Moore/ Nash Review Packet 1
Mr. Moore/ Ms. Nash
Revised Fall 2012
Moore/ Nash Review Packet 2
Bio.4.1.1
Compare the structure and function of each of the listed organic molecules in
organisms:
• Carbohydrates (glucose, cellulose, starch, glycogen)
• Proteins (insulin, enzymes, hemoglobin)
• Lipids (phospholipids, steroids)
• Nucleic Acids (DNA, RNA)
Bio.4.1.2
• Recall that the sequence of nucleotides in DNA codes for specific amino acids
which link to form proteins.
• Identify the five nitrogenous bases (A, T, C, G and U) found in nucleic acids as the
same for all organisms.
• Summarize the process of protein synthesis.
Note: Students are not expected to memorize the names and/or structures or
characteristics of the 20 amino acids. The focus should be on the fact that side chains
are what make each of the amino acids different and determine how they bond and
fold in proteins.
Bio.4.1.3
• Develop a cause and effect model for specificity of enzymes - the folding produces
a 3-D shape that is linked to the protein function, enzymes are proteins that speed up
chemical reactions (catalysts) by lowering the activation energy, are re-usable and
specific, and are affected by such factors as pH and temperature.
Sample Questions:
Why would a distance runner consume carbohydrates instead of proteins before a
race?
a. Carbohydrates provide insulation for heat.
b. Carbohydrates provide structure for tissues.
c. Carbohydrates provide genetic material for muscle cells.
d. Carbohydrates provide energy for endurance.
How does the DNA code become a protein?
a. DNA mRNA
a. DNA
b. DNA
c. DNA
n
How do enzymes speed up biological chemical reactions?
a. Enzymes increase the energy required for a reaction to occur.
b. Enzymes decrease the energy required for a reaction to occur.
c. Enzymes have no affect on the energy required for a reaction to occur.
d. Enzymes maintain the energy needed for a reaction to occur.
Moore/ Nash Review Packet 3



Biology- The study of life and living organisms
Biotic- carbon/hydrogen comes from life
Abiotic- no carbon/hydrogennot organic
 Characteristics of life:
o Organization- structure; all parts working together in an orderly living system
(cells -> tissues -> organs -> organ systems -> organisms )
o Reproduction- the ability to make more of the same type of organism
o Metabolism- all of the chemical reactions that occur within a living organism
o Homeostasis- maintaining balance in internal environments
o Adaptation/evolution- ability to respond to environmental factors
 Organic compounds/ Macromolecules
o Also called polymers
o Have subunits that are called monomers (building blocks)
Mono
1
Di2
Poly
More than 2
o 4 different types:
Name
Carbohydrate
Monomer
Monosaccharide
Function
Quick energy
Protein
Lipids
Nucleic Acids
Amino Acid
Glycerol & Fatty Acids
Nucleotide
Building material
Long term energy
Protein instructions

Test
Iodine/ Benedicts
Solution
Biruet Solution
Brown paper bag
n/a
Carbohydrates (polysaccharides) (usually end in –ose)
 Contain: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen
 Monomer (building block): monosaccharide
 Function: quick energy
 Test with: iodine
 Examples: sugars, starches, glucose (made during photosynthesis)
 Structure: ring shaped
Moore/ Nash Review Packet 4

Proteins (polypeptide chains) (usually end in –ase)
 Contain: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen
 Monomer (building block): amino acids
 Function: repair/build muscles, hair, nails
 Test with: Benedict’s solution
 Held together by: peptide bonds
 Made: at the ribosomes through transcription/translation with
instructions from DNA
 Examples: meats, fish, chicken
 Structure: central carbon atom

Important proteins: Enzymes (liver lab)
 Reduce activation energy needed for a chemical
reaction to take place
 Speed up/slow down chemical reactions (organic
catalyst)
 Have a specific shape



Interact with a specific substrate (lock and key)
Binds to substrate at active site
Used over and over until denatured (broken/changed)
by temperature or pH
Moore/ Nash Review Packet 5
Lipids
 Contain: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen
 Monomers (building blocks): glycerol and 3 fatty acids
 Function: long term energy, insulation, forms plasma membrane
 Test with: brown paper bag
 Examples: fats, oils, waxes
 Structure: glycerol and 3 fatty acid chains
Glycerol
Fatty Acid
Fatty Acid
Fatty Acid

Nucleic Acids
 Contain: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen
 Monomer(building block): nucleotide (sugar, phosphate, nitrogen
base)
sugar




Function: stores genetic material; direct all cell activities; information
for making proteins
Structure: helix shape (twisted ladder) (Watson and Crick
discovered “double helix” shape of DNA)
Replication: happens before mitosis/meiosis
Ex: DNA and RNA
DNA
- double stranded
- deoxyribose sugar
- Bases: A & T, C &G
RNA
- single stranded
- ribose sugar
- Bases: A & U, C & G
- 3 types: rRNA, mRNA, tRNA
Moore/ Nash Review Packet 6
DNA structure
RNA structure
 Cells
o Cell theory
 Cells are the basic unit of life
 All organisms are composed of cells
 All cells come from preexisting cells
o Prokaryotes
vs.
Eukaryotes
* Simple
* Complex
* No nucleus
*Membrane bound nucleus
* No membrane bound organelles *Membrane bound organelles
* Ex: bacteria, blue-green algae
* Ex: Animals, plants, protists, fungi
* formed first
* formed later
* smaller
* bigger
* has ribosomes
* has ribosomes
* anaerobic
* aerobic
Plant
Animal
* rectangular
* circular shape
* cell wall (made * no cell wall
of cellulose)
* large vacuole
* smaller vacuoles
* chloroplasts
* Centrioles
* autotrophs
*heterotrophs
Moore/ Nash Review Packet 7
Bio.1.1.1
• Identify these cell organelles in diagrams of plant and animal cells. (middle school
review)
• Explain how the structure of the organelle determines it function. (Example: folded inner
membrane in mitochondria increases surface area for energy production during aerobic
cellular respiration).
• Summarize how these organelles interact to carry out functions such as energy
production and use, transport of molecules, disposal of waste, and synthesis of new
molecules. (Example: DNA codes for proteins which are assembled by the ribosomes and
used as enzymes for energy production at the mitochondria).
Bio.1.1.2
• Proficiently use proper light microscopic techniques as well as determine total power
magnification. The purpose is to use microscopes to observe a variety of cells with
particular emphasis on the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic as well as
plant and animal cells. While students are not expected to understand how scanning and
electron transmission microscopes work, they should recognize that they reveal greater
detail about eukaryotic and prokaryotic cell differences.
• Infer that prokaryotic cells are less complex than eukaryotic cells.
• Compare the structure of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells to conclude the following:
– mitochondria, nucleus, vacuole, and
chloroplasts are not present in prokaryotes.
hromosome structure – circular DNA strands called plasmids are
characteristic of prokaryotes.
– prokaryotic cells are smaller.
Bio.1.1.3
• Compare a variety of specialized cells and understand how the functions of these cells
vary. (Possible examples could include nerve cells, muscle cells, blood cells, sperm cells,
xylem and phloem.)
• Explain that multicellular organisms begin as undifferentiated masses of cells and that
variation in DNA expression and gene activity determines the differentiation of cells and
ultimately their specialization.
parts of the DNA that are activated determine the function and specialized structure of a
cell.
e potential to become
any type of cell; however, once a cell differentiates, the process cannot be reversed.
and DNA.
used in different types of cells, influenced
by the cell's environment and past history.
• Recall that chemical signals may be released by one cell to influence the development
and activity of another cell.
• Identify stem cells as unspecialized cells that continually reproduce themselves and
have, under appropriate conditions, the ability to differentiate into one or more types of
specialized cells.
embryonic stem cells.
both embryonic and adult, with
the right laboratory culture conditions, differentiate into specialized cells.
Moore/ Nash Review Packet 8
Note: It is not essential for students to understand the details of how the process of
transcriptional regulation in a cell produces specific proteins, which results in cell
differentiation.
Sample Questions:
A runner is competing in a 10 km track meet and just before completing the race, the
runner is nearly out of breath and the energy needed to finish the race. Which cell
structure is most affected by this lack of energy?
a. nucleus
b. ribosome
c. mitochondrion
d. plasma membrane
What can be used to distinguish between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells?
a. Only eukaryotic cells come from preexisting cells.
b. Only prokaryotic cells are the smallest unit of living organisms.
c. Only prokaryotic cells contain ribosomes.
d. Only eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound organelles
Nerve cells and bone cells are specialized cells that descend from the same single cell
(fertilized egg). Which statement best explains how each type of cell results in a different
structure with a specialized function?
a. Nerve cells and bone cells begin with the same structure; however, bone cells harden
over time.
b. Nerve cells and bone cells receive different DNA that determines the structure and
function that each will perform.
c. Nerve cells and bone cells receive the same DNA; however, only specific parts of the
DNA are activated in each cell.
d. Nerve cells and bone cells receive the same DNA; however, bone cells receive more to
make the protective outer covering.
Constructed Response: Explain how many of the cells in an individual can be very different
from one another in terms of structure and function, even though they are descended
from a single cell and thus have essentially identical genetic instructions?
Moore/ Nash Review Packet 9
o Organelles
 Nucleus- holds genetic information; controls the activities of the cell;
disappears during cell division
 Cytoplasm- clear, jelly-like substance inside cells; site of anaerobic cellular
respiration
 Vacuole- storage of food, water, and other materials
 Mitochondria- aerobic cellular respiration- 36 ATP; highly folded inner
membrane allows for greater chemical reaction; athletes have more;
“powerhouse of cell”
 Ribosome (rRNA)- site of protein synthesis (translation); place where amino
acids are synthesized; located either on ER or in cytoplasm
 Lysosome- “suicide sacs”; contain digestive enzymes ; remove waste;
break down old or worn out cell parts (re-absorption)
 Centrioles- only in animal cells; helps separate sister chromatids during
mitosis/meiosis
 Cell wall- rigid wall that supports cell; located outside plasma membrane;
only in plant cells; made of cellulose; square shape; turgor pressure
 Chloroplasts- store chlorophyll; location of photosynthesis (sunlight + CO2
+ H2O ----> C6H12O6 + O2 )
 Plasma membrane- controls what enters and leaves the cell (cell door);
phospholipid bilayer; fluid-mosaic model; made of lipids and proteins
Moore/ Nash Review Packet 10
Bio.1.2.1
• Explain how cells use buffers to regulate cell pH and how cells can respond to maintain
temperature, glucose levels, and water balance in organisms.
• Compare the mechanisms of active vs. passive transport (diffusion and osmosis).
• Conclude how the plasma membrane structure functions.
• Explain changes in osmotic pressure that occurs when cells are placed in solutions of
differing concentrations.
Bio 4.2.2
Conclude that energy production by organisms is vital for maintaining homeostasis and
that maintenance of homeostasis is necessary for life. Examples: Active transport of
needed molecules or to rid the cell of toxins; movement to avoid danger or to find food,
water, and or mates; synthesizing needed molecules.
Sample Questions:
The diagram below shows the same type of molecule on side A and side B. Over time,
what is the likely result?
a. More molecules will be on Side B than Side A.
b. More molecules will be on Side A than Side B.
c. Equal number of molecules will be on Side A & B.
d. All of the molecules will move towards the membrane.
The concentration of a certain molecule is greater inside the cell than outside the cell. If
the cell needs more of that molecule, what is the best process to move more of this
molecule inside the cell?
a. Active transport
Some substances enable solutions to
b. Passive transport
resist pH changes when an acid or
c. Diffusion
base is added. Such substances are
d. Osmosis
called buffers. Buffers are very
important in helping organisms
maintain a relatively constant pH
(Help the organism maintain
Homeostasis!).
Moore/ Nash Review Packet 11
 Cellular transport
o Plasma membrane is selectively permeable (semi-permeable/porous) and
controls what comes into/out of the cell
Passive Transport
- no energy required
- moves down the concentration gradient
(from high to low)
- diffusion: moving substances
- osmosis: diffusion of water
- facilitated diffusion: moves large molecules
with the assistance of a carrier protein
Rules:
1. draw circle inside square
2. label the higher concentration of
water
3. draw arrow from high to low
High H2O
Active Transport
- requires energy
- moves up the concentration gradient
(from low to high)
- non-equilibrium
NOT ALWAYS INTO OR OUT OF CELL!!!!
Rules:
1. draw circle inside square
2. label the higher concentration of
water
3. draw arrow from low to high
High H2O
 Cellular energy
o All energy for life comes from the sun- capture during photosynthesis and
released during cellular respiration; ATP is useable form of energy; ADP is the
used form of that energy
Moore/ Nash Review Packet 12
Bio.4.2.1
• Analyze overall reactions including reactants and products for photosynthesis and cellular
respiration and factors which affect their rates (amounts of reactants, temperature, pH, light,
etc.).
• Compare these processes with regard to efficiency of ATP formation, the types of
organisms using these processes, and the organelles involved. (Anaerobic respiration should
include lactic acid and alcoholic fermentation.)
Note: (1) Instruction should include the comparison of anaerobic and aerobic organisms. (2)
Glycolysis, Kreb’s Cycle, and Electron Transport Chain are not addressed.
Sample Question:
How does the process of photosynthesis in plants provide energy for animals?
a. The water and carbon dioxide used in photosynthesis are converted into glucose and ATP
for animals.
b. The glucose and ATP used in photosynthesis are converted into water and carbon dioxide
for animals.
c. The glucose and carbon dioxide used in photosynthesis are converted into proteins for
animals.
d. The oxygen and glucose produced through photosynthesis are converted into lipids for
animals.
Which statement best compares aerobic and anaerobic respiration?
A Less ATP is generated during anaerobic respiration than during aerobic
respiration.
B More water is generated during anaerobic respiration than during aerobic
respiration.
C More oxygen is generated during anaerobic respiration than during aerobic
respiration.
D Less lactic acid is generated during anaerobic respiration than during aerobic
respiration.
If worldwide deforestation is not regulated, what could most likely result?
A Acid rain could lower the pH of rivers and lakes to dangerous levels for
aquatic life.
B CO2 levels in the atmosphere could increase and contribute to global
warming problems.
C Plants and animals could become better adapted to living in desert
conditions.
D Future generations of humans could have an excess of wood and paper
products.
Moore/ Nash Review Packet 13
o Photosynthesis
 Converts sunlight to chemical energy
 Occurs in the chloroplasts (in plant cells)
 Green light is least effective
 Red/Blue light is most effective
 Main function is to make glucose (autotrophs = make own food)
Sunlight
carbon
dioxide
water
glucose
oxygen
o Cellular Respiration
 Process by which organisms break down food to release its energy; breaks
down the glucose made in photosynthesis
 Occurs in the mitochondria
+
+
Glucose
oxygen
carbon
dioxide
Energy (ATP)
water
Carbon
Dioxide
(CO2)
Moore/ Nash Review Packet 14
o Cellular Respiration- aerobic vs. anaerobic comparison
no oxygen
oxygen
 Cell Division
o two types of cell division:
 mitosis- for body (somatic) cells
 meiosis- for sex cells (gametes)
o mitosis /meiosis are used to ensure correct
division of the chromosomes (DNA)
1- prophase; 2- metaphase;
3- anaphase; 4-telophase;
5- cytokinesis
Moore/ Nash Review Packet 15
Bio.1.2.2
• Outline the cell cycle – Growth1, Synthesis, Growth2, Mitosis, and Cytokinesis.
• Recognize mitosis as a part of asexual reproduction. (middle school review)
• Organize diagrams of mitotic phases and describe what is occurring throughout
the process.
Bio.3.2.1
• Recall the process of meiosis and identify process occurring in diagrams of stages.
(middle school review) Note: Students are not expected to memorize the names of
the steps or the order of the step names.
• Infer the importance of the genes being on separate chromosomes as it relates
to meiosis.
• Explain how the process of meiosis leads to independent assortment and
ultimately to greater genetic diversity.
• Exemplify sources of genetic variation in sexually reproducing organisms including
crossing over, random assortment of chromosomes, gene mutation, nondisjunction,
and fertilization.
• Compare meiosis and mitosis including type of reproduction (asexual or sexual),
replication and separation of DNA and cellular material, changes in chromosome
number, number of cell divisions, and number of cells produced in a complete
cycle.
Sample Questions:
A student observes a typical onion root tip where many of the cells have just successfully completed
mitosis. Which statement best explains what must have happened to result in cells that only have
half as many chromosomes as all of the other cells in the same section of the tip?
a. The parent cell completed mitosis after undergoing interphase.
b. The parent cell completed mitosis after undergoing cytokinesis.
c. The parent cell completed mitosis before undergoing cytokinesis.
d. The parent cell completed mitosis before undergoing interphase.
Cell cycle checkpoints are proteins that monitor and regulate the progress of the cell cycle in
eukaryotic cells. Which statement best describes what would most likely happen if a cell is permitted
to progress to mitosis without the preparation stage of interphase?
a. The new cells would have all of the organelles except the nucleus.
b. The new cells would have all of the organelles except the mitochondria.
c. The number of chromosomes in the daughter cells would be the same as the number of
chromosomes in the parent cell.
d. The number of chromosomes in the daughter cells would be different from the number of
chromosomes in the parent cell.
Why is the process of meiosis important to sexual reproduction?
a. It provides genetic variation in offspring.
b. It doubles the number of chromosomes in offspring.
c. It reduces the number of alleles from parent to offspring.
d. It produces a hybrid of all genetic traits in offspring.
Moore/ Nash Review Packet 16
Interphase
Prophase
Metaphase
G1, S, G2
Anaphase
Telophase/Cytokinesis
mitosis
X2 meiosis
o diploid- 2 sets of chromosomes; ½ from mom and ½ from dad
o haploid- 1 set of chromosomes (monoploid)
Mitosis (somatic cells)
- 1 diploid cell  2 diploid cells
- used for growth and repair of body cells
- asexual reproduction (clones)
Meiosis (gametes)
- 1 diploid cell  4 haploid cells
- used to produce:
4 sperm- males
1 egg/3 polar bodies- female
- sexual reproduction (genetic variation)
(crossing over/random assortment)
2n/ 2 chromosomes
2n/ 2 chromosomes
n/ 1 chromosome
2n/ 2
chromosomes
Moore/ Nash Review Packet 17
Examples:
Asexual Reproduction
Budding
Moore/ Nash Review Packet 18
Sexual Reproduction
Fertilization
o fertilization- the joining of male (sperm) and female (egg) gametes together
o zygote- cell formed from process of fertilization
o differentiation/ specialization- generic cells becoming specialized (to do a
certain job in the body)
o cleavage- rapid cell division (mitosis) immediately after fertilization
 Genetics
o the study of heredity
 heredity- the passing on of traits from parent to offspring
 Gregor Mendel- “father of genetics”; Austrian monk who studied pea
plants
 Punnett square helps by showing all the possible gene combinations for a cross
 big letters = dominant; little letters= recessive
Moore/ Nash Review Packet 19
Bio.3.1.1
• Develop a cause-and-effect model relating the structure of DNA to the functions of replication and
protein synthesis:
double helix or “twisted ladder” structure. The sides are composed of
alternating phosphate-sugar groups and “rungs of the DNA ladder” are composed of
complementary nitrogenous base pairs (always adenine, A, to thymine, T, and cytosine, C, to
guanine, G) joined by weak hydrogen bonds.
life.
n exact
copy of parental DNA.
expression of genes.
• Infer the advantages (injury repair) and disadvantages (cancer) of the overproduction,
underproduction or production of proteins at the incorrect times.
Bio.3.1.2
• Explain the process of protein synthesis:
fied into the three types of
RNA
– tRNA supplies appropriate amino acids
ides. Polypeptide chains form protein
molecules. Proteins can be structural (forming a part of the cell materials) or functional (hormones,
enzymes, or chemicals involved in cell chemistry).
• Interpret a codon chart to determine the amino acid sequence produced by a particular
sequence of bases.
• Explain how an amino acid sequence forms a protein that leads to a particular function and
phenotype (trait) in an organism.
Bio.3.1.3
• Understand that mutations are changes in DNA coding and can be deletions, additions, or
substitutions. Mutations can be random and spontaneous or caused by radiation and/or chemical
exposure.
• Develop a cause and effect model in order to describe how mutations: changing amino acid
sequence, protein function, phenotype. Only mutations in sex cells (egg and sperm) or in the gamete
produced from the primary sex cells can result in heritable changes.
Bio.3.2.2
• Interpret Punnett squares (monohybrid only) to determine genotypic and phenotypic ratios.
Understand that dominant alleles mask recessive alleles.
• Determine parental genotypes based on offspring ratios.
• Interpret karyotypes (gender, and chromosomal abnormalities).
• Recognize a variety of intermediate patterns of inheritance (codominance and incomplete
dominance).
• Recognize that some traits are controlled by more than one pair of genes and that this pattern of
inheritance is identified by the presence of a wide range of phenotypes (skin, hair, and eye color).
• Interpret autosomal inheritance patterns: sickle cell anemia including the relationship to malaria
(incomplete dominance), cystic fibrosis (recessive heredity), and Huntington’s disease (dominant
heredity).
• Solve and interpret codominant crosses involving multiple alleles including blood typing problems.
(Blood Types: A, B, AB and O and Alleles: IA, IB, and i). Students should be able to determine if
parentage is possible based on blood types.
Moore/ Nash Review Packet 20
• Understand human sex chromosomes and interpret crosses involving sex-linked traits (colorblindness and hemophilia). Students should understand why males are more likely to express a sexlinked trait.
• Interpret phenotype pedigrees to identify the genotypes of individuals and the type of inheritance.
Bio.3.3.1
• Summarize the process of gel electrophoresis as a technique to separate molecules based on size.
Students should learn the general steps of gel electrophoresis – using restrictions enzymes to cut DNA
into different sized fragments and running those fragments on gels with longer fragments moving
slower than faster ones.
• Interpret or “read” a gel.
• Exemplify applications of DNA fingerprinting - identifying individuals; identifying and cataloging
endangered species.
Bio.3.3.2
• Generalize the applications of transgenic organisms (plants, animals, & bacteria) in agriculture and
industry including pharmaceutical applications such as the production of human insulin.
• Summarize the steps in bacterial transformation (insertion of a gene into a bacterial plasmid,
getting bacteria to take in the plasmid, selecting the transformed bacteria, and producing the
product).
Bio.3.3.3
• Identify the reasons for establishing the Human Genome Project.
• Recognize that the project is useful in determining whether individuals may carry genes for genetic
conditions and in developing gene therapy.
• Evaluate some of the science of gene therapy. (e.g. Severe Combined Immunodeficiency and
Cystic Fibrosis)
• Critique the ethical issues and implications of genomics and biotechnology (stem cell research,
gene therapy and genetically modified organisms).
Sample Questions:
If a strand of DNA is CTGCAT, what is the sequence of nucleotides in the complementary strand?
a. GACGTA
b. CTGCAT
c. AGTACG
d. GACGUA
Which of the following changes in DNA is likely to have the greatest effect on the resulting peptide?
a. in a strand of DNA, one C is changed to a T
b. a “G” is inserted at the beginning of a gene
c. a “G” is inserted at the end of a gene
d. in a strand of DNA, one T is changed to a C
A parent with Type A blood and a parent with Type O blood have a child. Which of the following is a
possible genotype of their offspring?
a. IAIA
b. IAIB
c. IBi
d. ii
Moore/ Nash Review Packet 21









Dominant- traits that express themselves; hide the recessive trait; only
requires one allele to be expressed (B)
Recessive- traits that are hidden by the dominant; to be expressed it must
be homozygous (have two recessive alleles) (bb)
Allele- alternate forms of a gene
Genotype- the genetic make up of an individual (letters)
Phenotype- the physical appearance
Purebred (true breeding)- will produce identical copies of self
(homozygous)
Hybrid/carrier- will not produce identical copies of self (heterozygous)
Incomplete dominance- shows in the middle
Codominance- both alleles have equal power (co-captain/costar)
Incomplete dominance




Codominance
Polygenetic inheritance- traits controlled by more than one section of
DNA; provides a wide variety of characteristics (ex- hair color, skin color,
eye color, height)
Sex-linked traits- traits that are linked to the “X” chromosomes (excolorblindness and hemophilia) males are XY; females are XX
Test-Cross- used to determine the genotype of an organism; the unknown
genotype is crossed with an individual that is homozygous recessive (bb)
Independent assortment- alleles separate and end up in different
gametes
Example: B could match up with D or d

Pedigree- graphic representation of genetic inheritance used to map
genetic traits
Phenotypic pedigree
Example: 1 and 2 are both
carriers (heterozygous)
Moore/ Nash Review Packet 22

Karyotype- chromosomal chart used for sex determination and
chromosomal mutations
This is an example of a
female with Down
Syndrome
Multiple alleles- traits that are governed by more than 2 alleles (ex- blood
type)
Blood Type
Genotype
Can receive blood
from:

i=O
A
B
AB
O

IA IA
IA i
IB IB
IB i
IA IB
ii
AA
AO
BB
BO
AB
OO
A or O
B or O
A, B, AB, O
O
Genetic Engineering- genetically altering DNA for mass producing human
products
DNA Fingerprinting!!!
Gel electrophoresis- separates
DNA segments based on size by
running an electrical current
through them; used to compare
unknown DNA with known
samples
Example: Crime
DNA matches up
with suspect 2
Moore/ Nash Review Packet 23
Is often used to
make the super
crop, or live
stock!!!!!!
Moore/ Nash Review Packet 24
How we make (mass
produce) Insulin!!
Example of
Gene Therapy!!
Moore/ Nash Review Packet 25
 Central Dogmao The path information travels… from DNA to mRNA to proteins… also referred to
as the central dogma of biology. It is used by all organisms and accounts for
the wonder of life.
 DNA Replication:



1. An Enzyme breaks apart the weak hydrogen bonds holding nitrogen
bases together; “unzipping” the molecule.
2. Free nucleotides bond to the single strands (using base paring rules)
3. Each new molecule has one original strand and one new strand
White = original strand
Black = new strand
DNA is semi-conservative because each
new molecule has one original strand and
one newly formed strand
Moore/ Nash Review Packet 26
 Protein Synthesis
o Transcription (DNA to RNA)
 Occurs in the nucleus
 DNA unzips; free nucleotides pair up with the strand(using RNA base
paring rules) creating a strand of (messenger) mRNA
 mRNA then travels from the nucleus to the cytoplasm
-
RNA:
-single strand
- U instead of T
o Translation (RNA to Protein)
 Occurs in cytoplasm
 (transfer) tRNA brings amino acids to the ribosomes
 Codons on mRNA join with anticodons on tRNA each coding for
one of 20 different amino acids
 As amino acids are coded for they are joined together by peptide
bonds
 This process continues until a STOP codon is reached on the mRNA
strand
Moore/ Nash Review Packet 27
Protein synthesis--entire process
- 20 Amino Acids listed
- Rules:
* Use left side first
* Use top second
* Use right side third
- Used for translation
Moore/ Nash Review Packet 28
 Mutations
o A mutation is any mistake or change in the DNA sequence; caused by
mutagen; example- UV radiation causes skin cancer
 Point mutations
 A change in a single base pair of DNA

Frameshift mutations
 A single base is added or deleted from DNA

Chromosomal mutations
 Deletions- when part of a chromosome is left out
 Insertions- when part of a chromatid breaks off and attached to its
sister chromatid
 Inversions- when part of a chromosome breaks out and is reinserted
backwards
 Translocations- when one part of a chromosome breaks off and is
added to a different chromosome
Moore/ Nash Review Packet 29

Nondisjunction
 The failure of homologous chromosomes to separate properly
during meiosis
o Trisomy- having an extra chromosome
 Trisomy 21- Down Syndrome
o Triploidy- having 3 sets of chromosomes
o Monosomy- having only 1 chromosome
 Typically fatal
 Evolution
o The change in populations over a period of time
o Charles Darwin was the first scientist to support the idea of gradual change in
species over time due to natural selection
 Natural selection- explains how populations evolve; changes in
populations occur when organisms with favorable variations for a
particular environment survive, reproduce, and pass on these variations to
the next generation (“survival of the fittest”)
o Early life started with prokaryotic cells going through anaerobic cellular
respiration because of no pure oxygen
o The Theory of Evolution, based on fossil records, DNA comparison and structural
similarities, proves Common Ancestry
o Support for theory of evolution:
1.
Fossil Record
Absolute dating
Relative dating
Age determined by other Age determined by
organisms found
carbon dating
2. Analogous structures- body parts that do not have common evolutionary
origin but are similar in function (ex. bird’s wings and butterfly’s wings)
3. Homologous structures- structures that are similar in arrangement, function
or both; show a common evolutionary origin
Moore/ Nash Review Packet 30
4. Vestigial structures- body structure that has no function in present day
organism but was probably of use to an ancestor
Example: free floating hip
bone, in whales, is no longer
needed
5. Embryological similarities- proof of common ancestry by similar
characteristics at conception and throughout early development
o Artificial selection- breeding of organisms selected for specific traits in order to
produce offspring with those desired characteristics
o Adaptation- a variation that allows an organism to survive
o Mimicry- a structural adaptation that enables a species to resemble another
species
o Camouflage- blending in with the environment
o Geographic Isolation- as an organism’s environment changes- those best suited
for the environment will survive
Example:
Population X- would favor
similar characteristics as
mainland
Populations Y & Z- would
favor those organisms that
had genetic mutations
allowing them to survive in
different environments
DIAGRAM KEY:
Population X- change the least
Population Y- slight changes
Population Z- change the most
Moore/ Nash Review Packet 31
Bio.3.4.1
• Summarize the hypothesized early atmosphere and experiments that suggest how the first
“cells” may have evolved and how early conditions affected the type of organism that
developed (first anaerobic and prokaryotic, then photosynthetic, then eukaryotic, then
multicellular).
• Summarize how fossil evidence informs our understanding of the evolution of species and what
can be inferred from this evidence.
• Generalize what biochemical (molecular) similarities tell us about evolution.
• Generalize what shared anatomical structures (homologies) tell us about evolution.
Bio.3.4.2
• Develop a cause and effect model for the process of natural selection:
c recombination.
etic phenotypes.
ange in favored alleles leads to changes in species over time.
• Illustrate the role of geographic isolation in speciation.
Bio.3.4.3
Develop a cause and effect model for the role of disease agents in natural selection including
evolutionary selection of resistance to antibiotics and pesticides in various species, passive/active
immunity, antivirals and vaccines.
Sample Questions:
Species A and B share similarities in DNA sequences. What would this suggest about their
evolutionary relationship?
a. Species A developed before species B.
b. Species A and B share a recent common ancestor.
c. Species A and B are unrelated.
d. Species B developed before Species A.
During the Industrial Revolution, there were two variations of English Peppered Moths, those with
light color and those with dark color. The soot from the factories covered the trees. Data was
collected to measure the percentage of each type of moth in the area. It was noted that the
percentage of dark-colored moths increased over time, while the percentage of light-colored
moths decreased. What is the likely explanation for this change?
a. The presence of a mutation changed the color of the English Peppered Moths.
b. The presence of the dark-colored variation increased the likelihood for survival of the English
Peppered Moths.
c. The presence of the light-colored variation increased the likelihood for survival of the English
Peppered Moths.
d. The presence of an acquired trait changed the color of the English Peppered Moths.
A researcher sprays a new pesticide on thousands of insects of the same species that live in a
large field. A few of the insects survive. What can be concluded by the researcher?
a. The species of insects will likely become resistant to the pesticide.
b. The ideal interval between the first and second applications of the pesticide should be
increased.
c. The pesticide has no effect on the species.
d. The concentration of the pesticide was too weak.
Moore/ Nash Review Packet 32

Classification
o Taxonomy- the branch of biology that groups and names organisms based on
studies of their shared characteristics
o Originally developed under a 2 kingdom system- plants and animals; now 6
o Taxonomic levels
“King Philip Came Over For Great Spaghetti”
 Kingdom
 Phylum
 Class
 Order
 Family
 Genus
 Species
o 6 Kingdoms:
 Archaebacteria- autotrophic bacteria; live in harsh environments; have
prokaryotic cells; unicellular
 Eubacteria- heterotrophic- autotrophic; unicellular; prokaryotes
 Protist- may be auto- or heterotrophic; diverse; multicellular or unicellular;
eukaryotes; live in moist environments; lack complex organ systems
 Fungi- all heterotrophic; can be uni- or multicellular; eukaryotes that do
not move from place to place; have cell wall; decomposers
 Plants- autotrophic; multicellular; eukaryotes
 Animals- heterotrophic; multicellular; eukaryotes
o Binomial nomenclature- two name system of naming an organism
 Developed by Carolus Linnaeus
EX:
 Genus and species of organism used in scientific name
Homo sapiens
 Genus is capitalized and species is lower case
 Both names are either italicized or underlined
Rules for Dichotomous Keys:
1. Always start with number 1
2. Follow direction at end of line
Ex: Bird X= Platyspiza
Moore/ Nash Review Packet 33
Bio.3.5.1
• Generalize the changing nature of classification based on new knowledge generated
by research on evolutionary relationships and the history of classification system.
Bio.3.5.2
• Classify organisms using a dichotomous key.
• Compare organisms on a phylogenetic tree in terms of relatedness and time of
appearance in geologic history.
Moore/ Nash Review Packet 34
Behavior
o Behavior- anything an animal (or plant) does in response to a stimulus
o Stimulus- an environmental change that directly influences the activity of an
organism
o Innate behavior- behavior that is inherited
o Automatic response
 Reflex- simplest form of innate behavior; involves no conscious control
 Fight or flight- mobilizes the body into a greater action
 Instinctive behavior- begins when an animal recognizes a stimulus and
continues response until all parts of a behavior are complete (ex: suckling)
o Courtship/territorial behavior (ex: courtship dances)
 Pheromones- chemicals that communicate information among
individuals of the same species
 Aggressive behavior- used to intimidate another animal of the same
species (ex: fighting fish)
 Dominance hierarchy- form of ranking in which some individuals are more
subordinate (submissive) than others
o Behavioral clues
 Circadian rhythm- 24 hour clock
 Migration- seasonal
 Hibernation- an extreme conservation of energy including body
temperature dropping
 Estivation- reduced metabolisms in cases where heat and drought
conditions exist
o Learned behaviors Habituation- occurs when animals are repeatedly given a stimuli that is
not associated with any reward or punishment; animal becomes
habituated to stimuli when it stops responding to the stimuli
 Imprinting- animal forming an attachment to another object; takes place
only during a specific period of time during an individual’s life
 Motivation- an internal need that causes an animal to act
 Insight- learning in which an animal uses previous experience to respond
to a new situation
 Classical conditioning- the process of learning by association; famous
example is Pavlov’s dogs
Moore/ Nash Review Packet 35
 Plants
Gymnosperms
vs.
angiosperms
Vascular plants (have roots, stems, leaves) Vascular (have roots, stems, leaves)
Produce seeds in cones
Flowering plants
Keep leaves all year long (evergreen)
Produce seeds inside fruits
Ex- cone-bearer (pine, spruce, fir)
Deciduous plants- lose leaves every fall
Thrive in harsh conditions
Produce seeds with cotyledon- provides plant
embryo with food while maturing
Do NOT lose much water (hold on to it)
Ex- dicots and monocots
Dicots
Monocots
- two cotyledons (seed
leaves) present
- one cotyledon
(seed leaf) present
- has primary taproot
that branches off
- has a fibrous root
system
- has 3 pored pollen
- has single pore
pollen
- has ring shaped
vascular system in stem
- has bundled
vascular system in
stem
- leaves have a netvein system
- leaves have
parallel veins;
- 4 or 5 part flowers
- three part flowers
Example test question:
What is plant 1?
Answer: Gymnosperm
Moore/ Nash Review Packet 36
Openings- stomata- with guard cells
on either side; control how big the
hole is (how much water/gas enters
and leaves)
Has male and female parts; male parts
generally located on outside of flower;
female parts generally located on inside of
flower and often flowers are colorful to
draw insects in to help spread gametes
Vascular tissue:
- xylem- water and minerals up from
soil
- phloem- allows glucose and carbon
dioxide to travel to rest of plant
Primary growth of plant occurs at root tip
Moore/ Nash Review Packet 37
Bio.2.1.1
• Deconstruct the carbon cycle as it relates to photosynthesis, cellular respiration,
decomposition and climate change.
• Summarize the nitrogen cycle (including the role of nitrogen fixing bacteria) and its
importance to synthesis of proteins and DNA.
• Identify factors that influence climate such as:
)
ntal processes (relate to volcanic eruption and other geological processes)
• Explain the recycling of matter within ecosystems and the tendency toward a more
disorganized state.
• Analyze energy pyramids for direction and efficiency of energy transfer.
Living systems require a continuous input of energy to maintain organization. The input of
radiant energy which is converted to chemical energy allows organisms to carry out life
processes.
n through producers and
consumers as chemical energy that is ultimately transformed into heat energy. Continual
refueling of radiant energy is required by ecosystems.
Bio 2.1.2
• Analyze how various organisms accomplish the following life functions through adaptations
within particular environments (example: water or land) and that these adaptations have
evolved to ensure survival and reproductive success.
– how different organisms get what they need to cells; how they
move waste from cells to organs of excretion. Focus is on maintaining balance in pH, salt, and
water. Include plants - vascular and nonvascular.
– how different organisms take in and release gases (carbon dioxide or oxygen,
water vapor); cellular respiration
– feeding adaptations and how organisms get nutrition (autotrophic and
heterotrophic) and how they break down and absorb foods.
ction, Growth and Development – sexual versus asexual, eggs, seeds, spores,
placental, types of fertilization.
• Analyze behavioral adaptations that help accomplish basic life functions such as suckling,
taxes/taxis, migration, estivation, and hibernation, habituation, imprinting, classical conditioning
(e.g. Pavlov’s dog–stimulus association), and trial and error learning.
Bio 2.1.3
• Identify and describe symbiotic relationships such as mutualism and parasitism. (middle school
review)
• Exemplify various forms of communication and territorial defense including communication
within social structure using pheromones (Examples: bees, ants, termites), courtship dances,
territorial defense (Example: fighting fish).
• Explain patterns in predator /prey and competition relationships and how these patterns help
maintain stability within an ecosystem with a focus on population dynamics.
Note: There is much debate about whether commensalistic relationships are just early
mutualism. We may just not understand the benefits to each organism.
Bio.2.1.4
• Generalizing that although some populations have the capacity for exponential growth, there
are limited resources that create specific carrying capacities and population sizes are in a
dynamic equilibrium with these factors. (e.g. food availability, climate, water, territory).
• Interpret various types of population graphs – human population growth graphs indicating
historical and potential changes, factors influencing birth rates and death rates, and effects of
population size, density and resource use on the environment.
• Explain how disease can disrupt ecosystem balance. (Examples: AIDS, influenza, tuberculosis,
Dutch Elm Disease, Pfiesteria, etc.)
Moore/ Nash Review Packet 38
Bio.2.2.1
• Summarize how humans modify ecosystems through population growth, technology,
consumption of resources and production of waste.
• Interpret data regarding the historical and predicted impact on ecosystems and global
climate.
• Explain factors that impact North Carolina ecosystems. (Examples: acid rain effects in
mountains, beach erosion, urban development in the Piedmont leading to habitat destruction
and water runoff, waste lagoons on hog farms, Kudzu as an invasive plant, etc.).
Bio.2.2.2
• Explain the impact of humans on natural resources (e.g. resource depletion, deforestation,
pesticide use and bioaccumulation )
• Exemplify conservation methods and stewardship.
Sample Questions:
The different species of Hawaiian honeycreepers shown all descended from a single species of
North American bird. They now have different beaks, eat different foods, sing different songs,
and live in different environments on the islands. Which factor probably contributed most to the
development of these different species?
a. Loss of habitat
b. Geographic isolation
c. Egg size
d. Predation
Classify the relationship between flowering plants and bees, where the plant provides the bee
with food and the bee spreads pollen for the plant.
a. commensalism
b. mutualism
c. parasitism
d. predation
Which of the following has contributed most to the overall warming of the earth’s atmosphere?
a. the burning of fossil fuels
b. the depletion of the ozone
c. the occurrence of acid rain
d. the melting of the polar ice caps
Moore/ Nash Review Packet 39
 Ecology
o Organism- a living thing that has the 5
characteristics of life
o Species- a group of organisms capable of
interbreeding and producing fertile
offspring
o Populations- a group of related species
within a defined area
o Community- all of the populations in a
given area
o Ecosystem- all of the biotic and abiotic
factors in a given area
o Biosphere- life-supporting portions of Earth composed of air, land, fresh and salt
water
o Population growth J-shaped curve- a prediction of population size without environmental
disturbance
 S-shaped curve- a prediction of population size with environmental
disturbance
 Example: Carrying capacity- number of organisms of one species
that an area can support
Limiting factors: anything that
keeps a population from
uncontrollably growing;
example: competition over food,
space, water, shelter
o Symbiotic relationships
 Mutualism- both organisms living in close relation benefit
 Parasitism- one organism benefits and the other is harmed
 Commensalism- one organism benefits and the other is neither helped
nor harmed
Moore/ Nash Review Packet 40
o Food web- a model that shows all the possible feeding relationships at each
trophic level in a community
 Producers- autotrophic (make their own food)
 Primary consumers- heterotrophic; consume producers (herbivores)
 Secondary consumers- consume the herbivores (carnivores) or consume
herbivores and producers (omnivores)
 Decomposers- break down dead organisms (bacteria and fungi)
o Energy pyramid- represents the flow of energy through an ecosystem. The
producers are on the bottom trophic level (they provide the greatest amount of
energy)
**More energy and greater population size at bottom  decreases
as you move up
o Human impact- climate change; example – greenhouse effect (increasing
atmospheric carbon through the use of Fossil Fuels). Polar ice caps melting (sea levels
rise and plants and animals lose habitat). Habitat loss (deforestation) #1
threat to balance globally!!!
Moore/ Nash Review Packet 41
Moore/ Nash Review Packet 42
 Scientific Method
o Hypothesis- a proposed solution to a problem
o Theory- an explanation of natural phenomenon supported by a large body of
scientific evidence obtained from many observations
o Scientific law- a statement about what happens in nature that seems to be true
all the time; does not explain why or how
o Independent variable- on the x-axis; is changed or manipulated by the
experimenter
o Dependent variable- on the y-axis; is changed or influenced by the changes
that occur with the independent variable
o Control- standard that is used for comparison of test results in an experiment
o Constant- in an experiment, a variable that does not change when other
variables change
o Quantitative data- deals with numbers; can be measured (ex- height, length,
weight, temperature)
o Qualitative data- deals with descriptions; can be observed but not measured
(ex- texture, smell, taste, color)
Title; Dependent vs. Independent
Dependent variable
* Numbers evenly spaced
* Continuous information= line graph
* grouped (chunked) information= bar
graph
axis
Independent variable
Y axis
X
Total magnification = eyepiece x objective
Example- 40 x 10 = 400