Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net ww w.E a syE ngi nee rin g.n et **Note: Other Websites/Blogs Owners Please do not Copy (or) Republish this Materials, Students & Graduates if You Find the Same Materials with EasyEngineering.net Watermarks or Logo, Kindly report us to easyengineeringnet@gmail.com Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net https://t.me/abcdelectrical Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net ww w.E asy En gin ee rin g.n et Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net https://t.me/abcdelectrical Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net Contents Manual for K-Notes ................................................................................. 2 Power Semi-Conductor Devices .............................................................. 3 Phase Controlled converter .................................................................. 10 ww w.E Chopper ................................................................................................ 15 Inverters................................................................................................ 21 asy En gin ee AC - AC Converters ................................................................................ 26 rin g.n et © 2014 Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 1 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net https://t.me/abcdelectrical Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net Manual for K-Notes Why K-Notes? Towards the end of preparation, a student has lost the time to revise all the chapters from his / her class notes / standard text books. This is the reason why K-Notes is specifically intended for Quick Revision and should not be considered as comprehensive ww w.E study material. What are K-Notes? asy En gin ee A 40 page or less notebook for each subject which contains all concepts covered in GATE Curriculum in a concise manner to aid a student in final stages of his/her preparation. It is highly useful for both the students as well as working professionals who are preparing for GATE as it comes handy while traveling long distances. When do I start using K-Notes? rin g.n et It is highly recommended to use K-Notes in the last 2 months before GATE Exam (November end onwards). How do I use K-Notes? Once you finish the entire K-Notes for a particular subject, you should practice the respective Subject Test / Mixed Question Bag containing questions from all the Chapters to make best use of it. © 2014 Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved. 2 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net https://t.me/abcdelectrical Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net Power Semi-Conductor Devices Properties of ideal switch 1. Conduction state , VON 0, ION 2. Blocking state , VOFF 0, VOFF 3. Ideal switch can change its state instantaneously TON 0 , TOFF 0 4. No power loss while switching. 5. Stable under all operating conditions. ww w.E Classification of switches 1. Uncontrolled switch (Passive switch) asy En gin ee Switching state cannot be controlled by any control signal E.g. Diode 2. Semi-controlled switch Only one switching state can be controlled by an external control signal. E.g. SCR 3. Fully controlled switch rin g.n et If both switching states can be controlled by switchable control signal. E.g. BJT, MOSFET. Other Classification 1. Unipolar switch The switch can block only one polarity of voltage when it is in OFF state. 2. Bipolar switch This switch can block both polarity of voltage when it is in blocking state. 3. Unidirectional switch This switch can carry current in only one direction when it is in conduction state. 4. Bidirectional switch This switch can carry current in both the directions when it is in conduction state. 3 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net https://t.me/abcdelectrical Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net Ideal characteristics of power semiconductor switches Device Diode Characteristic BJT ww w.E MOSFET IGBT SCR asy En gin ee rin g.n et GTO TRIAC 4 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net https://t.me/abcdelectrical Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net Power loss in a switch 1) The average power has in a switch is given by 1 T P vidt T o Where v = instantaneous voltage i = instantaneous current ww w.E 2) If the device is modeled as a resistance, as in case of a MOSFET 2 2 P Irms R ON Vrms R ON 3) If the device is modeled as a voltage source. P V Iavg Silicon Controlled Rectifier asy En gin ee rin g.n et In forward blocking mode, J1 , J3 are forward biased and J2 is reverse biased. In forward conduction mode, J2 breakdown, J1 , J3 are forward biased. In reverse blocking mode, J1 , J3 are reverse biased & J2 is forward biased. Latching Current This is the minimum value of anode current above which SCR turns ON. This is related to minimum gate pulse width requirement for SCR. Holding current Minimum value of anode current below which SCR turns OFF. 5 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net https://t.me/abcdelectrical Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net di Slope of characteristics = dt If ta trr Area under the curve = QR 1 QR IRM trr 2 IRM di dt trr ww w.E QR 1 di 2 trr 2 dt Device & Circuit Turn-off time Device turn off time, tq trr tgr asy En gin ee trr = reverse recovery time t gr = gate recovery time Circuit turn-off time t c is the time period for which communication circuit applies reverse voltage across SCR after anode current becomes zero. For successful communication, tc tq Turn-ON methods of SCR rin g.n et 1) Forward voltage triggering If VAK VBO , then J2 breakdown & SCR conducts. This can damage the SCR. 2) dV Triggering dt dv dv Ic C j , if is high, charging current increase and SCR conducts when Ic Ilatching . dt dt 3) Light Triggering If light is incident on J2 , charge carriers are generated and J2 starts conducting. 4) Thermal Triggering When temperature is increased then charge carriers are generated & SCR conducts. 5) Gate Triggering By applying gate pulse in SCR, VBO is lowered and SCR can easily conduct. 6 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net https://t.me/abcdelectrical Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net Static V-I characteristics of SCR ww w.E Communication of thyristor asy En gin ee Communication is defined as process of turning OFF the thyristor. Types of Commutations: 1. Natural or line communication In this case nature of supply supports the commutation. E.g. Rectifier, AC voltage controllers, Step-down cyclo-converters. 2. Forced Commutation 1) Class A commutation Circuit should be under-damped. R2 Ringing frequency, r Thyristor conducts for a period of = 4L for damped oscillations. C rin g.n et 1 R2 2 LC 4L r 7 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net https://t.me/abcdelectrical Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net 2) Class-B commutation or current commutation a) ITM peak Io C IP L c) Time required to turn OFF TM after TA ON b) ITA peak Vs I LC LC sin1 o Ip d) Conduction time of TA LC ww w.E e) tCM CVR = circuit turn off time Io I Where VR VS cos sin1 o Ip Other Implementation I tCM 2 sin1 o Ip LC asy En gin ee rin g.n et Rest all parameters remains same. 3) Class-C commutation or Impulse commutation I T1 peak V 2V S S R1 R 2 I T2 peak V 2V S S R 2 R1 tC1 R1 ln2 tC2 R 2 ln2 8 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net https://t.me/abcdelectrical Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net Class-D commutation or voltage commutation C L ITM peak Io VS ITA peak Io TON min for TM tCM Conduction time of TA 2tCM VO avg LC CVs ww w.E Io 2CVs Io VS TON 2tCM , T = Switching internal T Thermal Protection of SCR asy En gin ee jc = Thermal resistance b/w J & C CS = Thermal resistance b/w C & S SA = Thermal resistance b/w S & A Unit of 0 C / w rin g.n et In electrical circuit representation TjA = Temperature difference b/w J & A 9 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net https://t.me/abcdelectrical Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net Phase Controlled converter Form factor V FF or Vo Vor : rms value of output voltage. Vo : Average value of output voltage. ww w.E Ripple Factor RF = FF2 1 Distortion factor V DF 01 Vor asy En gin ee V01 : rms value of fundamental components of Vo Vor : rms value of output voltage. Total harmonic Distortion THD 1 1 DF2 Single phase half wave uncontrolled rectifier VO IO ϒ IO max R – load Vm Vm R 2 RL – Load Vm 1 cos 2 Vm 1 cos 2R 2 , L – Load 0 Vm L 2 rin g.n et = Extinction angle, Angle at which ω goes to zero. If a free-wheeling diode is connected across the load (RL) that behaves as R-load as output voltage goes to zero after t when FD conducts. 10 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net https://t.me/abcdelectrical Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net Single phase half wave controlled rectifier i) R – load VO avg Vm 1 cos 2 IO avg Vm 1 cos 2R Vor Vm2 sin2 4 2 Input power factor = ww w.E VS ii) α = firing angle R – L load 2 Vor R VS IS Vm Vor VS asy En gin ee 2 Voavg Vm cos cos 2 Io avg Vm cos cos 2R Vm Vor 12 sin2 sin2 2 Circuit turn off time, t c rin g.n et 2 Single phase full – wave rectifier 11 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net https://t.me/abcdelectrical Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net VO IS1 IS ww w.E DF 1 full converter 2Vm cos 2 2 Io Io Semi converter Vm 1 cos 2 2 I cos 2 O IO 2 2 2 2 cos DPF IPF 1 cos cos 2 2 asy En gin ee 2 2 cos 2 1 cos DPF: Displacement power factor = cos angle b w VS & IS1 IS1 = fundamental components of IS IPF: Input power factor IPF = DPF x DF DF: Distortion factor rin g.n et In case of continuous conductions, outgoing thyristors stop conduction before incoming thyristor start Load R – load R – L load RLE – load 1 1 Full converter V Vo m 1 cos V Vo m cos cos V Vo m cos cos E Semi – converter V Vo m 1 cos V Vo m 1 cos 1 Vo Vm 1 cos E 12 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net https://t.me/abcdelectrical Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net Three phase half wave controlled rectifier Vo 3Vml cos 2 Vml : Peak value of line voltage 1 3 3 Vor Vmp cos2 2 8 1 2 ww w.E Vmp : Peak value of phase voltage asy En gin ee Three phase full wave rectifier rin g.n et 13 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net https://t.me/abcdelectrical Vo Vor Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net 3 3 Full converter 3Vml cos Semi converter 3Vml 1 cos 2 Expression varies for 600 & 600 Vml IS1 1 3 3 cos 2 2 4 For 600 , it becomes 3-pulse converter. 6 IO 6 I cos 2 O ww w.E IS 2 IO 3 DF 3 DPF cosα IPF 3 cos IO 6 cos 2 asy En gin ee cos 2 6 cos2 2 x IS1 : Fundamental rms value of source current rin g.n et IS : rms value of source current Effect of source inductance Assuming source inductance equal to L S . Due to source inductance, there is an overlap b/w incoming and outgoing thyristor, given by overlap angle . For 2-pulse converter VO L 2Vm cos S IO VO Vm cos cos Displacement power factor = cos 2 14 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net https://t.me/abcdelectrical Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net For 6 – pulse converter VO 3LS 3Vm cos I O VO 3Vm cos cos 2 Displacement power factor = cos 2 ww w.E Chopper Buck Converter When CH is ON o t DT asy En gin ee rin g.n et Voltage across inductor VL VS VO When CH is OFF (DT < t < T) Voltage across inductor VL VO Applying volt-sec balance across inductor VS VO DT VO T DT 0 VS VO D VO 1 D 0 VO DVS D = duty cycle = TON T Where T = switching period = 1 f f = switching frequency 15 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net https://t.me/abcdelectrical Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net Average output voltage = DVS rms output voltage = Average source current = DIO Average current of FD = 1 D IO DVS Ripple in output current ww w.E When CH is ON 0 t DT VL VS VO 1 D VS During this period, since voltage is positive current increase from minimum value to maximum value. i Imax Imin t DT 0 DT L i DT i 1 D V S D 1 D VS fL asy En gin ee rin g.n et This formula gives approximate value of output ripple current for maximum ripple, D = 0.5 imax VS 4fL IL 2 I IO L 2 Imax IO Imin Critical Inductance (LC) Value of inductance at which inductor voltage waveform is just discontinuous. Lc 1 D R 2f 16 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net https://t.me/abcdelectrical Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net Critical Capacitance (CC) Value of capacitance at which capacitor voltage waveform is just discontinuous. CC 1 8fR Step-up chopper (Boost converter) ww w.E when CH is ON 0 t DT , VL VS when CH is OFF DT t T , VL VS VO Applying volt-sec balance across inductor asy En gin ee VS DT VS VO 1 D T 0 VS VO 1 D Since D < 1, VO VS when CH is ON 0 t DT , IC IO rin g.n et when CH is OFF DT t T , IC IL IO Applying Ampere sec balance across capacitor IO DT IL IO 1 D T 0 IL IO 1 D Ripple in inductor current When CH is ON 0 t DT , current increase from Imin to Imax L VS DT DVS iL VS iL DT L fL 17 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net https://t.me/abcdelectrical Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net Ripple in output voltage when CH is ON , IC IO C. VC I O DT VO VC IO DT C ww w.E -ve sign indicates voltage decrease VO IO DT C Critical Inductance (Lc) I IL L 2 LC D 1 D R 2f Critical Capacitance (Cc) VO VO 2 CC D 2fR asy En gin ee rin g.n et If inductor also has an internal resistance, then 1 D VO VS 2 r 1 D R r = internal resistance of inductor R = load resistance 18 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net https://t.me/abcdelectrical Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net Buck-Boost Converter When CH is ON (O < t < DT) VL VS I C I O When CH is OFF (DT < t < T) VL VO ww w.E IC IL IO Applying volt-sec balance across inductor VS DT VO 1 D T 0 VO asy En gin ee DVS 1 D Applying Ampere-sec balance across inductor IO DT IL IO 1 D T 0 IL IL I O 1 D VO R 1 D rin g.n et DVS R 1 D 2 Ripple in inductor current When CH is ON (O < t < DT) Inductor current increase from Imin to Imax L IL VS DT IL DVS fL 19 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net https://t.me/abcdelectrical Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net Ripple in output voltage When CH is ON (O < t < DT) Capacitor discharge & voltage decrease from Vmax to Vmin CVO I O DT VO DIO fC ww w.E Critical inductance (Lc) IL IL 2 LC R 1 D 2 2f Critical capacitance (Cc) VO VO 2 CC asy En gin ee rin g.n et I O 1 D T 2VS If internal resistance (r) of inductor is also considered then D 1 D VS VO 2 r 1 D R R = load resistance 20 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net https://t.me/abcdelectrical Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net Inverters Inverters circuits will convert DC power to AC power at required voltage & required frequency. Classification 1) Voltage source Inverter Input source is a voltage source. Switching device is bidirectional & unipolar. Load voltage depends on source voltage & load current depends on load parameters. ww w.E 2) Current source Inverters Input source is a current source. Switching device is bidirectional & bipolar Load voltage depends on source current & load voltage on load parameters. asy En gin ee Single phase half bridge VSI When S1 is ON, VO 0, IO 0 When S2 is ON, VO 0, IO 0 When D1 is ON, VO 0, IO 0 When D 2 is ON, VO 0, IO 0 V The output voltage is a square wave of amplitude dc 2 The fourier series of output voltage is given by VO n1,3,5 2Vdc sin nt n rin g.n et rms value of fundamental components is given by 2V 1 2 Vor1 dc V dc 2 Vor Vdc rms value of output voltage Distortion Factor(DF) = % Total Harmonic Distortion THD Vor1 Vor 2 2 2 1 1 = 48.43% DF2 21 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net https://t.me/abcdelectrical Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net If load power factor is lagging, then it requires forced commutation. If load power factor is leading, then natural commutation occurs. Single phase Full Bridge VSI When S1 , S2 conduct VO 0, IO 0 When D1 , D 2 conduct, VO 0, IO 0 ww w.E When S3 , S 4 conduct, VO 0, IO 0 When D3 ,D 4 conduct, VO 0, IO 0 The output voltage is a square wave of amplitude Vdc The fourier series of output voltage is given by VO asy En gin ee n1,3,5 4Vdc sin nt n rms value of fundamental components is given by Vor1 2 V dc Vor Vdc rms value of output voltage Distortion Factor(DF) = % Total Harmonic Distortion THD Vor1 Vor 2 2 1 1 = 48.43% DF2 Three phase full bridge VSI rin g.n et 22 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net https://t.me/abcdelectrical Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net 1800conduction mode In this mode, each switch will conduct for a period of 1800 and phase displacement between any two poles is 1200 Phase voltage V 2 V 3 dc VRN n6k 1 2Vdc ph rms ww w.E n sin nt VR1 = rms value of fundamental component of V 2Vdc VR1 1 1 100 31% DF2 Line voltage VL L rms VRY n6k 1 asy En gin ee VR1 3 Vph,rms Distortion factor, DF THD RN rin g.n et 2 V 3 dc 4Vdc n 3 sinn t 6 sin n VRY 1 = rms value of fundamental component of V RY Distortion factor = 3 = VRY 1 6 In each phase, each switch conducts for 1800 out of 3600 Ir.rms Io, rms 2 2Vdc 3R 2 Vdc , Where R = load resistance 3R 23 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net https://t.me/abcdelectrical Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net Voltage Phase Total RMS 2 Vdc 3 2 Vdc 3 Line Fundamental RMS 2 Vdc 6 V dc This conversion from total rms to fundamental rms can be performed by multiplication of ww w.E 3 DF . This conversion from phase to line voltage can be performed by multiplication of 3. 1200conduction mode asy En g ine e For each thyristor, conduction angle is 1200 & last 60 0 for commutation. Phase Voltage V ph rms VRN VR1 Vdc 6 n6k 1 2Vdc n sin n 3 6 V dc Distortion factor, DF 3 sin nt n 6 rin g.n et THD = 31% Line Voltage VL RMS Vdc 2 VRY n6k 1 VRY 1 3 2 3Vdc n sin n t 3 Vdc 24 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net https://t.me/abcdelectrical Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net Distortion factor, = 3 ; THD 31% In each, phase each switch conducts for 1200 out of 3600 I T , rms Io, rms 3 Vdc 2R R = load resistance Voltage Phase Total RMS Vdc Line 6 Vdc ww w.E Fundamental RMS 6 Vdc 3 Vdc 2 2 asy En gin ee The conversion factor remain same as in 1800 conduction mode. In both 1200 & 1800 conduction mode both phase & line voltages are free from even & triplen harmonics. Voltage control using PWM techniques 1) Single PWM techniques rin g.n et In this case, width of positive & negative cycle is not but rather equal to 2d. VO S sin n sin nd sin nt 2 n n1,3,5 4V To eliminate nth harmonics Sin (nd) = 0 d n Pulse width, 2d 2 n , 4 n , 6 n ,................... but 2d To eliminate 3rd harmonics 3d ; d 3 ; 2d 2 3 So pulse width of 1200 is required. 25 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net https://t.me/abcdelectrical Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net 2) Multiple PWM techniques Here a single pulse of ‘2d’ width is divided into ‘n’ pulses each of width n 2d . n fc 2fr fc = carrier signal frequency fr = reference signal frequency ww w.E AC - AC Converters These circuits control AC power. They are of 2 types: 1) AC voltage regulator 2) Cyclo-converter AC voltage regulator asy En gin ee These transfer AC power from 1 circuit to another by controlling output voltage & fixed frequency. rin g.n et Single phase half wave ACVR VO avg Vm cos 1 2 IO avg Vm cos 1 2R 1 V 2 1 VOrms m 2 sin2 2 2 Vor 1 2 1 1 pf 2 sin2 Vsr 2 2 26 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net https://t.me/abcdelectrical Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net Single phase fully controlled ACVR ww w.E Vo avg 0 asy En gin ee 1 V 2 1 Vo rms m sin2 2 2 If R – L load is used, then in steady state I O lags VO by an angle wL tan1 R rin g.n et If r , then above formulas remain valid & output voltage is controllable by controlling α. If r , output voltage is not controllable & Vor Vsr So, range of firing angle is 1800 Integral cycle control (ON/OFF) control If in fully controlled ACVR, thyristors conduct for m cycle & are OFF for n cycle then 1 VO rms m 2 Vsr mn 1 V m 2 For R – load, pf or Vsr m n 27 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net https://t.me/abcdelectrical I T1 avg Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net Vm m R m n 1 V m 2 I T1 rms m 2R m n R = load resistance ; Vm is maximum value of VS ww w.E asy En gin ee rin g.n et 28 Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net https://t.me/abcdelectrical Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net ww w.E asy En gin eer ing .ne t Downloaded From : www.EasyEngineering.net