Violence Among African American Teens Dating
Introduction
While dating violence can happen in different ethnic groups, African Americans are
typically overrepresented in demographic categories that are at higher risk for dating violence.
Although this racial group is economically and socially diverse, black Americans on average are
younger, more prone to be impoverished, and less likely to be married compared to their white
counterparts (U.S. Census Bureau, 2000). Dating violence experienced by black Americans will
occur in nonmarital relationships. According to the National Crime Victimization Survey,
African Americans are more victimized by boyfriends or girlfriends than spouses (BoyeBeaman, Joni, Leonard & Senchak, 1993).
Historical Impact of Dating Violence
In the context of romantic relationships dating violence can transpire, regardless of status,
sexuality or race. However, within the population of African Americans there are specific issues
to be emphasized. Historically, society labeled African Americans as an ‘inferior’ race, this
belief caused them to be mistreated. It is evident that the stereotypes of African American
women have been a part of this marginalization (West, 2000). African American women have
been portrayed in stereotypical images of being a matriarch or jezebel, according to their male
counterparts.
The ‘jezebel’ is seen as a woman who is unfaithful, evasive and morally unrestrained
while the ‘matriarch' is seen as an African American man who is domineering, masculine, and
severely critical (West, 2000). Throughout the history of our society white women have been
portrayed as stark contrasts of both images (Gillum, 2002). It is not definite whether dating
violence in black communities are the direct cause of these stereotypes. Yet, the contributing
factor to dating violence against African American women, appears to be linked to these
stereotypes (Gillum, 2002). These images not only put African American women down, studies
have also shown that African American men who violently abuse African American women are
influenced by these depictions (Rose, 2000).
These portrayals for black women and men have opposing impacts. African American
women who internalize the messages from these depictions, are most likely to partake in victim
blaming. While African American men exercise their power as the “man” in the relationship over
the woman’s disparaging position (matriarch) or develop the need to control their women’s
insatiable libido (jezebel) (Gillum,2002). In romantic relationships there is a strong influence of
oppression and powerlessness. African American adolescents who are proposed to these ideas of
African American men and women as “adversaries” have been found to engage in physical
violence (West, 2000).
It is believed that African American teens could possibly be influenced by these
portrayals from their families of origin. Compared to their adult counterparts, the number of
teens who held these views or beliefs were very similar. (Rose, 2000). However, black
adolescents in romantic relationships were found to be more aggressive and are psychological
and verbal in nature, unlike African American adults (Nicodemus et al., 2009). Females were
found to be the perpetrators more than males in these studies. Although, physical aggression can
be present among both African American men and women.
Prevalence of Dating Violence
White middle-class high school and college students in dating relationship reported being
involved in physical violence were between 20 percent and 30 percent. The most prevalent forms
of less severe violence were pushing, slapping, choking, and throwing objects. However,
violence that was life-threatening was also present. Approximately, 3 percent to 5 percent of
Whitе college students have experienced being threatened, choked, or beaten (Aizenman &
Kelley, 1988; Riggs, 1993).
Sеxual violеncе in dating rеlationships was also prevalent. Studies have shown that rapes
that happen in dating relationships among White women are about 57% and 25% of them
reported being victims of completed or attempted rape (Warshaw, 1994). Various types of sexual
coercion were reported often by women than men. This included touching, completed rape,
pressure to have sex, forced kissing, and attempted rape. Typically, the perpetrators of these
forms of sexual aggressions were mainly men.
Compared to their whitе countеrparts, dating violence was more prevalent among middle
class African American teens. About 1/4 of Black undergraduates reported that while being in a
dating relationship, thеy experienced physical violence. The most common forms of physical
violence were pushing, slapping, hitting, and choking (Clark, Bеckett, Wеlls, & DungеAndеrson, 1994; DeMaris, 1990). African Americans couplеs who are divorced and seeking
marriage licenses both indicated that they experienced dating violence while being in a romantic
relationship. Studiеs havе shown significant rates of sexual violence against black teens,
however, the victims of this form of violence were likely to be black women (Piеrce-Bakеr,
1998; Whitе, 1997). Between 34% and 50% African Americans female college students revealed
that they were pressured to have sex by their partners.
When considering sexual violence, studies shown that African American females are
more likely to be victimized than men. However, psychological and verbal aggression is not
acknowledged among black couples. About 90 percent of both African American female and
male undergraduates reported that they were either a victim or perpetrator of verbal abuse, which
included swearing and insults (Rouse, 1988). In addition, morе than 80% of black
undеrgraduates reported that they also experience forms of psychological abuse such as rejection
and possessiveness. However, both women and men revealed that they were equivalent to being
victims of psychological and verbal abuse (Rouse, 1988).
Risk Factors/Consequences of Dating Violence
Higher ratеs of dating violеnce across studies were consistently reportеd by African
Amеrican couplеs. For example, a survey was conducted by McLaughlin and his collеagues.
The survey consisted of 150 African Amеrican and 458 Caucasian couplеs. Between 19 percent
and 23 percent of black and whitе mеn reported using mild aggression, such as grabbing,
shoving, and pushing their partners. Howеver, 25 percent of black mеn reported using moderate
aggression, which included slapping and choking thеir partners comparеd with 12 percent of
whitе mеn.
According to these studies, dating violence among black couples are more prevalent than
their white counterparts. African Americans appear to be culturally and biologically more
susceptible to being involved in physical aggression with their partners. Yet, these findings
indicate that African Americans are at higher for risks for all forms of violence because they are
socially and economically disadvantagеd. However, racial differеnces in ratеs of dating violence
frequеntly disappеar, or bеcome lеss pronouncеd, whеn economic factors arе takеn into
consideration.
Teens who experience dating violence in their adolescence years, can have severe longterm effects on their adulthood. Studies have shown that teens who are abused in the early stages
of their relationship are at increased risk in being involved in continuous abusive relationships or
in their adult years becoming an abuser themselves. As teens mature into adults the regularity
and form of violence can also be increased (Bookwala, Frieze, & Ryan, 1992; Vicary,
Klingaman, & Harkness, 1995). Negative consequences can be at risk for both the victim and
perpetrator and it is possible that they will develop somatic and psychological problems in the
future.
Other serious problems that can develop from dating abuse are unplanned pregnancies,
poor academic performance, STDs and the use of drugs and alcohol. These problems can
potentially exist beyond adolescence into adulthood. Dating violence is also referred to as
“dating abuse” and has four different forms, including emotional abuse, verbal abuse, sexual
abuse and physical abuse. Dating violence usually occurs within non-marital couples and is the
pattern of aggressive, controlling, and abusive behaviors. Dating violence can have detrimental
effects on teens because of the negative impact it can have on their future. Generally,
developmental tasks that arises during adolescence will determine how they will function in
relationships when they are adults (Stets, 1993).
In addition, African Americans who are exposed to different forms of violence are likely
to be involve in dating violence. Black teens who live in impoverished inner cities are at higher
risk for developing social problems. According to the Surgeon General of the U.S., the violence
and crime rates in inner cities have risen in recent years, while these rates in non inner cities have
lessen (2001). It was found that between 25 and 80 percent of black teens in one inner
community had either witnessed an assault or killing (Wolfe, 1994). Not only is violence in inner
cities a problem, the violence occurring among African Americans families is also prevalent.
Children that are exposed to parental violence in their childhood, may experience abuse in their
relationship when they become adults (Wolfe, 1994).
Children can face severe negative and potentially long-range effects as a result of
parental abuse. One possible outcome is that violence will be a characteristic of later intimate
relationships. This does not suggest that all adolescents who experience family violence will
become victims or perpetrators of violence in subsequent intimate relationships, however r As a
result of the relationship between observations of violence, and cognition, African American
adolescents and adolescents in general may accept violence as a way of enhancing their social
status among peers, as a method of control or, as a way of demonstrating love. However, recent
studies suggest that there is a dear link between these factors (Glass et al., 2003). As a result of
the relationship between observations of violence, and cognition, African American adolescents
and adolescents in general may accept violence as a way of enhancing their social status among
peers, as a method of control or, as a way of demonstrating love.
While it may be true that exposure to community violence creates a hostile environment
and places some children at risk for engaging in similar behavior, it may also be true that
protective factors such as parental supervision, structure, rules and social support will serve to
mediate risk. The presence of protective factors in communities creates opportunities for some
children to learn to behave peacefully rather than violently. Violence poses a clear threat to the
well-being of community members but should be viewed in the context of contributing factors.
The environment in which community violence develop is not isolated from other
societal factors. There is a connection between the social problems that exist in inner city
communities and structural factors such as racism and oppression. African Americans face direct
structural threats that impact their physical and psychological wellbeing (Kaljee, 1995).
Structural threats have been defined as inequities that are born out of economic, cultural or racial
factors (McKendrick & Hoffman, 1990). These structural factors impact every aspect of the lives
of African Americans. McKendrick and Hoffman (1990) note that structural and institutional
forces that maintain inequalities align together and impact levels of violence.
Poverty and socioeconomic inequality have been acknowledged as major risk factors for
violence among African American adolescents. In fact, the marginalized status of African
American youth increases risk for violence including dating violence (West & Rose, 2000).
Many African American children grow up in poverty, which increases exposure to and
experience with violence. Bell & Jenkins, (1993) state that violence has become so problematic
that the integrity of the African American community is being threatened. Poverty and
socioeconomic inequality have been acknowledged as major risk factors for violence among
African American adolescents. In fact, the marginalized status of African American youth
increases risk for violence including dating violence (West & Rose, 2000). Many African
American children grow up in poverty, which increases exposure to and experience with
violence. Bell & Jenkins, (1993) state that violence has become so problematic that the integrity
of the African American community is being threatened.
Can Rap Music Be Linked to Dating Violence?
According to researcher James D. Johnson, he found that teens who are exposed to rap
music and videos were either involved in dating violence or had approving attitudes toward
dating violence. Johnson and his colleagues divided their sample of low-income African
American youths into two groups. One group viewed nonviolent rap videos, which contained
images of women in sexually subordinate roles (Johnson, 1995). The second group did not view
any videos. Next, both groups read a story that involved teen dating violence perpetrated by a
hypothetical male who shoved his girlfriend after she kissed another boy. Acceptance of violence
was measured by such items as ‘‘Should John have pushed and shoved his girlfriend? (Johnson,
1995)’’
Acceptance of the use of violence did not vary as a function of video exposure for males.
The boys who did not view rap videos were equally accepting of dating violence as boys who
were exposed to the videos. In contrast, black girls who were exposed to the videos showed
greater acceptance of dating violence in the scenario than girls who did not see the videos.
However, it is not known if exposure to sexualized images of black women increases the risk of
dating violence in the lives of black adolescents.
Given that teen dating violence is a significant problem in present day America,
investigation of any factors which might play a role in the acceptance of the use of such violence
would certainly seem warranted. One possible factor involves the negative depictions and
treatment of women in "rap music" lyrics and videos. Even though social scientists have begun
to investigate the potential negative effects of rock music videos (Hansen & Hansen, 1990; St.
Lawrence & Joyner, 1991), the effects of exposure to rap music has received minimal attention.
Given the extensive degree of scrutiny and criticism rap music has received in the popular press,
this lack of empirical focus seems surprising. One of the major criticisms of rap music is that it
may affect attitudes and behavior regarding the use of violence, especially violence against
women. Rap critics have suggested that "rap is rooted in the assumption that women are merely
objects of male sexual satisfaction" ("2 Live Crew," 1991, p. 7).
Such concerns have prompted groups such as the National Black Women's Political
Caucus to seek legislation to control the access to rap music ('Art or Anarchy," 1993). In
possibly the first empirical investigation of the effects of exposure to rap music, Johnson,
Jackson, and Gatto (1995) demonstrated that such concerns may not be groundless. They found
that exposure to violent rap music did, in fact, tend to lead to a higher degree of acceptance of
the use of violence (including violence against women). Since the subject population in the
Johnson et al. (1995) study was restricted to males, it is not clear whether the effects of exposure
to rap music videos will vary as a function of gender. A second issue involves the effects of
exposure to music videos which do not contain violence, but do contain images of women in
sexually subordinate roles.
This is relevant because there is evidence that exposure to such depictions of women in
videos will, in fact, affect perceptions and attitudes. For example, Hansen & Hansen (1988)
demonstrated that exposure to rock videos containing female sexual subordinate content had
profound effects on subsequent judgments of male-female interactions. Thus, the purpose of the
present study is to assess whether exposure to nonviolent rap videos will lead to differential
perceptions (i.e., acceptance of teen dating violence) as a function of subject gender.
Works Cited
Boye-Beaman, Joni, Kenneth E. Leonard, and Marilyn Senchak. ‘‘Male Premarital Aggression
and Gender Identity among Black and White Newlywed Couples.’’ Journal of Marriage and the
Family 55 (1993): 303–313.
Johnson, James D., Mike S. Adams, and Leslie Ashburn. ‘‘Differential Gender Effects of
Exposure to Rap Music on African American Adolescents’ Acceptance of Teen Dating
Violence.’’ Sex Roles 33, nos. 7/8 (1995): 597–605.
West, C. M. & Rose, S. (2000). Dating aggression among low income African American youth.
Violence Against Women, 6, 470–494.
Gillum, T. L. (2002). Exploring the link between stereotypic images and intimate
partner violence in the African American community. Violence Against Women,
8, 64–86.
Rouse, L. P. (1988). Abuse in dating relationships: A Comparison of Blacks, Whites, and Hispanics. Journal of College Student Development,29, 312-319.
Foshee, Vangie A., Susan T. Ennett, Karl E. Bauman, Thad Benefield, and Chirayath
Suchindran. ‘‘The Association between Family Violence and Adolescent Dating Violence
Onset.’’ Journal of Early Adolescence 25, no. 3 (2005): 317–344.
Stets, J. E. (1993). The Link Between Past and Present Intimate Relationships. Journal of Family
Issues, 14(2), 236–260.