
(9)
0,017
(9)
0,007
(11)
0,014
(9)
-
-
-
-
0,096
-
-
-
-
30
765
109
109
109
109
109
Table 2-Quantitative estimation of the yield strength of steels with different structural state
№
Indicators
St5ps,
hot Rolled
St5ps,
deformation-heat
treatment
1
Lattice friction tension
Solid solution
hardening
Hardening, poured with
perlite
Dislocation hardening
Dispersion Hardening
Grain Boundary
Hardening
Calculated value of
yield strength
Experimental value of
the yield strength
30/11,8
30/6,3
Steel Grade
Grade 2 wheel
steel,
intermittent
hardening and
medium
tempering
30/5,7
95/37,3
95/20,2
171/32,8
175/25
115/23,5
40/15,7
35/7,5
31,0/6,0
35/5,0
40/8,2
5/2.0
-
150/32
-
120/23
-
170/23,6
-
5/1,0
105/21,4
85/33,3
160/34
170/32,6
295/42
195/39,8
255
470
522
705
490
285
440
585
790
440
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
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714
Grade 2 wheel
steel,
surface plasma
hardening
16G2AF
Normalization
30/4,3
30/6,1
editor@iaeme.com
Kanaev A.T., Topolyansky P.A., Biizhanov S.K.
Note. In the numerator - the absolute value of hardening (MPa), in the denominator - the
proportion of hardening due to this mechanism, (in% of the calculated value of the yield
strength).
As noted above, currently there is no theory that satisfactorily describes hardening
mechanisms, especially for new promising hardening methods, such as combining hot
deformation with subsequent hardening heat treatment, plasma hardening, etc. There are only
approximations describing the mechanisms of hardening, which do not give a rigorous
quantitative estimate of the yield strength. The remaining hardening factors
(
), besides the resistance of the lattice to the dislocation movement,
were taken into account using known formulas. At the same time, the principle of linear
additivity of hardening by individual mechanisms is used.
3. RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In carbon steel St5ps (hot rolled state) the main components of hardening are solid-solution
and grain-boundary hardening, the share of which for this steel is 37.3% and 33.3%,
respectively. In absolute terms, the proportions of these terms are 95 MPa and 85 MPa. In
steel St.5ps, subjected to a combined deformation-heat treatment, deformational (dislocation)
hardening makes a significant contribution to the overall hardening. If the share of strain
hardening in St.5ps steel cooled in calm air from a rolling end temperature of 1050 °С (hot
rolled state) is ~ 5%, then in the same steel hardened according to the interrupted quenching
scheme followed by high self-tempering (heat-strengthened state) the deformation fraction
hardening increases to 32%. (absolute value
). This is probably due to an
increase in the density of dislocations when combining hot rolling followed by immediate
quenching and tempering. As mentioned above, recrystallization processes are suppressed by
quenching and a significant part of the dislocations caused by hot rolling of austenite are
fixed. At the same time, the dislocation structure of hot-deformed austenite is inherited by
martensite in the process of phase austenite-martensitic transformation. In addition, during
deformation-heat treatment, along with the grinding of austenitic grain, the grinding of
martensite crystals is achieved [28,29]. The dominant hardening mechanism in wheel steel
subjected to traditional heat treatment (according to GOST 10791) is grain-boundary and
solid-solution hardening, which are ~ 170 and 171 MPa, respectively [30].
If we take into account that solid-solution hardening is due to the difference in the atomic
diameters of the matrix and the alloying element and their elastic moduli, then a high
proportion of solid-solution hardening in this steel can be explained by the resistance to
moving dislocations from dissolved Mn, Si and P atoms in α-Fe. The hardening coefficients
of ferrite with these elements are KMn=35, KSi=85, KP=690 [13].
In plasma-hardened wheel steel, the role of grain-boundary hardening (
)
is noticeable due to the strong grinding of grain size (d=0.007 mm) with the formation of
nanostructured elements of the phase components of the structure. As is known, when using
ultrahigh heating and cooling rates (~6000 ºС/s), which takes place with innovative plasma
technologies, a high complex of physic-mechanical properties of the processed materials is
created, unattainable with traditional heat treatment methods [31]. The possibility of creating
a nanostate of highly crushed (fragmented) structure and elements of nanocomposites in the
process of phase transformation is also shown in [32, 33], where it is noted that the physicmechanical properties of nanostructured steels (strength, ductility, toughness, crack resistance,
etc.) with the volume fraction of the nano-structural elements ~ 20-30% significantly surpass
the indicators of the corresponding materials received by traditional technologies.
In low-alloy steel 16G2AF, the role of dispersion hardening is noticeable - 21.5%
. As can be seen from table 1, dispersed carbonitride phase V (C, N) is
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Quantitative Assessment of the Effectiveness of Hardening Mechanisms for Carbon and LowAlloy Steels with Different Structural States Control of Semi-Active Suspension
formed in this steel, which strengthens the ferrite by the Oroan mechanism. It is assumed that
the carbonitride phase V (C, N) is incoherent with the matrix (α-Fe) and therefore the
dislocations envelop the V (C, N) discharge. However, there are opinions [9] that in lowalloyed construction steels, small particles of carbonitrides released directly from the matrix
can be coherently associated with it.
The effect and prospects of dispersion hardening is also indicated by the influence of
dispersed phases on the grain size. From table 1 it follows that in steel 16G2AF in the
structure of which there is a dispersed carbonitride phase V (C, N) a smaller grain d=0.014
mm is formed. Это объясняется зародышевым влиянием частиц V (C, N) при переходе
через критические точки Ас1 и Ас3.
In addition, the carbonitride phase inhibits the growth of austenite grain with further
heating up to the temperature of dissolution of these phases in austenite. These two
circumstances lead to the fact that in steel 16G2AF noticeable grinding of ferritic grains
occurs. Thus, dispersed particles of the carbonitride phase V (C, N) in steel cause additional
grain-boundary hardening. This feature of strengthening by dispersed particles carbonitride
phase contains in [34,35].
In carbon and low alloyed steels, the main phase and structural component is ferrite, its
share in these steels reaches 85-90%. When a load is applied, the deformation begins to
develop in the ferrite, and pearlitic colonies are “barriers” for such deformation. Therefore,
hardening from the pearlite component also contributes to the overall hardening [36–37].
From the above data it can be seen that the proportion of hardening from the formation of
perlite is about 4.0-15%, in absolute value
. It should also be noted that
nonmetallic inclusions can also affect the mechanical properties of these steels. However,
their volume fraction in the steels under consideration does not exceed 0.1%, they do not have
a strengthening effect and therefore the behavior of non-metallic inclusions is not considered
in this study.
Thus, the contribution of various hardening mechanisms to the yield strength of carbon
and low alloy steels is different. For hot-rolled steel St.5ps the greatest contribution to the
yield strength is given by solid-solution and grain boundary hardening (37.3% and 33.3%),
for St.5ps hardened steel, the share of dislocation (strain) hardening is 32% due to an increase
in the density of dislocations and the preservation of the majority of dislocations during
accelerated cooling of hot-deformed austenite. In dispersed hardening steel 16G2AF, along
with solid-solution and grain-boundary components of hardening, dispersion hardening plays
a noticeable role (21.5%).
4. CONCLUSIONS
1. Effective and promising ways of increasing the strength of structural carbon and low alloy
steels are solid solution strengthening by alloying relatively cheap alloying elements (Mn, Si),
and precipitation hardening and dislocation by applying a combined deformation and heat
treatment in combination with microalloying with carbide- and nitride-forming elements (V,
Al).
2. A quantitative assessment of the strength of ferritic-pearlitic low-carbon and low-alloyed
steels in terms of chemical composition and structure parameters allows approximately to
identify the contribution of each hardening mechanism to the yield strength of steel and
predict balanced hardening mechanisms.
3. Reducing the size of the actual grain is an effective way to increase the strength of
structural steels, which simultaneously reduces the tendency of ferritic-pearlitic steels to
brittle fracture. This is especially important in case of surface plasma hardening, which leads
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Kanaev A.T., Topolyansky P.A., Biizhanov S.K.
to severe grain refinement, which is a consequence of ultrafast heating and cooling (103–105
K/s) and short duration of impact on the metal (10–2–10–4 s).
4. An important result of the research is experimental evidence that the plasma quenching due
to the specificity of treatment is possible to obtain such a structure, and properties that are
unattainable with traditional methods of treatment. Innovative technologies based on
combining hot plastic deformation followed by heat treatment, as well as intensively
developing plasma finishing technologies provide significant technical and economic benefits.
KEY NOTES
[1] International analogues of the material - ISO Fe490
[2] Foreign analogues of the material 16G2AF
United Germa
Engla Cana
Japan France
EU
States ny
nd
da
DIN,
WNr
Italy
Spain
Czech
Chin Swed
Hung Polan Roma
Switzerl
Bulgaria
Repub
a
en
ary
d
nia
and
lic
AFNO
BS HG EN UNI UNE GB SS
BDS MSZ PN STAS CSN SNV
R
A633G
SM49 E420RI
400W 1.89 FeE420 AE420 Q42
09G2BF
18G2
1.8902
50E
2143
58C
K510 13220 StE43
r.E
0A
FP
T
02
KG
KG 0C
BFF
AV
-
JIS
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AUTHOR DETAILS
Biyzhanov Serik Kazhimovich, Master's, doctoral PhD, Republic of Kazakhstan, 010011,
Astana, pr. Peremogy, 62, "Kazakh Agro-Technical University named after S.Seifullin" Work
phone: +7 (7172) 31-80-90 Department of "Standardization, Metrology and Certification"
http://www.iaeme.com/IJMET/index.asp
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editor@iaeme.com